Analysis of the distribution of energy poverty in southern Spain: the relevance of working at the neighbourhood level

Vol.: (0123456789) 1 3 GeoJournal (2024) 89:95 https://doi.org/10.1007/s10708-024-11070-1 Analysis ofthedistribution ofenergy poverty insouthern Spain: therelevance ofworking attheneighbourhood level SusanaClavijo‑Núñez · RafaelHerrera‑Limones · JuliaRey‑Pérez · JorgeRoa‑Fernández · MiguelHernández‑Valencia Accepted: 28 February 2024 © The Author(s) 2024 Abstract This article proposes a hybrid methodology to represent the energy poverty situation in neighbourhoods with high vulnerability indices, using public data sources and surveys designed for local contexts. As an innovation, the method includes aspects of feminisation poverty, household health and information collected directly from the case study population. The San Pablo neighbourhood, in southern Spain, has been taken as a case study, to extrapolate the strategy to similar European neighbourhoods. The research has made it possible to identify new factors affecting the energy poverty situation, such as the domestic burden associated with households or the lack of accessibility to dwellings. The incorporation of this type of indicators, which have been analysed according to sex, has made it possible to highlight the process of feminisation of energy poverty in the territory under study. Based on the groups identified as the most vulnerable, new lines of research are opened to define actions and best practices that can be implemented to improve household energy vulnerability. Keywords Energy poverty· Decentralised studies· Vulnerable groups· Gender perspective Introduction In order for people to live their lives fairly and without limitations, they need access to affordable and reliable energy services (United Nations, n.d.). When access to these is lacking, human development is hindered. The energy system should service all sectors: from industry to transport to homes (Pelz etal., 2018). Nevertheless, within Europe, and more specifically in Spain, there are numerous cases of households that S.Clavijo-Núñez· R.Herrera-Limones(*)· J.Rey-Pérez· J.Roa-Fernández· M.Hernández-Valencia Escuela Técnica Superior de Arquitectura, Instituto Universitario de Arquitectura y Ciencias de La Construcción, Universidad de Sevilla, Av. Reina Mercedes 2, 41012Seville, Spain e-mail: her[email protected] S. Clavijo-Núñez e-mail: [email protected] J. Rey-Pérez e-mail: jre[email protected] J. Roa-Fernández e-mail: [email protected] M. Hernández-Valencia e-mail: mhv[email protected] S.Clavijo-Núñez· R.Herrera-Limones· M.Hernández-Valencia Research Group HUM 965, Universidad de Sevilla, Seville, Spain J.Rey-Pérez Research Group HUM 666, Universidad de Sevilla, Seville, Spain J.Roa-Fernández Research Group TEP 206, Universidad de Sevilla, Seville, Spain GeoJournal (2024) 89:95 1 3 95 Page 2 of 21 Vol:. (1234567890) do not have access to a basic energy service. There are several reasons for this: from power cuts to the prohibitively high prices of electricity or gas (Middlemiss et al., 2019). In 2022, 9.3% of European households were unable to maintain their homes at comfortable temperatures. In Spain, this figure rose to 17.1% of the population (Eurostat, 2023). Price increases and a high dependency on gas alongside rises in the price of CO2 emission allowances are the main reasons behind the growing energy crisis (Fariza & Sahuquillo, 2021). Today’s context of depletion in fossil fuel resources, increase in energy consumption, climate change and the growth in energy poverty, explains the need to consider energy as a Human Right (A. Hernández et al., 2009). Advances in the defence of this right must also respond to fair energy transition processes. Gains should not lead to other social inequalities or environmental impacts (Calvo et al., 2021, Bertinat, 2016). In this context of the right to domestic energy, the need to identify the most vulnerable groups and collectives and their main deficiencies regarding energy emerges. Thus, the concept of energy poverty arose to define those households “incapable of reaching the necessary social and material level of domestic energy services” (Bouzarovski & Petrova, 2015). This situation poses a greater risk to collectives facing other systematic inequalities such as immigrants, children, the elderly, or women (Sánchez, 2018). Furthermore, energy vulnerability has implications in different development areas for these collectives: from economic welfare to public health. Living in unhealthy houses with low energy efficiency leads to higher expenses, more probability of falling ill, and a greater risk of suffering from mental health problems (Pollard etal., 2019). National policies are often proposed to deal with these situations of energy poverty. Nevertheless, as this is an issue that depends on so many factors, it is experienced very differently depending on the territory. Policies for tackling energy poverty should be comprehensive and should include the multiple inter-connected factors relating to the issue of energy access (Sovacool, 2012). The descentralization of energy policies may lead to strategies that can adapt to the needs of each region (Gallicchio, 2010). There should be a move towards decentralised studies of regions that share economic, climate, and cultural factors, to create a base of information and data upon which energy strategies can be designed (Costa-Campi etal., 2019). In the face of such complex issues, universal policies are simply not efficient enough to tackle the issue at hand (Primc & Slabe- Erker, 2020). These decentralised strategies can be adapted and replicated in obsolete territories with similar deficiencies. This capacity to extrapolate methodologies and good practices is particularly relevant in the European context, where after the Second World War there was a proliferation of social neighbourhoods that are now obsolete. These low-quality building parks are usually inhabited by people on low incomes and are generally areas with high levels of energy poverty. Some of these decentralized strategies, such as the one carried out by the Aura Team of the University of Seville in the international sustainable habitat competition Solar Decathlon Europe 2019, have obtained very positive results. This strategy was applied to two residential neighbourhoods with similar conditions: San Pablo (Seville, Spain) and Havanna (Budapest, Hungary), to extend the methodology to other European neighbourhoods through the network of participating Universities. This study aims to propose a methodology to represent the energy poverty situation in neighbourhoods with high vulnerability indices. Based on the method proposed by Sánchez-Guevara, a hybrid methodology is presented that combines statistical databases, with the novelty of including aspects related to household health and female tasks, and information collected through surveys of the neighbourhood population. Specifically, the article focuses the case study on Seville’s Polígono San Pablo, although the methodology presented can be extrapolated to other European neighbourhoods with similar characteristics and high vulnerability rates. It is important to highlight the importance of using hybrid methodologies to analyse problems as heterogeneous as energy poverty. The innovation of including citizen consultations makes it possible not only to analyse households’ deprivation but also to reflect on the specific ways in which they face energy vulnerability. Public databases are a very useful source of information, but when carrying out decentralised research, it is deemed necessary to include other data sources designed for the territory itself. This advantage has been presented by other authors such as Ntaintasis etal. (Ntaintasis etal., 2019) for a case study in Greece where they surveyed 451 households. GeoJournal (2024) 89:95 1 3 Page 3 of 21 95 Vol.: (0123456789) This study concluded that the use of composite indicators adapted to local conditions allows for a more realistic representation of energy poverty and can provide information on its intensity. The research by Camboni etal. (Camboni etal., 2021) on energy poverty in Italian municipalities concludes similar reflections, as it shows how the combination of several data sources can compensate for the lack of information on energy conditions in limited territories. It is also possible to find multiple examples in Spain, such as the study developed by Gómez-Navarro etal. (Gómez-Navarro etal., 2021), where through surveys carried out in the city of Valencia, relevant results are obtained that include factors such as tenure status or energy illiteracy. Other Spanish studies have developed hybrid methodologies to analyze programs to combat energy poverty. This is the case of the study developed by Barrella etal. where they analyze a set of homes in Catalonia that have been renovated and can concretely identify improvements in these homes (Barrella etal., 2023). The method used is part of the University of Seville Research Project: “Direct Application of the Aura Strategy in the Rehabilitation of Obsolete Andalusian Neighbourhoods” US.20–11, financed by the Regional Government of Andalusia’s Department of Development, Infrastructures and Urban Planning. This method focuses on the sustainable rehabilitation of obsolete Andalusian neighbourhoods through interventions in residential mass housing. One of its key points is the conservation and regeneration of the existing urban fabric according to the needs identified by local residents themselves. The article is structured as follows: Firstly, to justify the choice of the neighbourhood for this case study, a brief description of the Polígono San Pablo defines the buildings and demographic and socio-economic factors. Secondly, the two procedures employed to collect data for the measurement of energy vulnerability in the neighbourhood are defined: surveys carried out in the neighbourhood itself and databases from the Institute of National Statistics (hereinafter INE1). The data obtained in the surveys gives further results that would not be possible from the national databases alone. From the INE data, four levels of vulnerability are defined for the case study San Pablo A and B neighbourhood and each of Seville’s districts. This will lead to a better understanding of the situation in the Polígono San Pablo neighbourhood compared to the rest of the city of Seville. Finally, there is a reflection on the principal findings and a discussion about future research, improvements to include in the method, and the processes required to promote strategies to fight against energy poverty in Seville. Theoretical framework Energy vulnerability can be defined as a home’s exposure to the risk of not being able to afford an adequate quantity of energy services (Desvallées, 2021). This concept is therefore temporary and probabilistic. Homes identified at a given moment as being in a situation of energy vulnerability can change their circumstances and no longer be vulnerable, and vice versa(Sánchez, 2018). Energy poverty is a manifestation of energy vulnerability in a given space and time (Bouzarovski, 2014, Tirado Herrero etal., 2018). While the term energy poverty is increasingly present in the media and politics, there is currently debate as to how to measure this situation or which indicators to use (Faiella & Lavecchia, 2021). This lack of consensus can be explained by the wide range of factors that affect energy poverty in homes such as political and economic factors, geographical factors, individual household factors, cultural characteristics, (Bouzarovski & Petrova, 2015, Rademaekers et al., 2016) and factors related to energy literacy in homes. Given its multidimensional character, the issue of energy poverty can be tackled with different strategies: public health, the transformation of the energy market, the mitigation of climate change, social security, or an ethical question, among others (Creutzfeldt etal., 2020). This complex nature means that a number of stakeholders are involved from local, regional, and national governments to tertiary sector entities. Networks such as The Energy Poverty Advisory Hub (EPAH) have emerged to share strategies and knowledge at the local level to combat energy poverty in Europe (European Commission, 2023). 1 The Institute for National Statistics (INE) is the Spanish body responsible for public statistic activity that coordinates and manages large scale statistical operations such as the national census, economic and social indicators, the electoral roll, etc. GeoJournal (2024) 89:95 1 3 95 Page 4 of 21 Vol:. (1234567890) Some of these stakeholders have chosen to develop projects in limited areas where the factors that affect household vulnerability are more homogenous. This is the case in the research carried out by the Polytechnic University of Madrid which used the “High Energy Requirements Index” (Sánchez-Guevara Sánchez et al., 2020a) to assess the distribution of energy poverty in Madrid’s different districts. Different studies analyse the situation in Catalonia, such as the EmpowerMed project which aims to mitigate the effects of energy poverty and improve the health of the affected population in Mediterranean coastal areas (Tirado Herrero, 2020). In the city of Seville, research such as the study led by the University of Seville’s School of Building Engineering has been carried out to fight energy poverty in its buildings. This study proposes an assessment model for energy rehabilitation projects that takes energy consumption, comfort in homes, and economic status into consideration (Alba-Rodríguez etal., 2021). While there have been significant advances in European research into this subject matter, it is still necessary to work on studies that include an intersectional approach as energy vulnerability is defined by other social differentiations such as class, gender, race, ethnicity, etc. (Cubillos Almendra, 2015). It is women who are still to a greater extent responsible for caregiving and household upkeep. It is women who have been affected to a greater extent throughout history by insecurity in basic services, as well as having to sustain household responsibilities and issues such as the non-payment of energy bills (Mcdowell, 1999). Consequently, previous national studies have identified women as a particularly affected group (Sánchez-Guevara Sánchez et al., 2020b, González Pijuan, 2016, González Pijuan, 2020a, González Pijuan, 2020b). In this way, reducing energy poverty will contribute to gender equality, above all in relation to socio-economic rights and education (Nguyen & Su, 2021). Energy poverty is going to have a greater impact on the health of more vulnerable groups such as women, the elderly, immigrants, or the young. Not having access to a healthy and comfortable home is directly linked to respiratory and pulmonary illnesses. Not only is the physical health of a household affected. There is also a close link with mental health problems which range from stress or depression related to the inability to pay energy bills to loneliness and confinement (Zhang etal., 2021, Malgesini etal., 2018). Energy Poverty in Andalusia In the last few years, advances have been made in the fight against energy poverty in Spain. For example, in 2019 the government passed the National Strategy against Energy Poverty. However, most studies and programs continue to be developed at the national level and are not adaptable to the different contexts of the Spanish territory. Although there is scarce documentation for the case study of Andalusia, there are national reports, such as that of the Environmental Science Association, in which indicators are broken down by autonomous communities. In the four studies presented since 2012, Andalusia has headed the list of communities with higher levels of energy poverty, always ranking among the top four rates (Tirado Herrero etal., 2012,2014,2016,2018). Similarly, the data presented by the National Strategy against Energy Poverty places Andalusia as one of the regions most impacted by energy poverty. According to its latest published report, Andalusia is one of the regions with the highest values in the case of the disproportionate expenditure indicator and the indicator of inadequate temperature in the home in winter (Ministerio para la Transición Ecológica y el Reto Demográfico, 2022). These results are consistent with other academic studies that place this territory as one of those with the highest values in indicators such as arrears on utility bills or the MIS indicator (Romero etal., 2023). In previous studies by the authors of this article, it has been shown that Andalusia has a high rate of energy poverty, above the national average in the various indicators, and in particular the indicator which measures the capacity to homes at an adequate temperature in winter and the indicator for the late payment of energy bills (Clavijo Núñez, 2020). Nevertheless, there is inadequate data on which to build indicators that can represent this issue at the local level, and above all, identify the most vulnerable groups or the most efficient measures to introduce. Carrying out research that studies the levels of energy poverty in a decentralised manner within Andalusia is deemed necessary. GeoJournal (2024) 89:95 1 3 Page 5 of 21 95 Vol.: (0123456789) Case study: San Pablo A and B Neighbourhood, Seville The case study focuses on the San Pablo-Santa Justa District in the city of Seville, in particular the A and B neighbourhood of the Polígono San Pablo. Homes within the case study will be delimited to be able to create personalised processes with the local residents, and then extrapolate these results to the Polígono San Pablo as a whole. The different factors that lead to a better understanding of the Polígono San Pablo, as well as the reasons for working on this territory, are outlined below: – Characteristics of the buildings This housing estate was built in five stages during the 1960s. It was made up of modest smallscale homes with generally low-quality construction (Departamento de Urbanística y Ordenación del Territorio, 2011). Most of the Polígono de San Pablo is made up of five storey open blocks with approximately 10 homes per block. The majority of the blocks do not have lifts. There are also some nine and thirteen storey tower blocks which are usually found at the end of main streets. These blocks are identified as higher income households (Departamento de Urbanística y Ordenación del Territorio, 2011). In the central area of the District, found between the three neighbourhoods of San Pablo A and B, San Pablo C and San Pablo D and E, there is an area of average urban residential vulnerability that does not qualify as a slum (Estivill Baena etal., 2018). These three neighbourhoods are depicted in Fig.1. – Socio-economic and cultural characteristics. There are currently 7,348 residents in the San Pablo A and B neighbourhood. 3,466 of these are men and 3,882 are women (Servicio de Estadística del Ayuntamiento de Sevilla, 2021). The aging population in this neighbourhood is generalised throughout the whole San Pablo-Santa Justa District. As can be seen in Table1, the Aging Population Rate, which represents the percentage of the population over the age of 65, is 22.2% (Rodríguez Pérez, 2019). In the San Pablo A and B neighbourhood the rate of dependency, which is calculated as the ratio between the inactive and active population, is 52.1% (Rodríguez Pérez, 2019). It stands out that in both rates, the situation of women is worse, above the neighbourhood average. The San Pablo A and B neighbourhood has a mortality rate of 13.99 which is higher than the 8.86 average in the city of Seville. It is the highest mortality rate among the neighbourhoods in the district (Servicio de Estadística (Ayuntamiento de Sevilla), 2016). According to Seville’s Local Health Plan 2019/2023 for the San Pablo-Santa Justa District, the district has three vulnerable areas, among which can be found the San Pablo A and B neighbourhood. This study uses Basic Urban Vulnerability Indicators (IBVU) to define vulnerable zones. In contrast, the Atlas of Urban Vulnerability in Spain 2011, catalogues the San Pablo A and B neighbourhood with a medium level of urban vulnerability (Ministerio de Transportes Movilidad y Agenda Urbana, 2011). According to the results of the 2011 census, the San Pablo-Santa Justa district is one of the Vulnerable Territories in the city of Seville (Hernández Aja etal., 2018). As shown in Table2, the San Pablo A and B neighbourhood has higher than average rates in Seville for indicators that classify this vulnerability: education, unemployment, and housing. The result for the education indicator is particularly worrying. Figure2 also highlights this vulnerability. It can be seen that in the three studies carried out in 1991, 2001 and 2011, the San Pablo A and B neighbourhood has always been classified as vulnerable. This longstanding condition of vulnerability justifies the choice of the Polígono San Pablo as a case study. With regard to culture, local residents have a strong sense of belonging to the neighbourhood. A large part of life takes place on the streets as it is a district divided into neighbourhoods that share cultural and economic characteristics. Nevertheless, the population has a low socio-cultural level (Rodríguez Pérez, 2019). All of the above highlights the need for improvement in the quality and comfort of residents in this zone where there is a high rate of vulnerability and health problems among the population. GeoJournal (2024) 89:95 1 3 95 Page 6 of 21 Vol:. (1234567890) – The Aura Strategy in the Polígono de San Pablo Work on the San Pablo A and B neighbourhood focuses on the application of the University of Seville’s Solar Decathlon Team’s Aura Strategy. This is based on the rehabilitation of obsolete Andalusian neighbourhoods through interventions in residential collective housing. A method is being developed to detect housing obsolescence in the neighbourhood, and based on this analysis, propose the practical application of the Aura Strategy. The main intervention concept is the juxtaposition of a technologicalstructural system on linear blocks of houses which Fig. 1 Delimitation of San Pablo A and B in the Polígono de San Pablo. Author’s own Table 1 Aging population rates and level of dependency in the San Pablo A and B neighbourhood. Source: Rodríguez Pérez, 2019. Author’s own Aging Population Rate Dependency Ratio Total Population 22.18% 52.07% Men 16.45% 41.76% Women 27.31% 62.63% Table 2 Vulnerability rates for San Pablo A and B and the city of Seville. Source: (Hernández Aja etal., 2018). Author’s own Territory I education I unemployment I housing San Pablo A and B 17.71% 31.60% 15.67% Seville 9.38% 31.08% 7.57% Reference Value 16.38% 42.33% 17.50% GeoJournal (2024) 89:95 1 3 Page 7 of 21 95 Vol.: (0123456789) incorporates new means of providing energy, technology, and space to the housing. It also responds to the care and self-determination of social, material, and energy identity giving rise to greater comfort, health, and quality of life for residents (Herrera-Limones etal., 2020,2023). Method In order to represent and understand the situation of energy poverty in the Polígono de San Pablo, it is necessary to characterise energy vulnerability in each of the districts in the city of Seville. This way, the neighbourhood’s situation can be understood and compared to the different levels of energy vulnerability throughout the city. A study method will be carried out in three phases as shown in Fig.3. A hybrid methodology combining public data sources and surveys designed for the case study is proposed. The most usual data sources for energy poverty studies in Spain, such as Living Conditions Surveys and Household Budget Surveys, are not disaggregated by neighbourhood or district. Moreover, samples are sometimes scarce even for analysing autonomous communities (Clavijo-Núñez etal., 2022). It is therefore important to complement statistical sources with other sources of information. Specifically, citizen consultations represent a very interesting opportunity as they can be adapted to the reality of each territory and bring research closer to the citizens. Phase I. Analysis of databases As there are no decentralised databases to calculate the main indicators which are used to measure energy poverty, two sources of data are used: databases from the Institute for National Statistics (INE) and responses to surveys carried out in the Polígono de San Pablo itself. Fig. 2 Seville. Delimitation of Vulnerable Neighbourhoods according to the 1991, 2001 and 2011 Censuses. Source: (Hernández Aja etal., 2018) GeoJournal (2024) 89:95 1 3 95 Page 8 of 21 Vol:. (1234567890) INE Databases Firstly, analysis is carried out of indirect variables which help estimate zones with a high probability of suffering energy poverty (Sánchez-Guevara Sánchez etal., 2020a) through data provided by the Institute for National Statistics regarding districts and census sections. However, it should be highlighted that these databases do not allow analysis of some key variables for households, which hinders analysis of the results. As can be seen in Table3, eleven factors divided into eight categories were chosen to provide an image of the difficulty for a household to dispose of basic, affordable, and reliable energy services. These factors were chosen after being identified in previous studies as indicators that affect household energy vulnerability (Castaño-Rosa et al., 2020, Tirado Herrero, 2017, Pelz et al., 2018, Sánchez-Guevara Sánchez et al., 2020a) Although the factors in the “Accessibility of the home” and “non-paid activities” categories are not indicators that are usually analysed, it was decided they should be included as they allow studying how this situation affects two of the groups most vulnerable to energy poverty: the elderly and/or dependent, and women. With respect to these indicators, it is worth highlighting the potential and limitations of the indicator that counts households with electricity consumption below 50% of the percentile. This metric is similar to the Low absolute energy expenditure indicator (M/2), which is widely used in the literature and research on energy poverty. This type of indicators based on energy expenditures allow obtaining reliable estimates, by avoiding weaknesses linked to "selfreporting" (Thomson etal., 2017a, 2017b, Waddams Price etal., 2012). However, there is a wide discussion about the 50% threshold, as in many territories this range leads to exclusion errors, i.e. a proportion of households incorrectly excluded from the fuel poverty measurement (Betto etal., 2020). The regional adaptation of this indicator is also discussed, as it depends on key factors such as climate, income, household size, energy efficiency or housing tenure (Barrella etal., 2022, Antepara etal., 2020). However, by not including references to these factors, such as income or energy efficiency in their calculations, high-income households with good quality housing may be wrongly classified as energy por (Barrella etal., 2022). Despite the limitations it presents and the different thresholds it may adopt, research points to the great complementarity provided by this indicator, which makes it possible to detect situations of energy consumption rationing that cannot be perceived by other objective measurements (Meyer etal., 2018). Through data from the 2011 and 2021 census (National Institute of Statistics, 2011, 2021a) and Fig. 3 Study method. Author’s own GeoJournal (2024) 89:95 1 3 Page 9 of 21 95 Vol.: (0123456789) income indicators from the INE (National Institute of Statistics, 2021b), the following factors will be studied for homes in the city of Seville: All of these factors have been analysed separately for different household structures. Households with single women over the age of 65 and single-parent families have been analysed as they were identified as being especially vulnerable in various studies (Sánchez-Guevara Sánchez et al., 2020b, González Pijuan, 2016). Data gathered fromthesurveys carried outinthe Polígono de San Pablo Secondly, data gathered in a survey carried out in May 2021 is used. This survey was carried out by the University of Seville’s HUM-965 TRAnSHUMAN- CIAS research group, within the framework of the optional subject “Energy and Sustainability: Solar Decathlon 2020” at the School of Architecture, University of Seville. This process was the identification stage to gather the necessary data and apply the Aura Strategy in the neighbourhood. The main issues presented and possible outcomes are summarized in Annex 1. Information about the different neighbourhoods that make up the Polígono de San Pablo was gathered via two surveys of a random sample. An initial analysis of the neighbourhood was carried out in which factors such as building accessibility, height, facades, and openings or materials and neighbourhood factors such as green zones, transport routes, roads, and bicycle lanes were studied. Based on this initial study, it is decided that the data to be gathered in the survey should be grouped into five categories: health and comfort, architectural aspects, energy parameters, Table 3 Factors analysed for each district in Seville. Author’s own Categories of the analysed factors Description Source and year of data Construction year The number of homes built before 1980, previous to the first technical regulation NBE-CT-79 is measured Year of Construction. Population and Housing Census, 2021 (INE) Accessibility of the home The number of homes without lifts, leading to isolation of the elderly or dependent above all in older neighbourhoods, is counted Building facilities (Lift). Population and Housing Census, 2011 (INE) Heating The number of homes without heating is measured Heating type. Population and Housing Census, 2011 (INE) State of the Building Three indicators are calculated: (i) Number of dilapidated homes (ii) Number of dilapidated or deficient homes (iii) Homes with an area of less than 30 m2 per occupant (i) Building condition. Population and Housing Census, 2011 (INE) (ii) Building condition. Population and Housing Census, 2011 (INE) (iii) Construction record (surface area per occupant). Population and Housing Census, 2021 (INE) Occupation of the main breadwinner The number of homes with unemployed people, previously in employment or unemployed, first-time job seekers Economic activity. Population and Housing Census, 2021 (INE) Unpaid activities Two indicators are calculated which provide information on inequalities in non-paid activities: (i) Responsibility for the greater part of domestic chores (ii) Care for a person with health issues Unpaid work. Population and Housing Census, 2011 (INE) Income Median income per consumption unit (euros) Atlas of the distribution of household income, 2021 (INE) Electricity consumption Homes below the 50th Percentile of electricity consumption Households by intensity of use based on electricity consumption. Population and Housing Census, 2021 (INE) GeoJournal (2024) 89:95 1 3 95 Page 16 of 21 Vol:. (1234567890) homes to maintain an adequate temperature, thus avoiding increases in energy bills due to having to heat or cool rooms. Concerning the economic character of the neighbourhood, both the high unemployment rate, around 17% of the population, and the low average income make it difficult for local residents to access reliable and safe energy services. Concerning the data that analyses access to heating systems, it is to be expected that the current situation has worsened since the 2011 Census. Data regarding the current increases in energy prices needs to be reviewed. In 2011, the final purchase price of energy from the electricity market was €60.15/MWh (Red Eléctrica de España, 2012). By December 2021 this price had increased to €252.51/KWh (Red Eléctrica de España, 2021). The price of energy has potentially contributed to the energy poverty situation in Spain. Another point to highlight would be the results associated with energy consumption, an indicator included in the last census published in 2021. This indicator is relevant in the proposed methodology, as it is an indirect metric in which households are not classified based on a single indicator. However, as discussed in the Theoretical framework section, it would be necessary to adapt this indicator to make its results more representative. For example, it would be necessary to have the necessary data to perform per capita calculations. As set out in the introduction, another key point for creating strategies in the fight against energy poverty is to include a gender analysis. It has been proven that the processes of the feminisation of poverty also affect the right to energy. In the case of the San Pablo A and B neighbourhood, the results show that 68% of people with high domestic responsibilities are women, which makes them more vulnerable to shortages in energy services or even health problems (such as an increase in stress or depression). Furthermore, an especially vulnerable group has been identified within the neighbourhood: single-par- ent homes headed by women. All the households with a single breadwinner who claim to have a high level of domestic responsibility are headed by women. 13% of households without heating systems are also single-parent families headed by women. The proposed hybrid methodology, which includes innovative factors such as the domestic burden associated with households or the lack of accessibility to dwellings, makes it easier to identify vulnerable groups and social processes such as the feminisation of energy poverty. It is necessary to highlight the repercussions of energy poverty on the population’s physical and mental health. As the surveys carried out in the case study neighbourhood show, 77% of local residents state that they suffer from psychological or neurological disorders such as anxiety, depression, or insomnia. Further studies have already investigated how these trends are worsened when people do not possess a healthy and comfortable home (Thomson etal., 2017a, 2017b, D. Hernández etal., 2016, Malgesini etal., 2018). Finally, it is important to highlight the importance of developing hybrid methodologies in local studies that address heterogeneous and complex problems such as energy poverty. As has been presented, energy poverty is a problem that depends on a multitude of factors, so energy strategies must be able to respond to the different local contexts and the needs of citizens (Sovacool, 2012, Creutzfeldt etal., 2020). Conclusions The Autonomous Community of Andalusia is a territory with a high level of energy poverty, exceeding the national average in the majority of energy vulnerability indicators (Tirado Herrero etal., 2018, Clavijo Núñez, 2020). This research concludes that the issue varies substantially between territories and populations. Even within the same district, homes in each neighbourhood have very different needs which require a response. Even when there are no relevant databases available, studies on energy poverty should be able to understand the complexity and intersectionality of this phenomenon and employ the data available to reflect the reality of energy vulnerability in a territory. Even with estimates, results can be useful for the advancement of government energy policies and programmes if there is adequate knowledge of the problem. The results presented by districts help to understand how energy vulnerability manifests itself in the city of Seville and what are the main priorities on which to act. For example, the percentage of GeoJournal (2024) 89:95 1 3 Page 17 of 21 95 Vol.: (0123456789) buildings constructed before 1980 is evidence of the need to promote programs to improve energy savings and efficiency. On the other hand, the indicators obtained for unpaid work, or the results disaggregated by gender show the need to create strategies from a feminist perspective. To delve deeper into this problem, the research carried out in the San Pablo A and B neighbourhood uses surveys as a tool for generating a process adapted to the neighbourhood. As a result, data is obtained regarding lifestyles and household habits in the neighbourhood. It is interesting to note how the level of vulnerability of the neighbourhood and the Santa Justa-San Pablo district are different, thus making visible the multiple realities in which energy poverty manifests itself even in such limited territories. It is deemed necessary to continue working in this line, employing techniques that enable up to date information to be gathered for the case study itself. The next steps to be taken in the fight against energy poverty in the Polígono de San Pablo focus on the development of participatory dynamics to create meeting places and continue gathering information about the needs and potential of the neighbourhood together with local residents themselves. The process to define the state of vulnerability must be intersectional, multidisciplinary, and participatory so at to enable the population’s inequalities, problems or needs to be identified (Valverde Arbizu, 2017). The focus will be on social inclusion so that the effects on the population are analysed depending on gender or age. Once these participatory spaces are created, efforts will centre on designing a strategy to improve the comfort and health conditions in these homes. It will be necessary to develop tools that search for models that minimise the environmental impact and improve public health (Herrera-Limones etal., 2019). These strategies and tools should also encourage the simple, direct, and rigorous transfer of scientific knowledge to citizens (Borrallo-Jiménez etal., 2020). To do so, it will be essential to incorporate processes of returns for the neighbourhood once the participatory dynamics have been carried out. These processes will be understood as the “restoration to the people of something alienated in the research process” in forms and languages that are useful for the population (Nevado, 2019). The aim is to advance the constitution of a more sustainable and healthier city where access to energy is considered a right and a basic service for all homes. Acknowledgements Álvaro López-Escamilla and Camila Vargas, as coordinators of the Research Project that finances and supports this publication. Teachers and students of the Optional Subject Energy and Sustainability in Architecture, from the Degree in Foundations of Architecture from the E.T.S. of Architecture, University of Seville, for the 2020-21 and 2021-22 academic years. Ana Seco and Elena do Campo, students of the above subject and co-authors of the Final Degree Project of the Higher Technical School of Architecture, University of Seville, under the title: “COMFORT AND HEALTH. Quantification, qualification and real influence on the conditions of comfort for the multi-family nuclei of the San Pablo housing estate: Health vs. Comfort / Medicine vs. Architecture". Tutor: Rafael Herrera-Limones. Course 2020-21. The work developed by the students in their project included the development of citizen surveys. Funding Funding for open access publishing: Universidad de Sevilla/CBUA Research Project: "Direct application of the Aura Strategy by the SD-US Team for the regeneration of outdated Andalusian housing estates”, as well as a methodological approach for the estate of San Pablo, Seville (as a case study for the extrapolation of results to similar environments, through the implementation of sustainable regeneration in the workingclass residential area). The project was granted in the resolution of July 28th, 2021 by the Ministry of Development, Infrastructure and Territorial Planning (Local Andalusian Government), within the 2020 call for grants for carrying out research projects in the areas of housing, rehabilitation and architecture. Declarations Ethical approval Citizen surveys and interviews have been ethically evaluated and the consent of all participants has been obtained. Conflict of interest There are no conflicts of interest related to the article. GeoJournal (2024) 89:95 1 3 95 Page 18 of 21 Vol:. (1234567890) Annex 1 Surveys carried out in the neighbourhood 0. Idenficaon Age Gender Address Type of building Educaonal level QUESTIONSINCLUDED IN PHASE 1 1. Elements and exterior spaces available in your homes Balcony Own terrace Common terrace Garden area Own courtyard Not applicable 2.External noise Rate it from 1 to 5, with 5 being a lot of noise and 1 being a lile noise in the neighbourhood 3. Changes that would be made to the home Paint color Furniture Windows Bathroom renovaon Kitchen renovaon Insulaon Integral reform Not applicable 4. Services or aspects of the neighbourhood that are deficient or undesirable Locaon Cleanliness Infrastructure Safety and security Neighbors Al lof the above 5. Improvements to be implemented in the public space Vegetaon Children’s playgrounds Sports areas Street repairs Areas that aract crime Public swimming pool Not applicable 6. Improvements to be implemented on public transportaon More bus stops More bus lines More cabs stands More bike rental points Subway Not applicable 7. Sense of belonging and identy with respect to the neighbourhood. Yes No 8. Neurological or psychological problems during confinement Low self-esteem Sadness, pessimism or apathy Irritability or moodiness Symptoms of anxiety or nervousness Feeling of exhauson Insomnia problems Headache or migraine None 9. Views from your windows during the quaranne Public park Own courtyard Inner courtyard Other buildings Trees Road ADDITIONAL QUESTIONS INCLUDED IN PHASE 2 10.Type of buildings Low-rise building(5 floor oless) Medium-rise building (between 6 and 9 floor) High-rise building (more than 9 floor) 11.Pathology presented by the respondent Headache or migraine Insomnia Exhauson Anxiety Bad mood Sadness Breathing problems None 12.Demand for improvements on thermal comfortin dwellings Insulaon Ventilaon Windows Lighng Solar protecon Renovaon of dampness None GeoJournal (2024) 89:95 1 3 Page 19 of 21 95 Vol.: (0123456789) Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. 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