Protection of economic, social, and cultural rights in Europe in the 21st century

1 University of Seville Faculty of Law Doctoral Program in Int ern ational Law PR OTECTION OF ECONOMIC, SOCIAL , AND CULTURAL RIGHTS IN EUROPE IN THE 21 ST CENTURY by Iliana Valiullina A thesis submitted for the degree of DOCTOR IURIS (DOCTORADO DE DERECHO) Supervisor: Professor Dr. Daniel Garcia San Jose Dean of Faculty of Law: Prof ess or Dr. Fernando L la no Alonso 2023 2 DE DICATION The Doctoral thesis is dedicated to the bright memory of my dear grandparents: Valiullin Akhnaf Khanifovich and Valiullina Anuza Khabibovna Kadyrova Yanifa Salim ’yanovna and Kadyrov Nyk Ramazanovich 3 The Doctoral thesis is also dedicated to the bright memory of my dear great grandparents: -Valiullina Khanif Valiullovich; - Valiullina Khajar Abdullovna; - Gabidullina Maftukha Bayazitovna and Gabidullin Khabib Gabidullovich; - Davletbakov Salimyan Suleymanovich and Davletbakova Gainiyamal; -Kadyrov Ramazan Abdrakhmanovich, and his sons: Kadyrov Brilliant Ramazanovich, and Kadyrov Magnit Ramazanovich; - Kadyrova Nakia Sharifullovna. 4 Co ntent of Doctoral thes is Introduction of the Doctoral thes is …………………………………………………………….12 Introducción de la tesis Doctoral ……………………………………………………………...21 Part 1. Philosophical and ideological perspectives in economic, social, and cultural rights conceptualization, protection and recognition at the universal level and its features at the Inter-American and African regional levels …..……………………………………………30 Introduction of Chapter 1……………………………………………………………………...30 Introducción del Capítulo 1…………………………………………………………………...33 Chapter 1. The contribution of the universal level to economic, social, and cultural rights’ protection………………………………………………………………………………….….36 1.1. Philosophical prerequisites of economic, social, and cultural rights……………………...36 1.2. Peace treaties and the role of International Labour Organization…………………………42 1.3. The Universal Declaration of Hu man Rights: ideological biases………………………....46 1.4. The International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights: reason for adoption……………………………………………………………………………………….67 1.5. Unified nature of two categories of human rights under seven criteria…………….……...71 i. Positive and negative sta te obligations……………………………………………………...72 ii. Cost free and expe nsive sta te obligations…………………………………………………...74 iii. Progressive and immediate state obligations………………………………………………76 iv. Vague and precise state obligations………………………………………………………..83 v. Justiciab le and non - justiciab le state obligations…………………………….......................86 vi. Derogable and non - derogab le state obligations…………………………………………...89 vii. Thin and thick state obligations…………………………………………….......................91 1.6. Two methods for state obligations’ development. …………………………………..……92 i. Method centring upon obligations of conduc t and result…………………………………….92 ii. Method centring upon obligations to respect, protect and fulfil…………………………….94 1.7. State obligations under the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights : general outlines……………………………………………………………………...101 i. Minimum core obligations: definition, doctrine, and approaches………………………….103 ii. Obligation to take steps by all appropriate means…………………………………………107 iii. Obligation to achieve progressively full realization……………………………………...108 iv. Obligation to utilize maximum of available resour ces ……………………………………111 v. Obligation to seek international assistance and co-operation……………………………...113 5 iv. Extraterritorial scope of Article 2 of the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights………………………………………………………………………………114 1.8. The Optional Protocol to the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights…….…………………………………………………….……………………………117 Conclusion of Chapter 1…………………………………………………….……….………129 Conclusión del Capítulo 1……………………………………………………………………131 Chapter 2. The contribution of the Inter-American and African regional level in featuring economic, social, and cultural rights…………………………………………………………133 Introduction of Chapter 2…………………………………………………………………….133 Introducción del Capítulo 2………………………………………………………………….137 2.1. The uniqueness of the Inter-American human rights system……………………………141 2.2. State’s obligations on economic, social, and cultural right protection in Inter-American legal documents and reports…………………………………………………………………144 i. Obligation to respect………………………………………………………………….……144 ii. Obligation to protect………………………………………………………………………147 iii. Obligation to fulfil………………………………………………………………………..147 iv. Obligation to promote…………………………………………………………………….148 2.3. Selected case-law of the Inter-American Commission and Court of Human Rights on state obligations aimed at economic, social, and cultural rights protection………………………..149 i. Positive and negative state obligations………………………………………………….…149 ii. Cost free and expe nsive state obligations……………………………………………….…156 iii. Progressive and immediate state obligations……………………………………….…….160 iv. Vague and precise state obligations………………………………………………………164 v. Justiciab le and non - justiciab le st a te obligations………………………………………….167 vi. Derogable and non- derogab le state obligations……………………………………….…169 vii. Thin and thick state obligations……..…………………………………………………...170 Table ‘Case-law of the Inter-American Commission and Court of Human Rights on obligations for realization of economic, social, and cultural rights ’……………………………………...173 Cuadro ‘Jurisprudencia de la Comisión y Corte Interamericanas de Derechos Humanos sobre obligaciones para la realización de los derechos económicos, sociales y culturales’……...…177 2.4. The uniqueness of the African human rights system……………………………………181 2.5. Indivisibility of economic, social, and cultural rights within the African Commission on Human and Peoples’ Rights’ understanding…………………………………………………183 6 2.6. The concept of minimum core obligations in the African Commission on Human and Peoples’ Rights’ activity……………………………………………………………………..185 2.7. Approaches to the adjudication of economic, social, and cultural rights………………...186 2.8. A difference between the United Nation Committee on economic, social, and cultural rights understanding of the obligations engendered by the International Covenant on Economic, Social, and Cultural Rights and the African Commission on Human and Peoples’ Rights view of the obligations engendered by the African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights………187 2.9. Reasonableness test on economic, social, and cultural rights enforcement……………...188 2.10. State obligations to respect, protect, fulfil, and promote economic, social, and cultural rights…………………………………………………………………………………………190 i. Obligation to respect…………………………………………………………………….…190 ii. Obligation to protect………………………………………………………………………192 iii. Obligation to fulfil………………………………………………………………………..193 iv. Obligation to promote…………………………………………………………………….194 2.11. Selected case-law of the African Commission and Court on Human and People’s Rights on state obligations aimed at economic, social, and cultural rights protect ion………………194 i. Positive and negative state obligations…………………………………………………….194 ii. Cost free and expensive state obligations…………………………………………………202 iii. Progressive and immediate state obligations……………………………………………..204 iv. Vague and precise state obligations………………………………………………………208 v. Justiciable and non - justiciable state obligations…………………………………………211 vi. Derogable and non - derogable state obligations…………………………………………216 vii. Thin and thick state obligations………………………………………………………….219 Table ‘Case-law of the African Commission and Court on Human and Peoples’ Rights on obligations for realization of economic, social, and cultural rights’.………………………....220 Cuadro ‘Jurisprudencia de la Comisión y el Tribunal Africanos de Derechos Humanos y de los Pueblos sobre las obligaciones para la realización de los derechos económicos, sociales y culturales’................................................................................................................................223 Conclusion of Chapter 2……………………………………………………………………..226 Conclusión del Capítulo 2……………………………………………………………………229 Part II . The features of economic, social, and cultural rights’ protection at the European level …………………………………………...……………………………………………...232 Introduction of Chapter 3………………………………………………………………...…..232 Introducción del Capítulo 3…………………………………………………………………..234 7 Chapter 3.The role of the Council of Europe in protection of economic, social, and cultural rights…………………………………………………………………………………………236 i. The Council of Europe’ ways of strengthening economic, social, and cultural rights………238 ii.Possibilities for Additional Protocols to the Revised European Charter and their content…243 3.1. The Council of Europe : its creation and origins of the European Social Charter 1961…...247 i. Philosophical reasons..……………………………………………………………………..248 ii. The recurrence of tragedies during the Second World War ………………………………..249 iii. Political reasons…………………………………………………………………………..250 iv. The drafting process of the European Social Charter 1966………………………………..252 3.2. A comparative analysis of the European Social Charter 1961, the Revised European Social Charter 1996 and the European Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms 1950………………………………………………………………...258 i. Understanding the nature, development, and content of economic, social, and cultural rights…………………………………………………………………………………………258 ii. Minimum core of economic, social, and cultural rights……………………………………269 ii i. State obligations to respect, protect and fulfil economic, social, and cultural rights………274 iv. Positive and negative state obligat ions……………………………………………………281 v.Cost free and expensive state obligations…………………………………………………..290 vi. Progressive and immediate state obligations……………………………………………...293 vii. Vague and precise state obligations………………………………………………………297 viii. Justiciable and non-justiciable state obligations…………………………………………301 ix . Derogable and non- derogable state obligations………………………………………….302 x. Thin and thick state obligations……………………………………………………………303 xi. Table ‘State obligations’..…………………………………………………………………305 3.3. Features of collective complaint procedure…………………………………….………..308 i. Object and subjects, and stages of the collective complaint procedure……………………..311 ii. Selected terminology used by the European Committee of Social Rights …………………313 iii. Advantages and disadvantages of the collective complaint procedure……………………315 iv. Factors which influence the degree of use of the collective complain procedure…………317 3.4. Selected case- law o f the European Commission of Human Rights and the European Court of Human Rights’ indirect protection of economic, social, and cultural rights ………………321 i. Theoretical views on blurring distinctions between two groups of rights by the European Court of Human Rights……………………………………………………………………………..321 ii. Approaches to the interpretation used by the European Court of Human Rights…………325 8 i ii . Article 2 of European Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms 1950…………………………………………………………………………….…327 iv. Article 3 of the European Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms 1950……………………………………………………………………….………332 iv.i. The right to basic needs………………………………………………………………….332 iv.ii. The right to an adequate pension………………………………………………………..334 iv.iii. The right to housing……………………………………………………………………335 iv.iv. The right to medical care……………………………………………………………….337 v. Article 5 of the European Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms 1950……………………………………………………………………….……....342 v.i. The right to physical care…………………………………………………………………342 v.ii. The right to use own language…………………………………………………………...343 vi. Article 6 of the European Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms 1950……………………………………………………………………….……....344 vi.i. The right on pensions and benefits………………………………………………………344 vi.ii. The right to use own language…………………………………………………………..345 vii. Article 8 of the European Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundame ntal Freedoms 1950……………………………………………………………………….……....347 vii.i. The right to choose medical treatment………………………………………………….347 vii.ii. The right to health…………………………………………………………….………..349 vii.iii. The right to establish and develop relationships with others. ………………………….351 vii.iv. The right to healthy environment……………………………………………………...352 vii.v. The right on maternity benefits to fathers………………………………………………355 vii.vi. The right to protection of reputations…………………………………………………356 vii.vii. The right to receive information. …………………………………………………….357 vii.viii. The right to use own language……………………………………………………….358 viii. Article 10 of the European Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms 1950………………………………………………………………...360 viii.i. The right to publish newspapers and printed materials in minority languages………….360 viii.ii. The right to radio and television broadcasting in minority languages…………………361 viii.iii. The right to hold cultural events in minority languages………………………………362 ix. Article 11 of the European Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms 1950……………………………………………………………………………….363 ix.i. The right to collective bargaining………………………………………………………..363 9 ix.ii. The right to form a trade union……………………….…………………………………364 ix.iii. The right to join and not to join a trade union…………………………………………364 ix. iv. The ri ght to leave a trade union………………………………………………………..366 ix.v. The right to retain a membership of a trade union………………………………………366 ix.vi. The right to strike in solidarity…………………………………………………………367 x. Article 14 of the European Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms 1950……………………………………………………………………………….367 xi. Article 1 of the Protocol № 1 to the European Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms 1952……………………………………………………………369 xii. Article 2 of the Protocol № 1 to the European Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms 1952……………………………………………………..371 xiii.Protocol № 12 of the European Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms 2000………………………………………………………………...374 xiv. New perspectives to the protection of rights of the second generation by the European Court of Human Rights……………………………………………………………………………..375 Table ‘Case-law of the European Court of Human Rights for certain economic, social, and cultural rights’ …………………………………………………………………………….…380 Cuadro ‘Jurisprudencia del Tribunal Europeo de Derechos Humanos sobre determinados derechos económicos, sociales y culturales’…………………………………………………391 Conclusion of Chapter 3……………………………………………………………………...402 Conclusión del Capítulo 3……………………………………………………………………406 Chapter 4. The role of the European union in protection of economic, social, and cultural rights…………………………………………………………………………………….…...410 Introduction of Chapter 4…………………………………………………………………….410 Introducción del Capítulo 4………………………………………………………………….411 4.1. Development of the EU legislation on economic, social, and cultural rights…………..412 4.2. The comparative analysis of the Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union 2000………………………………………………………………………………………….424 i. The drafting process of the Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union 2000…..424 ii. Content of the Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union 2000………………428 iii. Limits of the Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union 2000……………….430 iv. The European Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental F reedoms 1950, European Social Charter 1961 and Revised European Social Charter 1966: human rights context’ comparison……………………………………………………………………….…431 16 The empirical basis of the Doctoral thesis were the case- law of the African Commission and Court of Human and Peoples’ Rights, the Court of Justice of the European Union, the European Committee of Social Rights, the European Commission and Court of Human Rights, and the Inter-American Commission and Court of Human Rights. The subject of the Doctoral the sis is the issues of conceptualization, protection, and recognition of economic, social, and cultural rights in Europe in the 21 century and making recommendations with an emphasis on the organization and activities on protection of these rights in the Council of Europe, the European Union, and other regional organizations. The structure of the Doctoral thesis. It consists of two parts: - Part 1. Philosophical and ideological perspectives in economic, social, and cultural rights conceptualization, protection and recogni tion at the universal level and its features at the Inter-American and African regional levels. - Part 2. The features of economic, social, and cultural rights’ protection at the European level. These parts include the following Chapters: - Chapter 1. The contribution of the universal level to economic, social, and cultural rights’ protection. - Chapter 2. The contribution of the Inter-American and African regional level in featuring economic, social, and cultural rights. - Chapter 3. The role of the Council of Europe in protection of economic, social, and cultural rights. - Chapter 4. The role of the European union in protection of economic, social, and cultural rights. - Cha pter 5. External and internal challenges facing economic, social, and cultural rights. Economic, social, and cultural rights which are fundamental, and essential for the dignity and well-being of individuals and communities, are recognized by international law and are protected at both the universal and regional levels. Previously, in Part I “Philosophical and ideological perspectives in economic, social and cultural rights conceptualization, protection and recognition at the universal level and its features at the Inter-American and African regional levels”, Chapter 1 was devoted to the protection of economic, social, and cultural rights at the universal level. Among a variety of documents adopted at the universal level, Peace treaties, the Universal Declaration on Human Rights, and the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights contributed to the protection of abovementioned human rights. Analysis of nature of the rights of the second generation is based on types of State obligations (specifically, the following types: positive and negative ; cost free and expensive obligations ; p rogressive and immediate obligations ; v ague and precise ; j usticiab le and non-justiciab le; d erogable and non- derogab le; t hin and thick). As a result, second-generation rights are also characterised by the obligations which were originally imposed to implement rights of the first generation. Considering development of state obligations, two methods, namely, a method centring upon obligations of conduct and result, and a method centring upon obligations to respect, protect and 17 fulfil, are important and used by the courts. In examining state obligation on the issue of economic, social, and cultural rights’ realization, the emphasis is usually placed on the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights 1966, and the Optional Protocol to the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights 1966. In the Chapter 2 of Part I “The contribution of the Inter-American and African regional level in featuring economic, social, and cultural rights ”, legal regulation of both regions on the issue of state obligations for second-generation rights protection and case-law of the African Commission and Court on Human and People’s Rights, and the Inter-American Commission and Court on Human Rights. Regional protection at analysed levels ensures that economic, social, and cultural rights are tailored to the specific needs and circumstances of both regions. Their protection in these regions reduces poverty and helps individuals to have access to necessities and participation in the economic and social life of own communities; promotes gender equality and address es gender-based discri mination and ensures that women have equal access to education, employment, and healthc are ; promot es, and preserves cultural diversity. The protection of these rights in the Inter-American and African regions can help individuals and communities to maintain and celebrate their cultural traditions and practices, participate in and contribute to the economic, social, and cultural progress of their societies. These rights are recognized and protected at both the universal and regional levels, and their protection is essential for the well-being and prosperity of individuals and communities. The Part II is devoted to economic, social, and cultural rights in the Council of Europe and the European Union. It is well known that rights of the second generation apply to all people, regardless of their nationality, ethnicity, gender, or any other status. Th eir recognition ensures that all individuals have access to basic needs such as food, shelter, education, and healthcare. The Council of Europe and the European Union are two separate international organizations with different mandates and areas of focus. While both organizations promote human rights, including economic, social, and cultural rights, there are some differences in how these rights are protected. The Chapter 3 , w hich is called ‘The role of the Council of Europe 5 in protection of economic, social, and cultural rights’, consists of 4 paragraphs. The Chapter begins with two subparagraphs, including the reasons of why the Council of Europe and its role is important in ESCR protection, lists the ways of strengthening economic, social, and cultural rights, and describes possibilities for additional protocols to the (Revised) European Social Charter. This Chapter discusses creation, history, origin of the European Social Charter 1961 6 and provides 5 The Counci l of Europe is primarily focused on promoting human rights, democracy, and the rule of law across its 4 6 me mber s tates. It has adopte d several conventions and resolutions that promote e conomic, s o cial, and cultural rights , including the Europe an Social Charter, which sets out a compre hensive range of ESC R. The Cou ncil of Europe's monitor ing mechanisms, such as the European Committ ee of Social Rights, are tasked wi th asse ssing member s tates' complian ce with ESCR and promoting their effecti ve imple mentation . 6 European Social Charter (18 October 1961) ETS 35 <https:/ /rm.coe.int/ 168006b642> accesse d 25 May 2023. 18 answers for the following questions: 1) What was the purpose of the adoption of the European Social Charter 1961? 2) Was the adoption of the two instruments, the European Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms 1950 and the European Social Charter 1961, a copy of the actions of Member States at the universal level? 3). What was the attitude of countries towards second-generation rights at the regional level after the Second World War? It also compares the European Social Charter 1961 with the Revised European Social Charter 1996, analyses states’ obligations under these both Charters and its difference from the obligations set forth in the European Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms 1950. The features of collective complaint procedure, its advantages, disadvantages, and comparison with the procedure provided by the Optional Protocol of the ICESCR, and selected c ase -law of the European Committee of Social Rights and the European Court of Human Rights are presented in the Chapter 2. In the Chapter 4 the role of the European Union in protection of economic, social, and cultural rights is considered. It is crucial for the further analysis for several reasons: 1. The rights of the second generation are ess ential for upholding human dignity and ensuring that everyone can live a life of basic human dece ncy. 2. These rights are necessary for achieving social justice and reducing inequality. By guaranteeing access to basic services like healthcare, education, and housing, the European Union helps to level the playing field and reduce disparities between different social groups . 3. An access to basic resources and opportunities can contribute to sustainable economic growth. When people can participate fully in the economy, they can contribute to its growth and development. 4. By ensuring that everyone has equal access to political and economic opportunities, the EU helps to promote civic engagement and participation. 5. The EU has committed to protecting these rights through various international treaties and agreements, including the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and the International Covenant on Economic, Social, and Cultural Rights 1966. Fulfilling these obligations is essential for maintaining the EU's credibility on the international stage. The Chapter 4 consists of 5 paragraphs, which include: Development of the EU legislation on economic, social, and cultural rights (4.1); the comparative analysis of the Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union 2000 (4.2); selected case-law of the Court of Justice of the European Union with the reference to the European Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms 1950 (4.3); establishing balance between economic and social rights (4.4); selected case-law of the Court of Justice of the European Union on state obligations aimed at economic, social, and cultural rights protection (4.5). In the Chapter 5 External and internal challenges facing economic, social, and cultural rights are considered. Main attention is paid to COVID-19, climate change and illegal immigration. How do they affect the rights of the second generation? What actions are being taken by states and how this differs from the impact on the rights of the first generation? Methodological basis of the Doctoral thesis. Methodology of the Doctoral the sis is sociological positivism (analysing of norms in historical and sociological contexts). This Doctoral thes is is conducted under two methodological tools: - inductive approach (from practical to general), including case-law, specific norms, and 19 - deductive approach (from the general to the particular), including doctrinal references. In order to achieve the goal of the Doctoral thesis modern methods of cognition of phenomena and processes of legal reality is used. During conducting th e research for the Doctoral thesis. both general scientific (historical, dialectical, system) and private (formal- legal, comparative-legal) and other research methods are used. A comparative analysis of the domestic experience and experience of foreign countries in the legal support of the constitutional rights of citizens allows us to develop models for the optimal use of foreign experience in modern conditions. The practical significance of the D octoral thes is lies in the fact that the conclusions and proposals formulated in it can be used to improve international and regional legislation on economic, social, cultural rights and their constitutional and legal support, as well as in practical activities for the protection of rights and freedoms. The results of the research will contribute to the development of academic ideas about the legal nature of economic, social, and cultural rights, the mechanism of implementation of the European social standards. The main provisions and conclusions of the Doctoral t hesis were discussed at: -International Scientific and Practical Conference ‘Traditions and innovations in the system of modern law’ (May 1, 2023, Ufa); -Forum on Language and the Law – Legal Interpretation (16th of April 2022, S.J. Quinney College of Law, Utah, the United States of Americ a) ; -International Conference "Legal Forum 2021’ (November 11-13, 2021, Moscow); -XLII International Scientific and Practical Conference ‘Russian Science in the modern world’ (November 30, 2021, Moscow); -International Conference ‘Legal Reality in the context of intercultural strategic dialogue’ (December 2, 2021, Pyatigorsk); -International Scientific and Practical Conference ‘The role of science and education in the modernization of modern society’ (December 10, 2021, Kaluga); -I All-Russian Scientific and Practical conference 'Karbyshev readings’ (with international participation) (December 15-17, 2021, Tyumen); -II International Student Scientific and Practical Conference "Linguistics in the era of digitalization: actual problems and prospects of development", April 20-21, 2022, Pyatigorsk; - IV International Scientific and Practical Conference ‘Information Technologies in the Digital Economy’ (Yekaterinburg, April 22, 2020); -International Scientific and Practical Conference ‘Socio-cultural, ethnic and linguistic processes in the Eurasian space’ (Ufa, December 13-14, 2019); - Joint Meeting of the round tables ‘Legal Source studies in research and educational practices: theoretical, methodological, and methodological problems’ and ‘Soviet Constitutionalism of 1917-1925: doctrine, legislation, and representations’ (Yekaterinburg, November 30, 2019); - Sixth Summer School ‘70 years of Universal Declarations of Human Rights: Heritage and challenges of modernity’ (Yekaterinburg, July 2-6, 2018). 20 For fulfilling th e requirement of EURODOC, some of the materials underlying the Doctoral thesis were collected during several resear ch stays : -University of Stockholm (Stockholm, Sweden, May 2021 – September 2021), -University ‘La Sapienza’ of Rome (Rome, Italy, November 2018 – June 2019), -Ural State Law University (Yekaterinburg, Russia, Oc tober 2017 – March 2021), -Queens University Belfast (Belfast, Northern Ireland, UK, March – April 2017). The structure of the Doctoral thesis. It consists of an introduction, five chapters, tables of the selected case-law, a conclusion, and bibliography. 21 Introducción de la tesis Doctoral Importancia de la tesis Doctoral. La Declaración y Programa de Acción de Viena de 1993 establece que: “Todos los derechos humanos son universales, indivisibles, interdependientes e interrelacionados 7 ”. Los derechos económicos, sociales y culturales son uno de los derechos más importantes de nuestro tiempo y atraen una atención constante. Se refieren al mantenimiento y la fijación normativa de las condiciones sociales y económicas de vida del individuo, definen una posición de la persona en la esfera del trabajo y la vida, el empleo, el bienestar, la seguridad social con el fin de crear condiciones en las que las personas puedan liberarse del miedo y la necesidad. Su tamaño y grado de seguridad dependen en gran medida del estado de la economía y los recursos, y por lo tanto sus garantías están menos desarrolladas que los derechos civiles y políticos. Existe un claro incumplimiento por parte del Estado de sus obligaciones internacionales y normas constitucionales para garantiz ar una vida di gna para todos, que es partic ularmente evidente en el ámbito económico, social y cultural: ü denunciar la falta de seguridad del derecho al trabajo y sus condiciones favorables, ü velar por el pago justo y oportuno de los salarios, ü la violación del derecho a un nivel de vida digno, que incluya alimentación, vestido, vivienda, atención médica, asistencia social y otros beneficios necesarios. La tendencia de aumentar el número de violaciones de estos derechos y libertades continúa hoy, lo que conduce a un aumento de la tensión social y la pérdida de la confianza pública en todas las estructuras del poder estatal. Además, los nuevos problemas, a saber, el empeoramiento del cambio climático, la infección por coronavirus (COVID-19), requieren una adecuada de las organizaciones internacionales a nivel universal y regional y, por supuesto, de los Estados. La XX Cumbre de Jefes de Estado de la Organización de Cooperación de Shanghai se celebró en Dus hanbe el 17 de septiembre de 2021, tras lo cual los líderes de los países adoptaron una declaración conjunta. Los Estados miembros de la OCS afirmaron: -“la universalidad, indivisibilidad, interdependencia e interconexión de todos los derechos humanos, así como sus obligaciones de respetar los derechos humanos y las libertade s fundamentales; - la no aplicación de dobles raseros en cuestiones de derechos humanos y la injerencia en los asuntos internos de otros Estados con el pretexto de su protección; - crear condiciones favorables para el desarrollo de actividades comerciales y de inversión y aumentar la cooperación en el ámbito comercial y económico; - tomar medidas para profundizar la cooperación en el campo de la música, el teatro y las bellas artes, la literatura, la cinematografía, así como los a suntos de archivos, museos y bibliotecas 8 ”. 7 UN (Distr . General) , ‘Vienna Declarati on and Pr ogram of Act ion’ A/CONF. 157/23 (1 2 July 19 93). 8 ‘ Shanghai Cooperation Organization countries adopted a joint declaration ’ < https://tass.ru/mezhdunarodnaya - panorama/12433753 > accessed 5 M a y 2023. 22 La importancia de la tesis Doctoral se puede presentar en tres perspectivas : 1. En términos teóricos y metodológicos, es necesario ana lizar y estudiar los documentos jurídicos y publicaciones académicas internacionales y regionales existentes sobre este tema para aclarar la regulación jurídica internacional y regional de los derechos económicos, sociales y culturales. No menos importante es el problema de la interrelación interdisciplinaria de la base jurídica para estudiar la protección de los derechos de segunda generación con otros enfoques del derecho internacional. 2. En términos científicos e instrumentales, es necesario estudiar las características históricas de la formación y las formas de mayor desarrollo de los derechos económicos, sociales y culturales. Esto ampliará la comprensión de la formación del instituto para la protección de estos derechos no solo desde posiciones legales, sino también desde el punto de vista de otras disciplinas. 3. En términos aplicados, la relevancia del tema de la tesis doctoral está relacionada con la comprensión de la naturaleza de los derechos de la primera y segunda generación, que debe basarse en la experiencia internacional y regional. Esto permitirá desarrollar tareas óptimas para los Estados y eliminar pos ibles efectos negativos de este proceso. Como S. Greer afirmó en el artículo de revi sta ‘Balancing and the European Court of Human Rights: A Contribution to the Hebermas-Alexy Debate’ que, por un lado, “el equilibrio entre el interés general de la comunidad y la protección de los derechos fundamentales del individuo plantea profundos problemas debatidos por algunos de los principales teóricos jurídicos, políticos y sociales del mundo 9 ” y lo explicó contrastando dos teorías: ‘hostil; y ‘comprensiva’, y, por otro lado, “reduce todo debate sobre la relación entre los derechos 10 ”. El p ropósito de la te sis Doctoral es crear el concepto del autor de protección legal y nacional internacional de los derechos económicos, sociales y culturales en Europa en el siglo XXI. Los objetivos de la tesis Doctoral están orientados a analizar: - La contribución del nivel universal a la protección de los derechos económicos, sociales y culturales (Capítulo 1). - La contribución del nivel regional interamericano y africano en la presentación de los derechos económicos, sociales y culturales (Capítulo 2). - El papel del Consejo de Europa en la protección de los derechos económicos, sociales y culturales (Capítulo 3). - El papel de la Unión Europea en la protección de los derechos económicos, sociales y culturales (Capítulo 4). - Desafíos externos e internos que enfrentan los derechos económicos, sociales y culturales (Capítulo 5). 9 G reer S, ‘ Balanci ng and the European Court of Human Rights: A Contribution to the Hebermas - Alexy Debate ’ in The Cambridge Law Journal ( Vol. 63, № 2 (Jul y 2004) ) P .413. 10 G reer S, ‘ Balancing and the European Court of Human Rights: A Contribution to the Hebermas - Alexy Debate ’ in The Cambridge Law Journal ( Vol. 63, № 2 (Jul y 2004) ) P .41 4. 23 El grado de desarrollo académico de la tesis Doctoral. El problema de la investigación ha determinado la necesidad de apelar a diversas ramas del conocimiento, además del derecho internacional, el derecho de la Unión Europea y el derecho comparado, incluidos trabajos en el campo de la filosofía del derecho, la ciencia política, la sociología, la teoría del Estado y el derecho, la historia del Estado y el derecho y otras ramas de las ciencias jurídicas. Los fundamentos del concepto moderno de derechos humanos y libertades, así como sus garantías constitucionales, se establecieron en los trabajos de destacados científicos extranjeros del pasado: Aristóteles, M. Cicerón, A. I. Dovatur, L. Duhaime, H. Grotius, G. V. F. Hegel, V. F. Humbolt, I. Kant J. Locke, K. Marx, G. Ellinek, Montesquieu, T. Paine, S. Pufendorf, Zh-J. Rousseau, A. Schweitzer, Tulius y otros. I. Los desarrollos teóricos y filosóficos de Kant desempeñaron un papel importante en el desarrollo del concepto de derechos humanos y civiles, su fundamentación de los conceptos de "libertad" e "igualdad" no solo como condiciones de las relaciones económicas y políticas burguesas, sino principalmente como los elementos más im portantes de la dignidad humana. Esta tesis doctoral se basa en la generalización y el análisis crítico de trabaj os de muchos autores en los siguientes capítulos: - El Capítulo I ‘La contribución del nivel universal a la protección de los derechos económicos, sociales y culturales’ se basa en las obras de: Y. Abdulqawi, A. Allardt, Aristóteles, R. Balakrishnan, L. Y. Baranova, N. Bernaz, W. T. Blackstone, G. Bovt, P. Brander, D. Brinkley, G. Brown, E. Butler, A. Byrnes, R. Cassin, J. L. Cernic, A. Chapman, M. Cicero, R. I. Conot, M. Cranston, M. Craven, J. Donelly, R. S. Downie, A. Eide, F. Engels, J. E. Falkowski, D. Felix, M. Freeman, S. Friedman, D. J. Galligan, R. Gavison, V. G. Gig, M. A. Glendon, M. Dennis, M. Dowell – Jones, R. S. Downie, L. Duhaime, G. V. F. Hegel, K. N. Hevener, V. G. Hoof, T. Hopes, D. Horowitz, V. F. Humbolt, J. P. Humphrey, V. D. Ignatov, G. Jellinek, A. Jennifer, F. Jhabvala, G. Johnson, H. Kabir, S. S. Kantha, G. Kevin, Y. Khushalani, E. Kolodner, K. Kont-Kontson, A. I. Levin, S. Liebenberg, J. Locke, S. Lukes, L. J. Macfarlane, T. R. Machan, C. Mahon, V. L. Malkov, D. Maras, D. Marcus, J. Maritain, K. Marx, D. McGoldrick, R. P. Mckeon, A. Menger, V. D. Mordachev, J. Morsink, A. Mowbray, A. Muller, C. Murphy, B. Mussolini, R. Nozick, J. Oloka-Onyang, G. S. Ostapenko, T. Payne, P. Pereira, R. Plant, A. Potyara, J. E. Powell, S. V. Puntambekar, G. Quinn, J. Rawls, R. Robertson, A. Rosas, S.A. Rosenbaum, S. Rubin, S. Russel, W. A. Schabas, J. Schultz, C. Scott, H. Shue, M. C. Sepulveda, K. Shields, B. L. Sohn, D. J. Stampford, H. Steiner, D. Stewart, A. I. Subetta, A. Tarazarian, B. Toebes, C. Tomuchat, Tullius, R. Unger, E. W. Vierdag, S. Waltz, C. Wellman, D. Whelan, G. Winter, A. Wolfe y G. Young. - El capítulo 2 ‘La contribución de los niveles regionales interamericano y africano en la promoción de los derechos económicos, sociales y culturales’ se basa en los trabajos de: A. K. Abashidze, V. Abramovich, S. C. Agbakwa, A. J. Ali, M. Aliverti, P. Alston, A. A. An-na'im, A. Barak, S. T. Bulto, S. K. Birmania, M. Cepeda, M. K. Davtyan, O. Dejo, K . Drzewicki, B. Ebow, M. Evans, H. P. Faga, L. Fishbayan, R. Gittleman, D. A. Gonza lez-Salzberg, S. Grossman, M. Hansungule, R. Hanski, A. Ispolinov, M. Langford, S. Liebenberg, M. Linde, L. Louw, E. A. Lukasheva, M. Makau, A. A. Mazrui, O. Mba, J. M. Mbaku, T. Melish, G. W. Mugwanya, R. Murray, M. Mutua, A. M . Nikolaev, O. B. Obinna, C. A. Odinkali, O. C. Okafor, K. O' Regan, F. Ouguergouz, K. C-J. Nkongolo, C. Nwobike, O. Parra, J. M. Pasqualucci, Pierre 24 De Vos, E. Posner, J. Rossi, O. A. Ruchka, M. Scheinin, M. Ssenyonjo, A. M. Solntsev, M. Souxie, P. Tarre, N. J. Udomnina, F. Viljoen, S. Wiles. S.A. Yeshanev, y J. Yoo. - El Capítulo 3 ‘El papel del Consejo de Europa en la protección de los derechos económicos, sociales y culturales’ contiene obras de: A. K. Abashidze, J. Akandji – Kombe, M. Aeyal, P. Alston, M. Bakunin, R. Beddard, R. Birk, C. Blacke, A. F. Boyd, R. Brillat, E. Cannizzaro, R. B. Churchill, H. Cullen, J. Darcy, A. U. De Torres, C. Droge, A. Eide, D. B. Erez, E. Fedotov, A. Fisher, J. R. Gillingm, D. Gomien, T. V. Gracheva, S. Greer, S. B. Eremenko, I. Koch, D. Harris, K. Hausler, F. H. Heller, M. D. Hill, D. A. Iagofarov, O. A. Ishakova, N. V. Kalashnikova, U. Khaliq, K. Kont – Kontson, P. Lea, R. Lines, I. Liora, K. Lochner, E. A. L ukasheva, H. Macmillian, N. T. Matiusheva, P. F. Markham, J. G. Merrils, M. Mikkola, E . P. Nikolas, M. Novitz, M. Novak, C. O'Cinneide, P. Patrick, E. Palmer, J. Polakiewicz, G. Raimondi, L. A. Rezvanova, O. Ruchka, O. D. Schutter, K. Shields, V. Shiva, V. I. Shkatulla, P. M. Stirk, K. Taylor, C. Tomuchat, P. Uroc, M. M. Utyashev, L. M. Utyasheva, V. P. Viljanen, E. D. Vittor, E. D. Volokhova, C. Walbrick, L. Wildhaber, T. V. Zhukova y L. Zwaak. - El Capítulo 4 ‘El papel de la Unión Europea en la protección de los derechos económicos, sociales y culturales’ incluye obras de: M. M. Biryukov, R. Bereijo, K. Boyle, J. L. Cernic, L. Charpentier, C. Coppel, S. Garben, Y. Dogan, S. Douglas-Scott, A. S. Ispolinov, S. Y. Kashkin, G. S. Katrougalos, K. Kont – Kontson, M. Kudryavtsev, N. Lockhart, F. Mancini, P. Margules, A. Mowbray, A. O'Neill, A. Peters, M. Pitkanen, H. Rasmussen, O. D. Sc hutter, N. Shishkova, R. Stamer, S. Sunstein, K. M. Tabarintseva-Romanova, M. Taylor, A. Tryfonidou, M. Uhry, J. H. Weler y S. White. - El Capítulo 5 ‘Desafíos externos e internos que enfrentan los derechos económicos, sociales y culturales’ menciona obras de autores como: S . Abdelnaser, S. Ali, A. P. Bandurin, K. Bennoune, S.A. Buchakov, K. Dzehtsiarov, A. Fedorako, S. I. Glushkova, E. S. Krasinets, E. Khoroltseva, E. S. Kubishin, J. May, B. Mayer, F. Meehan, N. I. Oreshina, C. Panzera, R. Perrouchou, E. Pobjie, C. Pring, G. Pring, A. Quinton, L. P. Ryazanova, T. B. Smashnikova, V. V. Sobolnikov, A. M. Solntsev, A. Spadaro, M. A. Stalnova, O. Startceva, E. V. Tyutyukanova, M. N. Utyatsky, G. S. Vitkovskaya, y E. D. Wit. El marco jurídico de la tesis Doctoral se basa en tratados internacionales como la Declaración Universal de Derechos Humanos de 1948, la Convención Internacional sobre la Eliminación de todas las Formas de Discriminación Racial de 1965, el Pacto Internacional de derechos Económicos, Sociales y Culturales de 1966, el Pacto Internacional de Derechos Civiles y Políticos de 1966, la Convención sobre la Eliminación de todas las Formas de Discriminación contra la Mujer de 1979, la Convención sobre los Derechos del Niño de 1989, la Convención sobre la Protección de los Derechos de Todos los Trabajadores Migratorios y de sus Familiares de 1990, Convención sobre los Derechos de las Personas con Discapacidad de 2006, y otros documentos. Entre los tratados regionales es importante mencionar: Convenio Europeo para la Protección de los Derechos Humanos y de las Libertades Fundamentales de 1950. Es un tratado, en el que los derechos y libertades son principalmente (99%) civiles y políticos. Los Estados tienen obligaciones vinculantes solo si las aceptan. Sin embargo, este documento es un ‘instrumento vinculante’ que debe leerse de acuerdo con las circunstancias actuales para hacer una ‘protección efectiva de los derechos económicos, sociales y culturales’ 25 por parte de esos derechos civiles y políticos. Progresivamente, el Tribunal Europeo de Derechos Humanos ha considerado la dimensión económica y social de los derechos civiles y políticos en la Convención. Además, el marco jurídico incluye el Primer Protocolo del Convenio Europeo para la Protección de los Derechos Humanos y de las Libertades Fundamentales de 1952, la Carta Social Europea de 1961 y la Carta Social Europea (Revisada) de 1996, la Convención Americana sobre Derechos Humanos de 1969, el Protocolo Adicional a la Convención Americana sobre Derechos Humanos de 1988 (Protocolo de San Salvador), la Carta Africana de Derechos Humanos y de los Pueblos de 1981, la Carta Africana sobre los Derechos y el Bienestar del Niño de 1990, Protocolo de la Carta Africana de Derechos Humanos y de los Pueblos relativo a los derechos de la mujer en África de 2003 y otros documentos. La base empírica de la tesis Doctoral fue la jurisprudencia de la Comisión y Corte Africana de Derechos Humanos y de los Pueblos, el Tribunal de Justicia de la Unión Europea, el Comité Europeo de Derechos Sociales, la Comisión y Corte Europea de Derec hos Humanos y la Comisión y Corte Interamericana de Derechos Humanos. El tema de la tesis doctoral es la conceptualización, protección y reconocimiento de los derechos económicos, sociales y culturales en Europa en el siglo XXI y la formulación de recomendaciones con énfasis en la organización y las actividades de protección de estos derechos en el Consejo de Europa, la Unión Europea y otras organizaciones regionales. La estructura de la tesis doctoral. Consta de dos partes: - Parte 1. Perspectivas filosóficas e ideológicas en la conceptualización, protección y reconocimiento de los derechos económicos, sociales y culturales a nivel universal y sus características a nivel regional interamericano y africano. - Parte 2. Las características de la protección de los derechos económicos, sociales y culturales a nivel europeo. Estas partes incluyen los siguientes capítulos: - Capítulo 1. La contribución del nivel universal a la protección de los derechos ec onómicos, sociales y culturales. - Capítulo 2. La contribución del nivel regional interamericano y africano en la presentación de los derechos económicos, sociales y culturales. - Capítulo 3. El papel del Consejo de Europa en la protección de los derechos económicos, sociales y culturales. - Capítulo 4. El papel de la Unión Europea en la protección de los derechos económicos, sociales y culturales. - Capítulo 5. Desafíos externos e internos que enfrentan los derechos económicos, sociales y culturales. Los derechos económicos, sociales y culturales, que son fundamentales y esenciales para la dignidad y el bienestar de las personas y las comunidades, están reconocidos por el derecho internacional y protegidos tanto a nivel universal como regional. Anteriormente, en la Parte I “Perspectivas filosóficas e ideológicas en la conceptualización, protección y reconocimiento de los derechos económicos, sociales y culturales a nivel universal y sus 32 The method of comparing two levels: the universal and regional, is intended to show and to contrast the efforts and measures taken by countries to protect the rights of the second generation. In particular, to show the difference in the obligations of states with respect to each category of rights. Moreover, this part forms the reader’s understanding of the balance between rights, their unified nature and implementation. The structure of the Part 1 is the following: there are two chapters, each of them is devoted to a certain (the universal or the regional) level of economic, social, and cultural rights protection, which is based of analysis of the main documents, specific case -law, outlining the seven types of State obligations. 33 Introducción del Capítulo 1 La Parte 1 tiene por objeto describir el proceso de conceptualización, protección y reconocimiento de los derechos económicos, sociales y culturales a escala universal y regional (incluida la interamericana y la africana) con el fin de mostrar la lucha política e ideológica entre Occidente y Oriente en relación con estos derechos. Como es bien sabido, cada bando defendía la primacía de una sola categoría de derechos (para Estados Unidos, los derechos civiles y políticos; para la Unión Soviética, los derechos económicos, sociales y culturales). Antes de la Segunda Guerra Mundial los derechos de la segunda generación se incluyeron en algunos documentos en el siguiente orden cronológico: - la Declaración de Independencia, adoptada el 4 de julio de 1776, que afirmaba que “todos los hombres son creados iguales” y tienen derecho a “la vida, la libertad y la búsqueda de la felicidad” 25 . - la D eclaración Universal de los Derechos del Hombre y del Ciudadano de 1789 26 , adoptada durante la Revolución Francesa, declaraba el derecho al trabajo, a la educación y a la propiedad. - los Tratados de Paz de 1919. - la Constitución de Weimar de Alemania de 1919 27 , que incluía el derecho al trabajo, el derecho a la seguridad social y el derecho al desarrollo cultural. - la Constitución de la República de Turquía de 1924 28 . Los esfuerzos de los países tras la Segunda Guerra Mundial se dirigieron a la e laboración y adopción de nuevos instrumentos de derechos humanos. En particular, en el ámbito universal 25 Declarati on of In dependence (adopted 4 July 1776 ) < https://history.state.gov/milest ones/1776 - 1783/dec la r atio n#:~ :text=By%20 issuing%20the %20Declaration %20of,colonists %27%20m otivations%20 for%20seeking %20in dependence > accessed 25 May 2023. 26 Universa l Declarat ion of th e Rights o f Man and Ci tizen of 1789 < https://www.elysee.fr/en/french - presi d ency/the - declaration - of - the - rights - of - man - and - of - th e - citizen#:~:text=History - ,The%20De claration%20 of%20th e%20Rights%20of%20Man%20and%20of% 20the,with%20a%20declaration%20of%20principles > access ed 25 May 20 23. 27 Weimar Constitu tion of German y of 1919 < https://www.history.com/this - day - in - history/weimar - constitut ion - adopted - in - germany > accessed 24 May 2023. 28 Constitut ion of the Republic of Turkey of 1924 < https://www.worldstatesmen.org/Turkeycons t itu t ion 192 4 .pdf > accessed 2 5 May 202 3. 34 hubo varios tratados: la Declaración Universal de Derechos Humanos de 1948 29 , los dos Pactos Internacionales: el Pacto Internacional de Derechos Económicos, Sociales y Culturales de 1966 30 , el Pacto Internacional de Derechos Civiles y Políticos de 1966 31 , y el Protocolo Facultativo del Pacto Internacional de Derechos Económicos, Sociales y Culturales de 2008 32 . Asimismo, a nivel regional se adoptaron el Convenio Europeo para la Protección de los Derechos Humanos y de las Libertades Fundamentales de 1950 33 , la Carta Social Europea de 1961 34 , la Convención Americana sobre Derechos Humanos de 1969 35 , la Carta Africana de Derechos Humanos y de los Pueblos de 1981 36 y la Carta Árabe de Derechos Humanos de 2004. El análisis de la mayoría de estos documentos en este capítulo está dirigido a proteger los derechos económicos, sociales y culturales, reflejando su naturaleza común con los derechos civiles y políticos. El método de comparar dos niveles: el universal y el regional, pretende mostrar y contrastar los esfuerzos y las medidas adoptadas por los países para proteger los derechos de segunda generación. En particular, mostrar la diferencia en las obligaciones de los Estados con respecto a cada categoría de derechos. Además, esta parte forma la comprensión del lector sobre el equilibrio entre los derechos, su naturaleza unificada y su aplicación. La estructura de la Parte 1 es la siguiente: hay dos capítulos, cada uno de ellos dedicado a un determinado nivel (el universal o el regional) de protección de los derechos económicos, 29 Universal Declarati on of Human Rights ( adopted 10 December 19 48 UNGA Res 2 17 A(III) (UDHR). 30 International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights ( adopted 16 December 1966 ), entered into force 23 March 1976) 999 UNTC 171 ICESC R < https://www.refworld.org/ docid/3ae6b36c0.html > accessed 16 May 20 23 , Art.12. 31 International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (adopted 16 December 1966, entered into force 23 March 1976) 999 UNTS 171 (ICCPR) . 32 Optional Pro tocol to the Internat ional Covenant on Economi c, Social and Cultural Rig hts ( 10 December 200 8) < https://www.ohchr.org/en/instruments - mechanisms/ instrume nts/opti onal - protocol - international - covenant - econo m ic - social - and > accessed 25 May 20 23. 33 European Co nvention f or the Pr otection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms (European Convention on Human Rights, as amended) (ECHR) < https:// www.echr.coe.int/documents/convention_eng.pdf > accessed 26 May 20 23. 34 European Soc ial Charter ( 18 Oct ober 1961 ) ETS 35 < https://rm.coe.int/ 168006b642 > accessed 2 5 May 2023 ; European Soci al Charter (Re vised ) (ad op ted 3 May 1996, entered into force 1 July 1999) ETS 1 63 . 35 A mer ican C onvent ion on H uman R ights (a dopted at the Inte r - American Special ized Conference on Human Rights, San José, Costa Rica, entered into force 18 July 1978 ) Tre aty Series No 36 ( Organization o f American States, 1969 ) < htt ps://www.cidh.oas.org/basicos/engli sh/basic3.americ an%20convention.htm > accessed Mar ch 23, 2023. 36 Arab Chart er on Human Rights (a dopted on 15 September 1994 ) < https:// digitallibrary.un.org/r ecord/551368? ln=en > accessed 23 Ma y 2023. 35 sociales y culturales, que se basa en el análisis de los principales documentos, la jurisprudencia específica, que esboza los siete tipos de obligaciones de los Estados. 36 Chapter 1. The contribution of the universal level to economic, social, and cultural rights’ protection 1.1. Philosophical prerequisites of economic, social, and cultural rights From the earliest centuries, great thinkers and philosophers have tried to understand the nature of human rights. Ancient people had no idea about the difference between the right to an action and the right to a thing, it follows that the obligations and property relations did not differ. Ideas about human rights, the care of every citizen about the welfare of the policy were originally formed in the mainstream of ideas proclaiming the high value of law and legality (Plato, Socrates, Aristotle). It is interesting to illustrate Aristotle's reasoning 37 on economic rights and social rights. Speaking about economic rights, he explain ed that : “Property should be common only in a relative sense, but in general – private ; a fter all, when the care of it will be divided between different people, mutual complaints among them will disappear; on the contrary, it will be a great benefit, because everyone will be diligent to treat what belongs to him; thanks to virtue 38 ”. In the treatise “Politics” “slavery was natural, since it was also perceived as a form of ownership” 39 , but “the early established prohibition of slavery, which goes back to the international anti-slavery move ment 40 ”, “ demonstrates close links to the right to (freely chosen and accepted) work 41 ”.While social rights are manifested in Aristotle's organization of land ownership that: “provides with food and at the same time the opportunity to provide friendly use of property to other citizens 42 ”.Moreover, Aristotle distinguished “social justice on two types: distributive and balancing 43 ”. “All people, wrote Aristotle (Ethics, V, 6) – agree that distributing justice must be guided by virtue, but a measure of dignity not all see the same, as 37 H egel G .V .F, ‘ Philosophy of history ’ ( Writings V. 8. 1936 ) , P .98 – 99. 38 A ristotle , ‘ Politics ’ ( Works: 4 , Vol. 3, Thought, 1983 ), P .409 - 411. 39 A ristotle , ‘ Policy ’ ( 2002 ) P .46 ; D ovatur A.I , ‘ Politics ’ ( Compositions , № 4) , P . 38 - 52. 40 K evin G , ‘ Die Menschenr echte udn d ie Staa tliche Abschaf fung de r Sklav erei , 1885 - 1965 ’ ( Hofma nn, Ste fan - Ludwig (ed.): Moralpoliti k. Die Geschich te der Menschenrechte im 20. Ja hrhundert, G ö ttingen : Wallstein Verlag , 2010 ) P . 199 - 225 . 41 K rennerich M , ‘ Economic, social, and cultural rights - from hesitant recognition to extrat erritorial applicability ’ P .2 < https://menschenrechte. org/wp - content/uploads/2013/11/Article - by - Michael - Krenneric h.pd f> accessed 22 May 2 023. 42 A ristotle , ‘ Policy ’ ( 2002 ) P .46 ; D ovatur A.I , ‘ Politics ’ ( Compositions , № 4) , P . 38 - 52. 43 M ordachev V.D , ‘ Theory of labour exchange: History. Ethics. Psychology ’ ( Ekateri nburg: Openwork, №1, 2006 ) P. 73. 37 citizens of democracy see it in freedom, oligarchs’ wealth, and aristocrats’ virtue 44 ”. In De Legubus, Book II (also known as On the Laws or The Laws), Cicero defer ed that : “S ocial rights must be in a society where a firm persuasion obtains the immediate intervention of the immortal gods, both as witnesses and judges of our actions? Such is the preamble of the law 45 ”. In addition to the above, great thinkers the following theories: 1.The natural-legal concept of the common good (Aquinas, Aristotle, Cicero, Democritus, Grotius, Plato, Seneca), in which the “common good” is an expression of natural-legal justice. The general sociality and reasonableness of people presupposes the freedom and equality of people as members of a given social whole. The question is whether this concept claims anything positive about a decent existence of people antique. 2. The concept of the rule of law (, D. Adams, G. Hegel, I. Kant, T. Jefferson, J. Locke, J. Madison, L. Montesquieu). These authors relied on the idea of social responsibility of the state (T.Payne) 46 . Within this approach, two main positions were formed: the desire to ensure the worthy existence of each and every state of the common good (state eudemonism) and its philosophical criticism, first of all, by I. Kant and V. V. Humboldt 47 from the standpoint of a formal legal state. The state of the common good, according to I. Kant, inevitably leads to despotism, suppression of the individual by the state, while the right to a decent existence is the maximum of free individual action, an ethical duty of virtue. 3. The concept of social rule of law (A. Menger 48 ), which reveals the concept of human protection by law, the right to work and the right to exist. A. Menger turned the problem into a legal plane and identified three economic rights of workers: to the full result of labour, to existence and to work. He wrote that: “In the socialist sense the right to work involves a special duty of a property nature, not based on charity on the part of the state… by virtue of the right to work, every able to work a citizen of the state, who does not find work with a private 44 A ristotle , ‘ Compositions ’ (M oscow 1983) P. 151. 45 ‘D uhaime L , C icero M , T ullius (106 - 43BC) ’< http://www.duhaime.org/LawMuseum/LawArticle - 289/106 - 43 - BC -- Cicero - Marc us - Tullius.as px > accessed 21 May 2023 . 46 P ayne T , ‘ Selected works ’ ( Moscow: Publishing house of the USSR, 1959 ) 47 H umbolt V. F , ‘ The Experience of establishin g the limit s of state activity ’( SPb . 1908 ). 48 M enger A , ‘ New doctrine of the s tate ’ ( SPb . 1905 ) ; M enger A , ‘ The conquest of his ri ghts by th e workers. The right to the full product of labor in historical terms ’ ( SPb. 1906 ) P .7 . 38 entrepreneur, may require the state or state unions (district, community), that he was given ordinary daily work for a fee equal to the usual remuneration for the working day 49 ”. 4. The concept of subjective-public rights of G. Jellinek. For example, the nature of the right to a decent human existence i s public and personal. “A decent human existence is directly dependent on the rightful and right-bound power of both the individual and the state 50 ”. 5. The concept of socio-economic and cultural human rights with M. Cranston, JI.A. Gordon, I. Elster) is another variation of the state-eudemonistic approach developed in XX century. 6. The concept of social welfare state, in which the idea of the right to a decent human existence has acquired the value of ‘quality of life’ (E. Allard 51 , A. I. Subetto 52 , J. Van Gig 53 ), the desire for growth which comes to the fore in the declared objectives of public policy and social work of developed countries. It is well known that there is no exact date of the appearance of the first legal norms, however, after studying the sources of ancient civilizations, we can highlight the words of one of the ancient Egyptian pharaohs (about 2000 BC), who instructed his subordinates: “When a petitioner comes from the Upper or Lower Nile, make sure that everything happens in accordance with the law, that custom was obs erved and human rights were respected 54 ”. The Charter of Cyrus (circa 570 BC) was drawn up by the king of Persia for the people of his Kingdom and recognized some social and economic rights 55 . The most direct ancestor of the actual language in the Universal Declaration is the Magna Carta, a covenant imposed by barons upon the English king i n 1215. It protected a person from the illegal levies, protects his property: “A free person will be fined for a minor offense only according to the nature of the offense and for a major offense not only in proportion to the 49 M enger A , ‘ The conquest of hi s rights by the workers. The right to th e full product of labor in histo rical ter ms ’ ( SPb. 1906 ) P .7 . 50 Je llinek G , ‘ Syst em der subjetiven offentlichen Rechte ’ ( 2 Fufl , 1905 ). 51 A llardt E , ‘ Having, Loving, Being: An Alternativ e to the Swedish Model of Welfare Research in The Quality of Life < https://academic.oup.com/book/9949/chapt er/157298031 > accessed 21 May 2023. 52 S ubeta A.I , ‘ Manageme nt of qualit y of l ife a nd surv ival of the pe rson ’ ( St and K , № 1 , 1994 ). 53 G ig V.G , ‘ Applied Gener al theory of syst ems ’ (M oscow, Publishing house ‘ Mir ’ 1981 ). 54 B rander P, G omez R , K im E . ‘ Compas s. Understand ing human rights ’ ( Moscow: T he Council of Europe, 2002 ) P .5. 55 B rander P, G omez R , K im E . ‘ Compas s. Understand ing human rights ’ ( Moscow: T he Council of Europe, 2002 ) P .5. 39 importance of the offense;... when it should remain inviolable his main property 56 ” (art. 20).The document remained relevant provisions to the present day: “No free person shall be ... dispossessed” (Article 39) 57 .The Magna Carta contained economic institutions and reaffirms the broader principle of guaranteeing property rights – and protection through common law, due process and a limited government that is sustainable. Some authors consider “this document as a Charter of economic rights, not constitutional, and that is why it has always been and remains a living political force 58 ”.Also this document launched an increasingly robust legal tradition that manifested itself in such texts as the Habeas Corpus Acts and the Bill of Rights 1688 59 , in which J. Locke’s and L. Montesquieu’s ideas were consolidated. In the seventeenth century, religious and political refugees brought this law with the m to the United States where, as part of the War of Independence, the norms became entrenched in the Constitution. Translated into French and exported by Thomas Jefferson and the Marquis de Lafayette, the language of human rights and the rule of law surfaced in revolutionary P aris. “Over the next 150 years, the proclamations of the A mericans and the French provided models for many others who associated statehood and independence with an entitlement of individuals to certain fundamental rights 60 ”. It is worth emphasizing that most of the economic, social and cultural rights cannot be found in the influential civil rights documents of the latter part of the 18th century, but, for example, although it is considered to be a ‘classical freedom’ from the outset and is general ly attributed to the civil rights, the right to own property can, from a content point of view, be classed as an economic right. Starting from the ancient times till nowadays there are some questions arisen among philosophers and scholars: “Are human rights distinguishable from other rights, and on what 56 ‘ English translation of Magna Carta ’ < https://www.bl.uk/magna - carta/articles/ magna - carta - english - translatio n > accessed 21 May 2023. 57 ‘ English translation of Magna Carta ’ < https://www.bl.uk/magna - carta/articles/magna - carta - english - translation > accessed 21 May 2023. 58 B utler E , ‘ A Magna Carta ’ < https: //static1.squarespace.com/stat ic/5981ac45914e6b54d9312eab/t/599c35916b8f 5b71dd4813ab/1503409557031/Magna+Carta+ - +A+Primer.pdf > accessed 20 May 2023. 59 For example, J . Locke li sted thr ee right s: to life, property, and freedom in ‘ Two Treatis es of Government ’ (1689). A person cannot only have these rights from bir th, but also judge for their violation. In turn, L. Montesquieu determines that human rights are independent of the law of the sovereign, they are natural. Their i deas were consolidated: in the Bil l of Rights (England, 1689) , the Declaration of Virginia in 1776 and the Declaration of Independence of the USA in 1776, in which the right to life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness was included in the number of inalienable rights in the Bill of Rights (1791) , the Declaration of the Rights of Man and o f the Citizen (Fra nce, 1789). However, Marx’ s own views on rights is to be found in ‘ On the Jewish Question ’ (1843) , in which he denies the claim of the French and American Revolutions to have established the universal, rational, equal, inalienable rights of man ” M arx K , ‘ On the Jewish Questio n’ ( The Marx - Engels Reader, New York, W.W. Norton, 2 nd Edition , 1843) P .40 - 46. 60 Schabas W.A , ‘ Univers al Declaration of H uman R ights ’ ( Cambridge Universit y Press; 3rd ed. edition (18 April 2013) < https://documents.law.yale.edu/ sites/default/files/ UDHR2013FullText.pdf > accessed 20 May 2 023. 40 criteria? 61 ”. Are economic, social and cultural rights to count as human rights? To resolve this issue, the same criteria must be used as a common frame-of-reference for distinguishing between human right s and other sorts of rights. M. Cranston devised three tests for determining the authenticity of a human right: - its implementation must be practicable; - of paramount importance; - the right should be universal. M. Cranston explains that these criteria purportedly offer a way of making the desired distinction, such that civil and political rights are considered to be human rights, whereas the other ‘rights’ are not included, at least not in the same sense. He concludes that : “Social and economic rights do not pass these tests 62 ”. Alan S. Rosenbaum writes that Cranston’s tests and his application of them to human rights have been much discussed and criticized, and it is doubtful “if they can be regarded as convincing in the form, he proposed 63 ”. W.T. Blackstone and D. Watson 64 do not agree with Cranston’s position. In D. Watson’s view, one cannot use the tests to deny status to only one set of rights without a proscribing the other set. “Both sets of rights should be included as human rights 65 ”. Analogical view was expressed by M. Rader. He writes that human beings must have the ‘instruments’ with which to make free choices and these instruments as the basic socioeconomic rights satisfy the needs for food, clothing, shelter, health, education, among others. “Civil rights cannot be guaranteed if socioeconomic rights are lacking 66 ’. G. Winter holds that : “the meaning of cultural and socioeconomic rights 67 ” are constrained by current c onditions but, nevertheless, 61 Schabas W.A , ‘ Univers al Declaration of Human Rights ’ ( Cambridge University Press , 3rd ed. E dition , 18 April 2013) P. 7 < https://documents.law.yal e.edu/sites/default/fil es/UDHR2013FullText.pdf > accessed 20 May 2 023. 62 Rosenbaum S.A , ‘ The phil osophy of human rights ’ in International perspectives ( West port: Gr eenwood Pr ess, 1980 ) P. 30. 63 Downie R.S , ‘ Social equality ’ in ‘T he Phi losophy of Human Rights ’ , in International Perspectives ( edited by Alan S. Rosenbaum ) ( West port: Gree nwood Press , 198 0 ) P .133 . 64 Blackstone W.T , ‘ The Equality and Human Rights ’ in The Monist 52 ( № 4, Oc tober 1968 ) P. 636 - 38; Wa tson D , ‘ Welfare Rights and Human Rights ’ in Journal of Social Policy ( 6, pt. 1 , 1977) P. 31 - 46. 65 R osenbaum A.S , ‘ The philo sophy of human rights ’ In International perspectives ( Praeger Publishers Inc (29 Dec. 198 0) P .30. 66 R osenbaum A.S , ‘ The philo sophy of human rights ’ In International perspectives ( Praeger Publishers Inc (29 Dec. 198 0) P .3 1. 67 Such as those descri bed in Art icle 22 to 27 , Uni versal Declaration of Huma n Rights (adop ted 10 December 1948 UNGA Res 21 7 A(III) (UDHR) . 41 have instrumental priority over political rights. “Firstly, cultural and socioeconomic rights provide the means by which other rights can be realized, and, secondly, that the absence of cultural and socioeconomic rights renders the other rights ineffectual 68 ”. J. Donelly offered another way to approach the question of the status of economic, social, and cultural rights. It is to ask what a life with only civil and political rights would look like. “Without certain minimum economic and social guarantees, a life of dignity is clearly impossible, at least in modern market economies 69 ”. The debates about the priority one group of rights has over another is long-lasting . Some scholars, such as M. Cranston, R.S. Downie, and Machan “will include socio-economic rights in the list of human right along with civil and political rights 70 ”. The famous dictum of the Singaporean leader Lee Kuan Yew that economic and social rights must take precedence over civil and political rights is still well-remembered. A similar statement was made by the Chinese Vice -Foreign M inister at Vienna World Conference on Human Rights. Nevertheless, some agree 71 that only civil and political rights must be counted as human rights. J. Enoch Powell argues “against including social and economic rights in the list of human rights 72 ”, and h e asserts “the next seven points: (1) Rights presuppose the existence of society; (2) Rights entail the exercise of compulsion against those other than the right -holders; (3) Compulsion can be either arbitrary or lawful; (4) No compulsion can be lawful unless it can be uniformly applied, and uniform applicability requires unambiguous statements; (5) Article 5 (1) of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights cannot be so stated; (6) To claim rights to benefits mentioned in Article 25(1) is therefore to endorse arbitrary compulsion; 68 W inter G , ‘ Being Free: Reflection s on America’ s Cultural Revolution ’ (New York: Macmillan and Co., 1970 ) . 69 D onelly J, ‘ Theories of Human Right s ’ in Internationa l Human Rights ( 1993 ) P .28. 70 C ranston M , ‘ Human Rights , Real and Supposed ’ in Political theory and t he Rights of Man (Bloomingston , Indiana University Press 1967) P .47; D ownie R. S , ‘ Roles and Val ues ’ (London: Methuen 1971 ) P .49 ; M achan T.R , ‘ Human Righ ts and Human L iberties: A Radic al Reconsi deration of the Amer ican Pol itical T radition ’ ( Nelson - Hall, Inc; Fir st Editi on , 1 Jan. 1940) P .40 - 41. 71 M. C ranston , R.S. D ownie , and M achan , th ink that civil and p olitical rights are h uman rights. 72 P owell J. E , ‘ Human Rights ’ i n Journal of Medical Ethics ( № 4 1977) P .160 - 162. 48 philosopher Chung-Shu Lo stated that: “The Chinese never claimed human rights or enjoyed the basic rights of man 98 ”, and he explained: “[T]he problem of human rights was seldom discussed by Chinese thinkers of the past, at least in the same way as it was in the West. There was no open declaration of human rights in China, either by individual thinkers or by political constitutions, until this concept was introduced from the West… [However], the idea of human rights developed very early in China, and the right of the people to revolt against oppressive rulers was very early established… A great Confucianist, Mencius (372-289 B.C.), strongly maintained that a government should work for the will of the people. He said: “People are of primary import ance. The State is of less importance. The sovereign is of least importance 99 ”. It is impossible not to agree with the words of the last Chinese philosopher. Today and always the state should serve the people and create favourable conditions for its existence. The same point of view was expressed by Indian political scientist S. V. Puntambekar. He w rote that great Hindi thinkers had “ propounded a code, as it were, of ten essential human freedoms and controls or virtues necessary for good life”: five s ocial freedoms (“freedom from violence, freedom from want, freedom from exploitation, freedom from violation and dishonour and freedom from early death and disease”) and five individual virtues (“absence of intolerance, compassion or fellow-feeling, knowledge, freedom of thought and conscience, and freedom from fear, frustration or despair) 100 ”. The boundaries of the created document were announced by H. Kabir 101 . He said that: “[t]he first and most significant consideration in framing any chapter of human rights … is tha t it must be on a global scale… Days of closed systems of divergent civilizations and, therefore, of divergent conceptions of human rights are gone for good 102 ”. Indeed, the applicability of the document to countries and its geographical “boundaries” cannot be narrowed by just a couple of countries. Since 1945, countries had come to the conclusion of a single, universal human rights instrument at the international level. The work of the Philosophers’ Committee then moved to the UN Commission on Human Rights. At its first session in January 1947, the Commission authorized its members to formulate what it termed “a preliminary draft international bill of human rights”. Later the work was taken over by a formal drafting committee, consisting of members of the Commission from eight states. The Commission on Human Rights comprised 18 members from various political, cultural, and religious backgrounds. Eleanor Roosevelt, the widow of President Franklin D. 98 M aritain J, ‘ Human Rights: Commen ts and I nterpretat ions ’ (London: Winga te,1949) P. 186. 99 M aritain J, ‘ Human Rights: Commen ts and I nterpretat ions ’ (London: Winga te,1949) P. 186. 100 P untambekar S.V , ‘ The Hindi Concept of Human Rights ’, in Human Ri ghts (1973) P .193,19 5. 101 The Bengali Mus lim poet and philosopher. 102 K abir H , ‘ Human Rights: The Islamic tradition and the problems of the World Today ’ in Human Rights ( 1990 ) P. 191. 49 Roosevelt, chaired the Commission. It also included René Cassin of France, who composed the first draft of the declaration; Commission Rapporteur Charles Malik of Lebanon; Vice- Chairman Peng Chung Chang of China 103 and John Humphrey of Canada, Director of the UN’s Human Rights Division 104 . In the process of drafting the Universal Declaration of Human Rights 1948, the Commission encountered at least with three main matrices of the human rights concept: each corresponding to one of three major political camps: ü Western liberalism or the ‘Western’ (First World) approach; ü Socialism 105 , or ‘Socialist’ (Second World); ü Third World ‘ self - determination’ 106 , or the ‘Third World approach’. Firstly, socialism 107 . Karl Marx (1818-1883) 108 was the main ideologist and exponent of the ideas of socialism. He 109 and F. Engels made a significant contribution to the development 103 A. An - Na’i m has po inted ou t that : “O nly representatives of non - West ern count ries in tha t Commi ttee wer e Chang - Peng - Chung of China and Ch arles Ha bib Malik of Lebanon. Both have been e ducated i n American Universi ties, and both reflected their “westernizati on” in the position s they took during their debates ” C lapman A, ‘ Human Rights , a ver y short Introduct ion ’ ( Oxford Un iversity Press 28 Jun. 2007) ). 104 B rown G , ‘ The Universal Declar ation of Human Rights in the 21st Centu ry . A living document in a changing world ’ P .29 < https://www.equalrightstrust .org/ertdocumentbank/Brown - Universal - Declaration - Human - Rights - 2 1C.pdf > accessed 18 May 2023. 105 The mai n theo retical provisions of Marxist socialism are set out b y Marx and En gels in their joint works ‘ The Holy fami ly ’ (1845), ‘ German ideology ’ (1845 - 1846), in the works of Engels ‘ The Positi on of the worki ng class in England ’ (1845), ‘ The Development of sociali sm f rom ut opia to science ’ (1880). The first policy document of the Communist movement was the ‘ Mani festo of the Communi st par ty ’ (Marx, Engels), published in 1848. 106 R osenbaum S.A , ‘ The philosophy of human rights ’ in I nternational perspectives ( Westp ort: Gree nwood Pres s, 1980 ) P .5. 107 J . Donell y wr ote that: “ Mar xism explai ns mo ral belie fs a nd doc trines in terms of class structure and struggle, which ar e d etermined b y the means a nd mode of production. Ra dical behav iorists see human per sonality as the result of conditioning. In both cases, ‘ human nature ’ is the result of historical processes that shape human beings into socially prescribed molds, rather than the reflection of an inherent essence or potential. For adherents of either theory, it is pointless to speak of equal and inalienab le rights he ld by all people simply because they are human ” ( Donelly J, ‘Theor ies of Hu man Rights’ in Inte rnational Human Rights (1993) P.28 ). 108 “His father’s father and brother were successively chief rabbi in the form er bishopric of Trier in the Rhineland, the Marx birth place. Indeed, the family had prov ided Trier with ra bbis since the sev enteenth century . His mother, too, descended from a line of r abbis. Marx’s personal leadership was very much in the style of a Hasidic rabbi, adjusting private lives as much as interpreting the dogma” F elix D, ‘ Meaning ful Marx an d Mar xology. Cri tical Review ’ in A Journa l of Books and Ideas ( Vol. 2, № 4, Fall 1988) P. 83. 109 “His father’s father and brother were successively chief rabbi in the form er bishopric of Trier in the Rhineland, the Marx birth place. Indeed, the family had prov ided Trier with ra bbis since the sev enteenth century . His mother, too, descended from a line of r abbis. Marx’s personal leadership was very much in the style of a Hasidic rabbi, 50 and recognition rights of the second generation such as the right to work, to favorable conditions of work, in particular, the right to fair wages and equal remuneration of equal value, working conditions that meet safety and hygiene rules, the right to rest, the right to form trade unions. These rights were recognized by Soviet Union Constitutions 110111 . S. Lukes published an article ‘Can a Marxist believe in human rights?’, in which “he notes Marx advocated for certain specific rights of man during his life 112 ”. Socialism is a doctrine that em erged withi n the framework of European civilization as its continuation and development and includes scientific, socio-economic and historical justification of human rights. According to this doctrine, the Soviet Union represented the futur e of mankind, where the path lay through the dictatorship of the proletariat and the destruction of world imperialism. It was the society where there was no private property, exploitative classes, national contradictions, where public interests and collectivism were put above personal aspirations, the state completely controlled all spheres of public life. The socialists singled out brotherhood and equality (economic and social). Equality should apply to all, regardless of income and ability. The only way to embody such notions of equality is to allow the state to regulate economic relations in society. The state s hould provide citizens according to their needs, but not what they can get for themselves. Only through a fair state distribution of public goods will citizens be able to realize their potential. The peculiarities of the system dictated the adjusting private lives as much as interpreting the dogma” F elix D, ‘ Meaning ful Marx an d Mar xology. Cri tical Review ’ in A Journal of Books and I deas ( Vol. 2, № 4, Fall 1988) P. 83. 110 Constitut ion of USSR 1936 (adopted 5 December 1936) <htt p://www.hist .msu.ru/ER/Ete xt/cnst1936.ht m> accessed 9 May 2023. 111 The Constitution of the USSR in 1977 differed by diversity and completeness of soci o - economic rights, which it to be classified as follows: 1. Economic rights and obligations, ensuring the material welfare of the Soviet people and their participation in production management: the right to work ( A rticle 40) and the obligation to work in good faith, strictly abide by the labour discipline ( A rticle 60); the right to individua l labour activity based on the personal labour of citizens and their families ( A rticle 17); the right t o participate in t he management of production and affairs of labour coll ectives ( A rticle 8 and 48); the obl igation to prot ect and strengthen sociali st propert y (A rticle 61), not to use it for personal gain and other selfish purposes (part IV A rticle 10); the right of personal property in the public interest (part III of A rticle 13); the right to housing(part II of A rticle 44); the right to material secur ity in old age, in case o f illness, full or partial disability, as well as the loss of the breadwinner ( A rticle 43); the right to state assistance to the family ( A rticle 53). 2. Social and cul tural rights, freedoms and duties that contribute to the spiritual satisfaction of Soviet citizen s: the right to education ( A rticle 45), the obligation for young people to receive secondary education ( A rticle 45); the right to use achievements of culture ( A rticle 46); the duty to take care of the preservation of historical monuments and other cultural values ( Article 68); freedom of scienti fic, technical and artistic creativity ( A rticle 47); 3. Social rights and obligat ions contributing to the phys ical development of Soviet citizens: the right to rest ( A rticle 41); the right to health protection ( A rticle 42); the right to a heal thy environment ( A rticle 18); the duty to protect nat ure, protect i ts wealth ( A rticle 67). Constitution of USSR 1977 < https://www.marxists. org/history/ussr/government/consti tution/1977/ cons titution - ussr - 1977.pdf > acces sed 18 May 2023. 112 L ukes S , ‘ Can a Marxi st believe i n human right s? ’ ( Praxis International, № 1(4), 1982 ) P. 344 ; L ukes S , ‘ Marxism and Mor ality ’ (Oxford: Clarendon Press 1985) P. 70. 51 invariable Soviet priori ties in the field of i nternational protection of human rights: the rights of “masses”, people, classes, nations, groups, social and economic rights 113 . For K. Marx's “ state is always an instrument of class domination to the extent that the struggle within and over the state contributes to the destruction of the state itself 114 ”. For clarity, this theory in two aspects: philosophical and historical is considered below. The philosophically Marxist concept of rights is based on collectivism and warns against what it considers alienating and divisive individualism, which is a fruit of Western liberalism. Access to the economy and well-being is seen as a necessary condition for the effective exercise of civil and political rights, which is the reverse priority of Western liberalism. In addition, Marxists believe that human rights can be considered only within the needs and rights of society. For them, human rights could exist only if the rights of the state were guaranteed, since it was the States that ensured human rights themselves. Marxists also believe that the state, as a representative of s ociety as a whole, has a special responsibility to ensure human rights and economic well-being, which is contrary to the classical liberal i dea that it is an interference that harms freedom. “People will be able to incorporate the cultural and moral values that are available to everyone and to realize their full potential and potential only in a society of economic and social well-being, free from concern for survival 115 ”.The people, once emancipated as “species beings” - and not just as a politically emancipated subjects, as indicated by Marx in “the Jewish question” (1969) 116 , or even as ordinary citizens, identified with the formal freedom that is compatible with the inequality, cultivated liberal ideology, would be free from wage labor carried out under duress; therefore, they could enjoy the free exercise of their labor (discussed in its specific modality) of his own humanity. Moreover, “only then will people be able to create their own history and make their transition from the kingdom of need to the Kingdom of freedom 117118 ”. 113 O stapenko G.S , ‘ Borba SSSR v . OON za sotsi alno - ekonomicheskie prava cheloveka. 1945 – 1977 ’ (Moscow , 1981 ). 114 L. J. M acfarlane state d that: “ Marx ist teach ing a bout the natu re of the cla ss s truggl e is not only theo retica lly alien to the concept of universal human rights, but it s i mplementation by Marxist revolutionaries in the circumstances expected t o prevail is likely to require the deni al of such rights to ever - widening sectio ns of the society ” . M acfarlane L.J, ‘ Mar xist theor y and Human Right s ’ in Go vernment a nd Opposit io n ( Vol. 17, № 4 , Autumn 198 2) P .414. 115 M arx K , E ngels F , ‘ Man ifesto do partido comunis ta. Tradu ção de Marco A urélio Nogue ira e Leandro Konder ’ . ( Petropólis Vozes, 2000 ). 116 M arx K , ‘ On the Jewish Questi o n’ ( The Marx - Engels Read er, New York, W.W. Norton, 2 nd Edition , 1843) P .40 - 46. 117 E ngels F , ‘ Del soci alismo ut opico al social ismo cien tífico ’ in M arx K , E ngels F ‘ Obras escoj idas ’ ( Versión de Editorial Progreso , Cubiert a de César Bobis , Tomo II. Mad rid: E ditori al Ayus o 1975 ). 118 P otyara A , P ereira P, ‘ The Concept of Equality and Well - being in Marx ’ http://www.scielo.br/scielo.php?pid= 52 Historically, “Marxist countries have claimed that they have achieved a level of equality in access to economic resources that does not exist in Western capitalist societies, and this is a source of pride for them. However, the representatives of Western Europe, the United States of America and Latin America indicated that the denial of civil and political rights in those countries was contrary to their proposals for the universal Declaration of human rights (1948) 119 ”. In my point of view advantages of socialism 120 were following features: - The rights so called the “rights of the second generation’s rights were recognized by Soviet Union Constitutions 121122 ”. For example, the Constitution of USSR 1936 placed “the right to work”, enshrined in Article 118, in the first place among the fundamental rights of citizens 123 . The Constitution of the USSR (Stalinist) of 1936 anticipated and predetermined the vector of development of international law and cooperation in this field. The dignity of this S1414 - 49802013000100005&script=sci_arttext&tlng=en > accessed 18 May 2023. 119 J ohnson G , ‘ Develo pment of the Universa l Decla ration of Human Right s ’ (1946 - 1948 ) < http://rl - online .ru/articl es/4 - 03/224.html > accessed 17 May 2 023. 120 In addition, for being informe d about socialism I have interview ed my great grandm other. She is a p erson who had worked as a kitchener i n a collective farm. 121 Consti tution of US SR 1977 <https://www.marxis ts.org/history/ussr/ government/constitution/1977/ constitu tion - ussr - 1977.pdf> accessed 18 May 2023. 122 The Constitution of the USSR in 1977 differed by diversity and completeness of soci o - economic rights, which it to be classified as follows: 1. Economic rights and obligations, ensuring the material welfare of the Soviet people and their participation in production management: the right to work ( A rticle 40) and the obligation to work in good faith, strictly abide by the labour discipline ( A rticle 60); the right to individua l labour activity based on the personal labour of citizens and their families ( A rticle 17); the right t o participate in t he management of production and affairs of labour coll ectives ( A rticle 8 and 48); the obl igation to prot ect and strengthen sociali st propert y (A rticle 61), not to use it for personal gain and other selfish purposes (part IV A rticle 10); the right of personal property in the public interest (part III of A rticle 13); the right to housing(part II of A rticle 44); the right to material secur ity in old age, in case o f illness, full or partial disability, as well as the loss of the breadwinner ( A rticle 43); the right to state assistance to the family ( A rticle 53). 2. Social and cul tural rights, freedoms and duties that contribute to the spiritual satisfaction of Soviet citizen s: the right to education ( A rticle 45), the obligation for young people to receive secondary education ( A rticle 45); the right to use achievements of culture ( A rticle 46); the duty to take care of the preservation of histori cal monuments and ot her cultural values (art .68); freedom of sc ientific, technic al and artistic creativity ( A rticle 47); 3. Social rights and obligations contributing to the physical development of Soviet citizens: the right to rest ( A rticle 41); the right to health protection ( A rticle 42); the right to a heal thy environment ( A rticle 18); the duty to prot ect natur e, protect its wealt h ( A rticle 67). Consti tution of USSR 1977 < https://www.marxists.org/hist ory/ussr/government/constitution/ 1977/ cons titution - ussr - 1977.pdf > accesse d 18 May 2 023. 123 Constitut ion of USSR 1936 (adopt ed 5 Decembe r 1936) <htt p://www.hist .msu.ru/ER/Ete xt/cnst1936.ht m> accessed 9 May 2023. 53 Constitution was Chapter 8, which widely, fully proclaimed the fundamental rights and freedoms of man 124 . The Constitution of the USSR in 1977 differed by diversity and completeness of socio- economic rights, which it to be classified as follows: 1. Economic rights and obligations, ensuring the material welfare of the Soviet people and their participation in production management: the right to work (Article 40) and the obligation to work in good faith, strictly abide by the labour discipline (Art icle 60); the right to individual labour activity based on the personal labour of citizens and their families (Art icle 17); the right to participate in the management of production and affairs of labour collectives (Articles 8 and 48); the obligation to protect and strengthen socialist property (Article 61), not to use it for personal gain and other selfish purposes (Part IV Article 10); the right of personal property in the public interest (Part III of Article 13); the right to housing (Part II of Article 44); the right to material security in old age, in case of illness, full or partial disability, as well as the loss of the breadwinner ( Article 43); the right to state assistance to the family (Article 53). 2. Social and cultural rights, freedoms and duties that contribute to the spiritual satisfaction of Soviet citizens: the right to education (Article 45), the obligation for young people to receive secondary education (Article 45); the right to use achievements of culture (Article 46); the duty to take care of the preservation of historical monuments and other cultural values (Article 68); freedom of scientific, technical and artistic creativity (Article 47); 3. Social rights and obligations contributing to the physical development of Soviet citizens: the right to rest (Article 41); the right to health protection (Article 42); the right to a healthy environment (Article 18); the duty to protect nature, protect its wealth (Article 67) 125 . This fact allowed to speak about the progressive democratic nature of this document, which influenced the constitutional development of the socialist countries and spread the idea of a positivist concept in a significant geopolitical space. The Constitution laid down the legal and ideological foundations for the formation of a universal system of human rights, prepared the world community of States to recognize and recogniz e the value of human rights and, most importantly, the need to create a system of conditions, guarantees, mechanisms for their implementation and protection by the state: - everyone should be taken care of the equal distribution of goods, - it focused on the well-being and benefits of society, - education at school, universities, health and social services were free. It is worth to note that education given within the Soviet Union was considered as the best in the whole world, 124 The Con stitution of USSR 1936 placed ‘ the right to work ’ , enshrined in A rticle 118 (link is external), in the first place among the ‘ fundame ntal rights of citizens ’. Constitution of USSR 1936 (adopted 5 December 19 36) <http://www.his t.msu.ru/ER/Etext/cn st1936.htm> accesse d 9 May 2023. 125 Constitut ion of USSR 1977 < https://www.marxists.org/hist ory/ussr/government/constituti on/1977/ constitution - ussr - 1977.pdf > accessed 18 May 2 023. 54 - reconstructed material and technical base of the national economy, - the USSR became a powerful industrial power (according to various estimates, it occupied the 2nd or 3rd place in the world in terms of industrial production): achieved economic independence of the country; new industries have been created; achieved economic independence of the country, - eliminated unemployment. Unlike the advantages, disadvantages of socialism were followings: ü The government became corrupted. Fo r example, economist Milton Friedman argued that “we all justly complain about the waste, fraud, and inefficiency of the military. Why? Because it is a socialist activity – one that there seems no feasible way to privatize. By extending socialism far beyond the area where it is unavoidable, we have ended up performing essential government functions far less well than is not only possible than was attained earlier. In a poorer and less socialist era, we produced a nationwide network of roads and bridges and subway systems that were the envy of the world. Today we are unable even to maintain them 126 ”; ü the government controlled all spheres of life and all government bodies, including police, courts, schools; ü the government decided what an individual needed and forced she/he to accept it; ü the government responded by overwhelming power; ü the government did not leave to the individual the determination of what constitutes the pursuit of happiness; ü equality eroded away at individual diversities; For example, Peter Self criticizes the traditional socialist planned economy and argues against pursuing “extreme equality because he believes it requires “strong coercion” and does not allow for “reasonable recognition [for] different individual needs, tastes (for work or leisure) and talents 127 ’; ü all people became slaves of the government leadership, while the latter lived in luxury, the people lived in poverty; ü there was not incentive for the people to be productive as they expected the government to supply everything for their survival; ü political leaders abused authority to their own advantage; ü the government did not allow people to go abroad, except the political top; 126 K antha S.S , ’ On Milto n Friedman, MGR & Anna ism ’ < https ://www.sangam.org /taraki/articles/2006/1 1 - 25_Friedman_MGR.php?uid=2075 > a ccessed 17 May 202 3. 127 “ Extreme equality overlooks the diversit y of individu al talents, tastes and needs, and save in a utopian society of uns elfish indi viduals would entail strong coercion; but even short of this goal, there is the problem of giving reasonable recognition to different individual need s, tastes (for work or leisure ) and talents. It is true therefore that beyond some point the pur suit of equality runs into controversial or contradictory criteria of need or meri t ” G oodin R.E, P ettit P, ‘ A Companion t o Contempora ry Politi cal Philo sophy ’ ( Blackwell Publ ishing 1995 ) P. 339 . 55 ü the government equalized the property and income of people by “dispossession of kulaks” 128 (for example, my great grandfather from father’s side was dispossessed due to having certain number of animals in his farm); ü collective farm workers were deprived their ID (passport). It was aimed to establish limitations of travel (for example, my grandparents could not go out their countryside, in addition, they could not change the job or a place of living); ü the concept of “intensified class struggle as socialism is completed” was introduced 129 . The ruling party-state elite began to intensively cultivate and plant the institution of denunciation. A powerful propaganda apparatus drugged people with the poison of mutual suspicion, a flood of articles in newspapers, books, plays, movies a bout pest contro l, saboteurs, spies. Began mass recruitment of informants by the GPU. An Act of “instruction on the staging of information and information work of district departments” was developed, it details the organization of mass awareness. The objects of the agent of service was: “the workers, the socialist sector division of farmers in the stratum, private sector (excluding kulaks), the kulaks and kulak existing towns, national minorities, the intelligentsia of the city and the village, employees (across all devices), the unemployed, the collective apparatus of the Soviet apparatus, administrative and judicial investigation unit, cooperation, military objects”. Mass denunciation was directly encouraged by the authorities. The 58th Article of the Criminal Code SSSR on state crimes, adopted in 1926, had several paragraphs that provided for criminal punishment “for failure to report 130 ”. Cassin R. charged that it had led to crimes against human rights. Fear has become an excellent breeding ground for political denunciation. Denunciations were written both voluntarily and involuntarily, under the pressure of the investigation. Flourished Mercantile-domestic whistleblowing, when a person wrote a denunciation of a neighbor in the communal apartment, hoping in the event of h is arrest to occupy the vacated dwelling. Some managed, to put it in modern language, “to do business”: Artemov family, consisting of spouses and 5 children, reported a family contract 131 ”. Despite the above shortcomings, including economic, social, and cultural rights into the soviet Constitutions allows to speak about the progressive democratic nature of these documents, which influenced the constitutional development of the socialist countries and 128 Forcibly depriving wealthy peasants using wage labour of all means of production, land and evi cting th em within the regio n (provinc e, Republi c) or be yond, depe nding on the categ ory. 129 It included The Great Purg e or the Great Terror and the system of m assive deflation . 130 UNGA, ‘ 183rd Plenary Meeting ’ (10 December 1 948 ) < https:// www.unmultimedia.org/avlibrary/asset/2057 / 2057239/ > accessed 16 May 2023. 131 I gnatov V .D , ‘ Scamm ers in the history of Russia and the Soviet Union ’ < http://www.e - reading.by/ b ookreader. php/1031408/Ignatov_ - _Donoschiki_v_istorii _Rossii_i_SSSR.html > accessed 12 May 2023 ; G olovanov Y , ‘ For ger father ‘ Katyusha ’ < http://epi zodsspace.airbase.ru/bibl/ogonek/1988/l jeotets.html > accessed 13 May 2023 ; ‘ The fate of child informers ’ < http://back - in - ussr.com/2014/11/sudby - detey - donoschikov.html > accessed 14 May 2 023 ;D ruzhnik ov Y, ‘ Informer 00 1 ’< http://l ib.ru/P ROZA/DRUZHNIKOV/morozow. txt > accessed 15 May 2023; K erber L, ‘ Tupolev sharaga ’ < http://lib.ru/ MEMUA RY/KERBER/tupolewskaya_sharaga.txt > accessed 16 May 2023. 56 spread the idea of a positivist concept in a significant geopolitical space. The Constitution of USSR 1936 132 laid down the legal and ideological foundations for the formation of a universal system of human rights, prepared the world community of States to recognize and recognize the value of human rights and, most importantly, the need to create a system of conditions, guarantees, mechanisms for their implementation and protection by the state. Moreover, the confidence in the future, the absence of unemployment and the provision of universal employment in social production, is one of the main social advantages of socialism 133 . The Soviet Union made a significant contribution to the development and promotion of economic, social and cultural rights. However, Western liberalism supporters foresaw in the socialism a strong threat. According to Frank E. Holman: “we are dealing chiefly with a missionary spirit on the part of economic and social reforms to establish throughout the world their social and economic ideas and in the process, we are risking - definitely risking 134 ”. E. Roosevelt stated: “The doctrine that shall dominate the weak is the doctrine of our enemies -and we reject it 135 ”. B. Hepple states that: “The collectivist, social welfare ideology of the immediate post-war period in which the UDHR was drafted, has increasingly been replaced by a revival of 19th century liberal ideology 136 ”. The last statement is controversial because, at the time of drafting the Universal Declaration on Human rights 1948, there was a confrontation between the East and West doctrines, but not the predominance of one of them, Western liberal ism. It is well known that the life standards of workers in Western countries is very high. This fact can be explained by followings: it is also very important that socio-economic rights which in X IX-XX centuries were defended by Marxists, found their real implementation and a high level of security in countries that we have always called capitalist. There is a paradox situation: the country which swore fidelity to Leninism, appeared in deep economic crisis while other countries rejecting this concept, in practice realized the right to work, to social security, fixed in the international documents at the insistence of USSR. In addition, it should be borne in mind that the requirements for workers’ right protection are still programmatic for many developing countries. In Western countries, the problems of unemployment, fair wages for women and other social problems have not seen fully resolved. 132 Constitut ion of USSR 1936 (ado p ted 5 December 1936) < http://www.hist.msu.ru/ER/Etext/ cnst1936.htm > accessed 9 M ay 2023. 133 B aranova L.Y , L evin A.I , ‘ Polnaya zanyatost ’in Ekonomicheskiy slovar - spravochnik (M oscow 1987 ) P.75 . 134 B aranova L.Y , L evin A.I , ‘ Polnaya zanyatost ’in Ekonomicheskiy slovar - spravochnik (M oscow 1987 ) P.75 . 135 H oopes T, B rinkley D , ‘ FDR an d the Creation of the U.N. ’( New Haven: Yal e Univers ity Press 1997 ) P .108. 136 Hepple B, ‘ Achieving S ocial Right s Through the Prin ciple of Equality ’ ( 10 December 2014 ) P .13 < https://w w w.equalrig htstrust. org/ertd ocumentbank/h epple.pdf > acce ssed 12 May 2023. 57 The opposite of socialism is liberalism, the leading ideological influence in Western thought. It “places the individual and his or her interests at the cent er of social, political and legal theory 137 ”. Americans, leaders of the North Atlantic community, defended the “free world”, “democracy, liberal bourgeois values, private property, and individualism in the messianic-imperial spirit 138 ”.“Liberalism presupposes certain ideas about the origin of social life, in literature these ideas are contractual: every man is sovereign in his natural state; everyone agrees in advance with the terms of the social contract; in the formation of a political society, natural rights to freedom, life and property are exchanged for civil rights; the purpose of government is to secure and advance these civil rights 139 ”. Critics of liberalism were socialists who accused liberalism of inhumanity to the workers. They argued that promises of human rights and universal equality for workers had not been kept. Liberal values w ill be an empty illusion if workers are deprived of t he essentials. Marx believed that if the development of society is determined by the rights of the individual, rather than common goals, it inevitably leads to the power of the strongest. He considered bourgeois “natural rights” to be an expression of the interests of the privileged class – the capitalists. It was important for Marx to show the limited value of so-called universal human rights. Even if the struggle for natural rights had once served to take away privileges from the aristocracy, those rights were now being used to protect capital and property. As K. Marx wrote, “the theory of natural law is an integral part of bourgeois ideology 140 ”. Though “human rights were central to a communist plan to destroy the American way of life 141 ”, however, in the U.S. government’s proposal in 1948 to the Commission on Human Rights, regarding what should be included in the Universal Declaration, was written: “Among the categories of right which, the United States suggests should be considered are the following: 137 Two wor ks of Professor R. U nger provi de a general summary and cri tique of the principles of Liberalism. U nger R , ‘ Knowledge and Politi cs ’ (N ew Yor k, the Free Press 1975) ; U nger R , ‘ Law in modern society ’ ( Simon and Schuster 1977 ). Although they take di vergent positio ns on f undamental issues , the works of J. R awls and R. N ozick are in liberal, individualist traditions. N ozick R , ‘ Anarchy, sta te a nd ut opia ’ ( Blackwell 1974); R awls J , ‘ A theory of Justice ’ ( Harvard Universi ty Press, Belknap Press 1971) ; M urphy C , ‘ Modern Legal Philosophy: The Tension Betwee n Experiential and Abstract Thou ght ’ (1978) Chapter 4 , 241p . 138 M alkov V. L, ‘ Put k imperstvu. Ameri ka v pervo y polovine XX veka ’ (Mosc ow, 2004; S ogrin V.V, ‘ SShA v XX – XXI vekah. Lib eralizm. Demokr atiya. I mperiya ’ (Moscow, 2015 ). 139 L ocke J , ‘ Second Treasure on G overnment ’ (19 60; Hackett Publish ing Company, Indiana polis and Cambridge , 1980 ) ; B arker E , ‘ Social Contract: Essay by Lo cke, Hume and Rousseau ’ ( Oxford Universi ty Press , 1 Jun. 1997 ). 140 Y oung G, ‘ Marx on Bourg eois law ’ (V ol.2, 1979) < https://legal form.files.wordpress.com/2019/05/young - 1979.pdf > accessed 11 May 2023. 141 H evener K.N , ‘ Human Rights Tr eaties, and the Senate: A History of Opposition ’ ( Chapel Hill, Uni versity of North Car olina Pre ss 1990 ) P .16. 64 It is also worth paying attention to the doctrine of fascism and Nazism. What is it? Benito Mussolini said that: “fascism was a «spiritual force» that takes over all the forms of the moral and intellectual life of man, … saturates the will as well the intelligence, … pierces into the depths and makes its home in the heart of the man of action as well as of the thinker, of the artist as well of scientist 182 ”. “The fascist conception [of the] state … [was] for the individual [only] in so far as he coincided with the State, which is the conscience and universal will of man in his historical existence… [Whereas] Liberalism denied the State in the interests of the particular individual; [F]ascism is for liberty…[a]nd for the only liberty which can be the real thing, the liberty of the State and of the individual within the S tate … and [consequently] nothing human or spiritual exists, much less has value, outside the State 183 ”. Philosopher Giovanni Gentile “interpreted this as the state was «one with the personality of the citizen 184 ”. “As the French prosecutor of leading Nazis at the Nuremberg trial put it, the monstrous doctrine [of National Socialism] is that of racism… The individual has no value in himself and is important only as an element of the race… Anyone whose opinions differ from the official doctrine is asocial or unhealthy… National Socialism ends in the absorption of the personality of the citizen into that of the state, and in the denial of any intrinsic value of the human person 185 ”. In drafting the Universal Declaration of Human rights 1948, Mr. Malik, the representative from Lebanon, said that this document “was inspired by opposition to the barbarous doctrines of Nazism and fascism 186 ”. As J . Morsink underlines «the war and the ideology of N ational Socialism as practiced by Adolf Hitler were in themselves enough to convince them of the truth of the rights of the Declaration. They did not need a philosophical argument in addition to the experience of the Holocaust. That experience itself gave them “the confidence and certainly to believe in the truths they enshrined 187 ” in the Declaration, namely that “all human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights 188 ”. 182 M ussolini B , ‘ The Doctrine of Fascism ’ in Political Ideolog ies (New York: MacMillan Publishing Co., 1973) P. 105. 183 M ussolini B , ‘ The Doctrine of Fascism ’ in Political Ideolog ies (New York: MacMillan Publishing Co., 1973) P. 105. 184 M ussolini B , ‘ The Doctrine of Fascism ’ in Political Ideolog ies (New York: MacMillan Publishing Co., 1973) P. 104. 185 C onot R.E , ‘ Justice at Nuremberg ’ (New York: Ha rper and Row Publishers 1983 ) P . 284 - 85 . 186 UNGA, ‘S ummary Report UN Docs. A/C.3/SR. 181 - 183 (1948) at 857. 187 M orsink J , ‘ World War Two and the Universa l Declarat ion ’ in Huma n Rights Quarterl y ( Vol. 15, № 2 , May of 1993 ) P . 358. 188 Article 1, Universal Declaration of Human Right s (adopte d 10 December 1948 UNGA Res 217 A(II I) (UDHR) . 65 Meanwhile, in June 1948, “during the Commission’s final drafting of the relevant Univer sal Declaration of Human Rights articles, progress was stalled for several days while states debated these issues, which the French negotiator Rene Cassin later recalled as among “the most emotionally charged in the [ the Commission’s] work 189 ”. “States ultimately settled on Cassin’s proposal to establish a framework “chapeau” or umbrella provision (ultimately adopted as Article 22) to introduce the provisions on economic and social rights. Representatives of Western liberal democracies were concerned not to dampen private initiative or to give too much power to the state, while the Soviet-bloc representatives maintained that these rights were meaningless without a strong state in charge of health, education, and welfare 190 ”. Cass in urged that : “The Com mission “should follow the example to be found in all constitutions adopted in recent years and should treat those rights separately from the rights of the individual 191 ”. As adopted, the article provided that “[e]veryone … is entitled to realization of the economic, social, and cultural rights enumerated below, in accordance with the organization and resources of each state, through national effort and international cooperation 192 ”. “The General Assembly later adopted the provision w ithout major change 193 ”. In considering Article 22, both the Commission on Human Rights and the General Assembly rejected proposals by the Soviet Union to emphasize the state’s duty to “take all necessary steps, including legislation, to ensure” the implementation of all rights set forth in the Universa l Declaration of Human Rights 194 ”. The Soviet representative maintained that its amendment “contained not only the idea that the State and society must ensure to the individual the realizat ion of social, economic and cultural rights, but also the idea that t hey must give him 189 C assin R , ‘ La Pensee et l’acti on ’ in Hu man Rights ( 1972 ) P .111. 190 Cassin R, ‘La Pensee e t l’action ’ in Human Rig hts (1972) P . 187. 191 ECOSOS, ‘S ummary R eport on the seve nty - second meeting ’ ‘S tatement of Cassin R, Re presentative of France ) UN Doc. E /CN.4/SR.72 (1948) P. 4. 192 The proposal, as amended, was adopted by a vote of 12 - 0, with 5 abstentions ( ECOSOS, ‘S ummary R eport on the seve nty - second meeting ’ UN Doc. E/CN.4/ SR.72 (1948) P. 10 ) . Cassi n’s in itial proposal stated that: “Everyone as a member of society has the economic, s ocial and cultural rights enumerated below, whose fulfilment should be made possible in every State separately or by international col laboration” ( ECOSOS, ‘S umm ary Report on the sixty - seventh mee tings’ Doc . E /CN.4 /SR.67 (1948) P.2 ) Egy pt ( Loutfli O. ) suggested adding the phrase “in accordance with the economic and social possibilities” of each state , while Mrs. Roosevelt proposed “in accordance with the social and economic system and political organization” ( ECOSOS, ‘ Summary Repor t on the seventy - first meeting ’ UN Doc. E /CN.4/SR.71 (1948) P.3). 193 UNGA, ‘ International Children's Emerge ncy Fund ’ UN Doc. A/C./SR. 138 (1948) P.5 12 - 514. 194 The USSR amendment is conta ined in (ECOSOS , ‘ Report o n the th ird session ’ UN Doc . E/800 (1948) P. 43). It was reje cted by v otes of 1 1 - 4 and 10 - 4 (with 1 abstention) in the Commission (ECOS OS, ‘S ummary R eport on the seve nty - second meeting ’ UN Doc. E/CN.4/SR. 72 (1948) P. 9- 10 ) and by 27 - 8, wit h 8 abstentions, in the Third Committee ( UNGA, ‘ International Children's Emergency Fund ’ , ‘ Stateme nt of R oosevelt E , R epresentative of the United St ates ) UN Doc. A/ C./SR.138 (1948) P.5 12). 66 a real opportunity to enjoy all of the other rights set forth in the declaration 195 ”. Eleanor Roosevelt, in opposing the amendment, stressed that the formulation contained in Article 22 was a “compromise between the views of certain Governments, which were anxious that the State should give special recognition to the economic, s ocial and cultural rights of the individual and the views of Governments, such as the United States Government, which considered that the obligation of each State should not be specified 196 ”. She emphasized that for the United States, “the essential elements of Article [22] were the two phrases ‘through national effort and international co-operation’ and “in accordance with the organization and resources of each State 197 ”. Thus, the Universal Declaration of Human Rights of 1948 includes economic, social, and cultural rights in Articles 22 to 27 that refer to what ought to be done for people. To sum up, the process of preparing the Universal Declaration on Human Rights has not been easy. The philosophical doctrines underlying this document have been advocated by the countries concerned. Preparation of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights 1948 is the struggle of East and West, the struggle of Western liberalism and Marxism, the struggle for world domination. The question arises why countries have established a sign of universality, indivisibility of rights only formally? Can we assert confidently that the drafters of the Universal Declaration on Human Rights were not “blinded by their own ambitions ? As C. Tomuschat says that “They did not realize that the existing cultural differences between the many nations and other ethnic as well as linguistic communities of this globe 198 ”. Y. Khushalani thinks that “evidently, there cannot be universal understanding of human rights” 199 . Mrs Eleanor Roosevelt, the United States representative to the General Assembly and Chairman of the United Nations Commission on Human Rights during the drafting of the Universal Declara tion on Human Rights, noted that this document “is not, and does not purport to be a statement of law or of legal obligation” but “a common standard of achievement for all peoples of all nations 200 ”. However, this document serves as a normative basis for constitutions because many provisions of the Universal Declaration on Human Rights are included in modern constitutions. Some scholars 201 note that it is a basis for assess the legal systems, policies and practices of all 195 UNGA, ‘ Draft int ernational declaratio n of human rights (E/800) cont inued ’ ‘S tate ment of P avlov A , representative of the United State s’ UN Doc. A./C. 3/SR.137 ( 1948 ) , P . 498 - 99. 196 UNGA, ‘ International Children's Emergency Fund ’, ‘ Stateme nt of R oosevelt E , R epresentative of the United States ) UN Doc. A/C./SR.1 38 (1948) P. 501. 197 UNGA, ‘ International Children's Emergency Fund ’, ‘ Stateme nt of R oosevelt E , R epresentative of the United States ) UN Doc. A/C./SR.1 38 (1948) P.501. 198 T omuchat C , ‘ Human ri ghts in a World - Wide Framewo rk So me Cur rent Issue s ’< https://www.zaoerv.de/45_ 1985/45_1985_3_k_547_584.pdf P. 548 > accessed 4 May 2023. 199 K hushalani Y , ‘ Human Rights in Asia and Africa ’ in 4 HRLJ (1 983 ) P .405. 200 19 US Department of State Bull etin 751 ( 1948). 201 OHCHR , ‘ Human Right s and Constitution maki ng ’ HR/PUB/17/5 (New York and Geneva , 2018) < https://w w w. .ohchr.org/D ocuments/ Publications/Constituti on Mak ing_RU. pdf > accessed 1 April 2023. 67 States under the universal periodic reviews. Three doctrines as western liberalism, socialism, third world approach contributed the inclusion of economic, social and cultural rights in the Universal Declaration on Human Rights 1948. The combination of ide as of three doctrines has made it possible to consolidate in the Universal Declaration on Human rights 1948 the maximum possible list of human rights and freedoms, becoming a universal standard for States with different political systems, adhering to different ideological, religious, cultural directions in their development. The work of the Soviet Union and Latin American countries in implementing second-generation rights was significant. The debate between the West and the East about the supremacy of a particular category of rights is still being discussed in the scientific literature. The question arises why, after the establishment of equality of rights and their unified nature, the debate does not subside? Does this mean that is it still valid this distinction? Why are civil and political rights better protected? Can we still maintain that states’ obligations are different as regards both sets of rights? In order to answer some of these questions let us move to an epigraph devoted to the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights and describe reasons of its adoption, obligations. 1.4. T he International Covenant on Economic, Social, and Cultural Rights: reasons for adoption This paragraph analyses the reasons for the adoption of the two acts, as well as the reasons that make it clear to us that the nature of the two categories of rights is the same, and again it is time to return to the issue of the unreasonableness of the adoption of the two Covenants of 1966. Unreasonableness is to maintain the distinction, but it has a reason (political and ideological) by the time of its redaction. The work of the Commission and its methods are examined. It is important to consider the general characteristics of Article 2 of the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights of 1966, namely the obligations of States and its comparison with a similar article of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights of 1966. The difference in obligations arising from the two covenants leads to unequal protection of the two categories of rights. Today the rights of the first generation are better protected than the rights of the second generation. To transform the provisions of the U niversal Declaration on Human Rights into legally binding obligations, the United Nations adopted two separate covenants. In 1950, by Resolution of 421 E(V) of December 4, 1950, the United Nations General Assembly “decided (35 voted to 9, with 7 abstentions) to include economic, social, and cultural rights into the single 68 international covenant 202203 ”. At the Fifth session the Assembly specially directed the Commission to “include in the draft Covenant a clear expression of economic, social and cultural rights 204 ”. Under the pressure from the Western - dominated Commission, the United Nations General Assembly decided that there should be two separate covenants (by 27 votes to 20, with 3 abstentions) 205 dealing with the two categories of rights, but they should contain “as many similar provisions as possible and be approved and ope ned for signature simult aneously, in order to emphasise the unity of purpose 206 ” .This limited view of the nature of human righ ts and duties “might be justified by political, ideological and economic circumstances in our present circumstances 207 ”. However, M. Sepulveda Carmona writes that : “in retrospect we may argue that the majority of the Covenants’ drafters were mistaken in their belief that the two clusters of rights and the obligations that they impose were different in nature 208 ”. The argument of M. Sepulveda seems to be true because if we turn to the preamble of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights of 1948, we will see that countries have declared the indivisibility, universality, equality, and inalienability of human rights. 202 UNGA, ‘ Draft Internat ional Cove nant on Human Rig hts and measures of implementat ion : future w ork of Commission on Hum an Rights ’ 421(V) ( 4 December 1950 ) ; R obertson R , ‘Measu ring State Compliance w ith the obligation to Devote t he Maximum Availa ble Re sources to Realizing Economic, Social and Cultural Rights ’ in Human Righ ts Quarte rly ( 1994 ) P .1 6. 203 UNGA, ‘ Draft International Covenants on Human Rights and measures of implementation : future work for the Commission on Human Rights ’ UN Do c. A/PV.317( 1950) P .564, para.1 62. 204 UNGA, ‘Draft Internatio nal Covenants on Human Rights and measures of implementa tion : future work for the Commission on Human Rights ’ A/ Res . 421 E(V), 1950 U.N.Y.B. 529 - 31 (4 Decem ber 1950). 205 UNGA, ‘ Prep aration of two D raft International Covenants on Hum an Rights ’ A/RES .543(VI) (5 Fe bruary 1952) P .36. 206 U NGA, ‘ Draft In ternationa l Covenants on Human Righ ts: annotation ’ UN D oc. A/2929 ( 1 July 1955) para.7. 207 Sepulveda M.C. explains that: “ T he Post - War period, the Cold War and the existence of a social block influenced th e drafting of the Covenants. While today the economic and political context is totally different, there are new obstacles to the enjoyment of these r ights, such as those arising from globalization, st ructural adjustment programs, the forei gn debt of developing countries and the enormous inequalities in t he dist ribution of wealth ’ S epulveda M.C , ‘ The Nature of obl igations under t he International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights ’ in Intersentia ( 2003 ) P. 115 - 116 ; OHCHR, ‘ The reali zation o f economic , soci al and cultural rights : final report / submitted by Türk D , Special Rapporteur ’ E/CN.4/Sub.2/1992/16 ( 3 July 1992 ) para .38 - 138 ; E COSO S, ‘T he realization of economic, s ocial and cultural ri ghts ; The relation ship between t he enjoyment o f human right s, in particular economic, social , and cultural rights, and income distribution ’ in ‘ Final report pr epared by Mr Bengoa J , Special Ra pporteur ) 1/ E/CN.4/Sub.2/1997/9 ( 30 June 1997 ). 208 S epulveda M.C , ‘ The Nature of obligations under the Internationa l Coven ant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights ’ in Intersentia ( 2003 ) P.1 15. 69 It seems interesting to present the reasons formulated by C. Scott, for which two international covenants were adopted, and analyze them: 1) Implementation – based reasons. For example, Western delegations maintained that judicial or juridical implementation of economic, social, and cultural rights was both inappropriate and impracticable. Judging from the discussions that have taken place in the United Nations, several Western Governments were not willing to sign the United Nations Covenant because it included rights the implementation of which could not be expected on a world-wide basis. In fact, this argument is the continued disregard by the West of the value of economic, social, and cultural rights. Since the development of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights of 1948, the West has denied these rights and the possibility of their protection. 2) Ideological or political reasons. According to the Committee, “the Cold War […] situated much of the general human rights debate in a context of ideological controversy ; t his affected economic, s ocial, and cultural rights since these were often portrayed falseyas being solely the concern of either the Communist countries or a handful of developing countries 209 ”. Soviet-bloc states continued to insist that the state was bound to “guarantee” economic, social, and cultural rights to its citizens “unequivocally” 210 . They charged those Western proposals “consisted of empty declarations of principle which would have no binding force on signatory governments 211 ”. However, M. Sorensen, the Danish representative, asserted that “[n]ot all governments were partisans of the socialist solution, and it was essential to recognize that each must be free to select the policy appropriate to its own national requirements and conditions 212 ”. D.J. Whelan and J. Donelly wrote that: “In fact, the understanding of economic and social rights as directive rather than justiciable was shared by all states [at the time of drafting the International Covenant on Economic, Social, and Cultural Rights]. “No state, Western or non- western, seriously proposed – in the sense of being willing to adopt as a matter of enforceable 209 CESCR , ‘ General Comment № 5’ in ‘ Per sons with Disabiliti es ’ E/1995/22E./1995/2 2 , Annex V ( 9 December 1994 ) para.7. 210 D enni s M , S tewar t D, ‘ Justiciability of Economic, Social, and Cu ltural Rights: Should There Be a International Complaints Mecha nism to Adjudicate the Rig hts to Food, Water, Housing , and Health? ’ in 98 Ameri can Journal of International Law , (2004) P .2 18. 211 E COSOS, ‘ Summary Record of the tw o hund red and sixth meeting ’ ( State ment of M orozov P , R epresentative of USSR ) UN Doc. E./CN.4/ SR.206 ( 30 April 1951) at 5. 212 ECOSOS, ‘ Summary Reco rd of the two hundred and seventh meeting ’ ( Statement of S orensen M , R epresentative of Denmark ) UN Doc. E/CN.4/SR.207 ( 2 May 1951 ) at 10 - 11 ; ECOSOS, ‘S ummary R ecord of the 236th meeting (R oos evelt E , Statement ) UN Doc. E/CN.4/SR.23 6 ( 10 Ma y 1951 ) at 5 ; E COSOS, ‘Sum mary Record of the tw o hund red and sixth meeting ’( State ment of W hitlam H.F , R epresentative of Australia, Statement ) UN Doc. E ./CN.4/ SR.206 ( 30 April 1951) at 22. 70 national law – treating economic, social, and cultural rights as matters of immediate rather than progressive realization 213 ”. It seems that the approach of D. J Whelan and J. Donelly is wrong because, since economic, social, and cultural rights were not only upheld by the Soviet Union, but also by Latin American countries. The Latin American and communist states “pressed the right to food, clothing, medical care, and shelter, were strongly supported by the Asian and Arab delegations 214 ”. Recognition of the right to clothing was granted on the direct initiative of the Philippines and China. Kayaly proposed the inclusion of “social justice” as embodied in the Islamic welfare system of Zakat, in the draft text. The measure failed, but “it indicated his support for redistributive social security- and his attempt to find a meaningful cross-cultural eq uivalent for European and American mechanisms 215 ”. The Iranian delegate, G. Ghani, openly advocated any prioritization of social development ahead of civil and political rights. 3) Pragmatic reasons 216 , “including: (i) The concern that the world community was expecting quick results and that devoting the requisite attention to economic rights would produce too great a delay, (ii) the related concern that the articles on economic rights drafted to that point needed considerable reworking, whereas political were, for the most part, already expressed satisfactorily, (iii) the reminder that any covenant had to be generally accepted to most of the United Nations members, so it could be ratified and enter into force, (iv) the concern that the work of specialised agencies, notably the International Labour Organization, might be overlapped and duplicated if economic rights were included, and 213 W helan D.J , D onelly J , ‘ The West, Economic and Soc ial Right s, and the Global Human Rights Regime: Sett ing the Record Straig ht ’ in Human Right s Qua rterly ( Vol.29, 2007 ) P.90 8. 214 W altz S, ‘ Reclaiming and Rebuildi ng the Hist ory of the Univer sal De claration of Human Rights ’ in Third World Quarterl y ( № 3, 2002 ) P. 444. 215 M orsink J , ‘ Universal Declarat ion of Human Rights: Origins, Drafting , and In te nt ’ (University of Pennsylvania Press 1999 ) P. 204 - 20 7 ; G len don M.A , ‘ A World Made New: Ele anor Roosevelt and the Universal Declaration of Human Right s ’ (New Yo rk: Random House 2001) P. 157. 216 S cott C , ‘ The int erdependence and permeabilit y of human r ights norms: towards a partial f usion of the International Covenants on H uman Rights ’ in Osgoode Hal l Law Jour nal ( Ottawa, Cana da , Vol.27, 1989 ) P .79 4- 79 5. 71 (v) the view that two instruments were desirable because virtually all states would be willing to sign at least one 217 ”. In this case, I do agree with M. C. Sepulveda who notes that : “many of underlined reasons were incorrect assessments or merely based on short-term political consideration 218 ”. As C. Scott notes that: “Although the three categories of reasons are not water light and were often invoked at the same time, after the Cold War, the so-called “political and ideological” reasons are no longer valid and “pragmatic reasons” can also be factored out because, for the most part, those reasons were subordinated to the “implementation” arguments and were coloured by politics 219 ”. M.C. Sepulveda states that: “The drafters generally saw economic, social, and cultural rights as requiring merely positive State actions they assumed that they are dependent on socio-economic conditions and therefore that their implementation was necessarily gradual 220 ”. As Jhabvala mentions, “for while the implementation of civil and political rights was considered as having been accomplished once they had been established on paper, a very different standard – real enjoyment- was set up for evaluation of the implementation of economic, social and cultural rights” 221 . It seems that the drafters of the two international covenan ts did not consider the universal, uniform nature of these rights, but supported the Western countries. 1.5. Unified nature of two categories of human rights under seven criteria This paragraph aims to expose the myth that two generations of rights are different by introducing the following criteria. There are several questions for this paragraph to answer: Do negative obligations arise from the rights of the second generation? Are second generation rights accurate? Do all second-generation rights require a lot of resources? Why can not second- generation rights be implemented immediately? Why do many authors believe that due to the lack of characteristics inherent in the rights of the first generation, the rights of the second 217 S cott C , ‘ The int erdependence and permeabilit y of human r ights norms: towards a partial f usion of the International Covenants on H uman Rights ’ in Osgoode Hal l Law Jour nal ( Ottawa, Cana da , Vol.27, 1989 ) P .795 - 796. 218 S epulveda M.C , ‘ The Nature of obligations under the Internationa l Coven ant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights ’ in Intersentia ( 2003 ) P. 118; CHR, ‘ Report of the thirty - fourth Session ’ E./1978/38 (1978) 219 S epulveda M.C , ‘ The Nature of obligations under the Internationa l Coven ant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights ’ in Intersentia ( 2003 ) P.1 17. 220 S epulveda M.C , ‘ The Nature of obligations under the Internationa l Coven ant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights ’ in Intersentia ( 2003 ) P . 1 20. 221 J habvala F, ‘ On human rig hts and the socio - economic context ’, in Human Rig hts Quarterly ( Vol. 7, № 4 , 1985) P .163. 72 generation cannot be protected in court? Do civil and political rights have the characteristics of second-generation rights? The debate over the nature of two groups of human rights (civil and political rights; economic, social, and cultural rights) has been going on for a long time. This thesis holds the view of a group of authors who believe that both groups of human right s have a unified nature. As evidence, there are a focus on the following seven criteria of state obligations: i. Positive and negative state obligations I t was firstly considered that civil, political rights and economic, social, and cultural rights require negative and positive obligations respectively. M.C. Sepulveda used to show the variety of duties in the following Figure 222 : Continuum of rights and duties As S. Rubin puts it, “when one discusses civil and political rights, one is generally talking about restrai nts on governmental action, not prescriptions for such action … [it] is e asier to tell governments that they shall not throw persons in jail without a fair trial than they shall guarantee even a minimal but sufficient standard of living 223 ”. The implementation of rights contained in the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights of 1966, for instance, Article 14, 25, 23(2) require the gradual removal of obstacles to their full implementation. However, some civil and political rights directly require positive actions on the part of the duty-holder (for instance, Article 9(2), 14(3) of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights) and some economic, social, and cultural rights directly impose a negative obligation (duty of non- interference). For example, “the right to food includes the right for everyone to procure their own food supply without interference 224 ”,“the right to housing implies the right for an 222 S epulveda M.C , ‘ The Nature of obligations under the Internationa l Coven ant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights ’ in Intersentia ( 2003 ) P.1 56. 223 R ubin S , ‘ Economic and Soci al Rights and the New Inter national Economic Order , Add ress Before the American Soc iety of Inter national Law ’ in S chwarz H, ‘ Do Eco nomic and Social Rights Belong i n a Constituti on? ’ in American Univer sity Journal of Internati onal Law and Po licy (1995) P . 10, 1233, 1233 . 224 E ide A , ‘ The right to an adequate standard of living including the right to food’ in Economic, social, and Cultural rights: a t extbook ( Mart inus Ni jhoff Publi shers, 1st e dition , Dordr echt , 1995 ). Passive state role, negative obligations Active State role, positive obligations 73 individual not to be a victim of forced eviction (Article 10 of the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural rights); the right on trade union freedoms (Article 8 of the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural rights); the right to work covers the individual’s right to choose his/her own work and also requires the State to abstain from measures that would increase unemployment and the right to adequate health implies the obligation to avoid interference with the provision of health care 225 ”. As several commentators note, “the right to education implies the freedom to establish educational, academic institutions 226 ”. The academic literature shows that : “Positive and negative duties are a part of normative requirement of both sorts of rights 227 ”. As H. Shue notes, attempting to clarify every right as either fatly negative or positive, is an “artificial, simplistic and arid exercise 228 ”. The Human Rights Committee affirmed that: “When interpreting Article 2 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights the legal obligation under this Covenant is both positive and negative in nature 229 ”.Equally, the Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights explicitly stated in its Concluding Observations and General Comments that: “Economic, Social, and Cultural rights carry negative obligations 230 ”.A positive/negative distinction between two sorts of rights cannot be made and the difference in nature between them needs to be reappraised. Moreover, “courts have generally found the state action/inaction dichotomy extremely problematic, in part because most examples of ‘inaction’ can be recast as examples of action 231 ”. Agreeing that economic, social, and cultural rights also require negative obligations, there is the following problem to face. Developing negative obligations arising from socio-economic rights can create a barrier for the most affected people from losing their existing ability to meet 225 T oebes B, ‘ The right to hea lth as a human right i n in ternational law ‘in Intersentia ( Antwerp 1998) P . 312 - 319. 226 OHCHR, ‘ Report of Mr . Mehedi ) EGN.4. Sub.2/199O10 ( 8 July 1999 ) par a. 61 - 73. 227 S epulveda M.C , ‘ The Nature of obligations under the Internationa l Coven ant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights ’ in Intersentia ( 2003 ) P . 1 24. 228 Shue H, ‘Basic Rights: Substance, aff luence a nd US Foreign Poli cy’ (Pr inceton University Press, New Jerse y 1996) P.84. 229 HRC, ‘ General Comment № 31’ in ‘ The nature of the general legal obligation imposed on States Parties to the Covenant ’ CCPR/C/21/ Rev.1/Add.13 ( 26 May 2004) para 6. 230 CESCR , Gener al comment № 7 ’ in ‘ The right to adeq uate housi ng (art. 11 ( 1) of the Covenant ): Forced evictions ’ E/199 8/22 (20 May 1997 ) < https://tbi nternet.ohchr.org/_layouts /15/TreatyBodyExtern al/Download.as p x?symbolno=INT%2fCESCR%2fGEC% 2f6430&Lang=en > accessed 30 March 2023. 231 Vriend v. Al berta [1998] 1 S.C.R. 493 (Su preme Court of Canada ) para. 53. 80 education which had formerly been free of charge would constitute a deliberate retrogressive measure ; t o justify such retrogressive measures, a state party would have to demonstrate that they have only been adopted after “the most careful consideration of all the alternatives” and can be “justified by reference to the totality of the rights provided for in the Covenant and in the context of the full use of the maximum available resources 262 ”. The Committee on Economic, Social, and Cultur al Rights has noted that, “to assess whether a retrogressive measure follows the obligations the International Covenant on Economic, Soc ial , and Cultural Rights imposes, it would look at whether: - there was reasonable justification for the action; - there was genuine participation of affected groups in examining the proposed measures and alternatives; - the measures were directly or indirectly discriminatory; - the measures would have a sustained impact on the realization of rights, an unreasonable impact on acquired rights, or whether an individual or group would be deprived of access to the minimum essential level of economic, social, and cultural rights; - whether there was a national-level independent review of the measures 263 ”. According to the Committee, “if a state uses ‘resource constraints’ to justify a retrogressive measure, it will assess the situation considering, inter alia, the country’s development level; the alleged breach’s severity, in particular whether it impinges upon ‘the minimum core content of the Covenant’; the country’s current economic situation and whether it was experiencing a recession; the existence of other serious claims on the State Party’s limited resources; whether the State Party had sought to identify low-cost options; and whether the State Party had sought international cooperation and assistance or rejected offers of resources without sufficient reason 264 ”. Sess ion of the Com mittee on Eco nomic, Social and Cu ltural Rights ) E/C.12/1999/10 ( 8 December 1999 ) para. 45 ; CESCR , ‘ General Comment № 14 ’ in ‘ The Right to the Highest At tainable Stan dard of Health (Art. 12) (a dopted at the t wenty - second Sessio n of the Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Right s E/C.12/2000/4 ( 11 August 2 000 ) para. 3 2. 262 CESCR , ‘ General Comment № 3 ’ in ‘The nature of States parties’ obligations’ (Fifth session ) UN Do c. E/1991/23 (1991) p ara.9. 263 CESCR , ‘ General Comment № 19 ’ , in ‘ The right t o so cial security (Article 9)’ (Th irty - ninth sessi on) UN Doc E/C.12/GC/19 (2008) para 42. 264 CESCR , ‘ An evaluation of th e obligation to take steps to the ‘ ma ximum of avail able resou rces ’ under an Optional Prot ocol to the Covenant [on Economi c, S ocial and Cultural Righ ts] ’ E/C.12/2007/ 1 (21 Septe mb er 2007) para . 10; HRC, ‘ Report of the I ndependent Expert on pov erty, Magdalena Sepúlveda Carmona ’ UN Doc A/HRC/17/34 (2011) ; HRC, ‘Report of the Special Rapporteur on poverty, Magdalena Sepúlveda Carmona’ UN Doc A/ HRC/26/28 (2014) ; UNGA, ‘ Report of the Special Rapporteur on wa ter and sani tation, Catarin a de Albuquerq ue’ UN Doc A/66/25 5 (2011) para 13; UNGA, ‘ Report of the Special Rapport eur on healt h, Anand Grover ’ UN Doc A/69/2 99 (2014) ; HRC, ‘Report of the Ind ependent Expe rt on fore ign debt, Juan Pablo Bohoslavsky’ (2016) UN Doc A/H RC/31/60 (201 6) para 66. 81 Moreover, it is worth stressing that the dichotomy between both categories of rights in terms of immediate and progressive obligations stems from confusion between ‘rights’ and ‘goals’. The equation of economic, social, and cultural rights with their related goals is more than just harmless confusion. The equation makes the achievement of respect for the rights seem unrealistic, a pious hope rather than something that can be accomplished. “Equation of rights with goals ends up undermining efforts to respect the rights 265 ”. According to the Committee on Economic, Social, and Cultur al Rights, “the concept of progressive realization constitutes a rec ognition of the fact that full realization of all economic, social and cultural rights will generally not be able to be achieved in a short period of time 266 ”. Sepulveda M.C. states that: “This would be true of the realization of both categories of rights, because [the latter] demand as immediate and progressive obligations which seems not to be completely dependent on the level of resources for the realization of such rights 267 ”. Thus, state obligations are concluded in the following Table 268 : Obligation Immediate Progressive Respect - Prohibition to adopt laws or policies incompatible with the social security standards set forth. - Th e d uty to avoid de priving individuals of the possibility to pay social insurance contributions based on their work and family situation . - The duty to ab stain from depriving individuals of the means of su bsistence. - The du ty to abs tain fr om interfe ring with the private social securi ty systems when they follow the rules set forth by the state and international no rms. - Universal coverage of all nine social security branches. - Obligation to review periodically adopted legislation, make necessary amendments. - Periodic r eview of social security benefits. - Periodic review of state budget and increased revision 265 M aras D , ‘ Economic , s ocial and cultural ri ghts and the role of lawyers : North Ameri can Perspect ives ’ in I. C. J. Review ( № 5 5, 1985) P. 125 - 126. 266 CESCR , ‘ General Comment № 3 ’ in ‘The nature of States parties’ obligations’ (F ifth session ) U.N. Doc. E/1991/23 (1991) para.9. 267 S epulveda M.C , ‘ The Nature of obligations under the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights ’ in Intersentia ( 2003 ) P . 129 , 13 1- 184. 268 K ont -K ontson K , ‘ International State Obligation s in protecting social rights: right to social security ’ ( Univ ersity of Ta rty 2005 ) P .94 - 95. 82 - Obli gation to adopt legisla tion f or t he creation of social security s ystem: 1.selection of social securit y branches. 2.selection of coverage. 3.selection of financing system. 4.regulation of the administration and control. - Adoption of non - discrimination legislation as well as abstaining from discriminatory practices as a state policy in relation to social security. - Adoption of immediate measures towards full enjoyment of righ ts. of allocation for social security. Protect - Ensure, that private parties do not interfere into persons savings and payment of social security contribut ion. - regarding private or combined schemes, control and review the activities of the actors, provide participation of protected persons in controlling private social security associations. - creation of appeals system for claimants of the benefits. - obligation to uphold the principle of non - discrimination in legis lation or to take other measures ensuring equal access to the enjoyment of rights – prevent any direct or indirect discrimination in relat ion to enjoyment of rights. - to protect vulnerable and marginalized grou ps in t he society. - adopt specific programs for the support of the mo st vulnerable groups. 83 Fulfil Facilitate - keep adequate statistics for calculation of social security benefits. - keep adequate populat ion regist ration database, statistic on labour force as well as on receivers of benefits. - create labour policies enabling people to re - enter the labour market. - guarantee stable financing of the social security system. - aim for economy with marginal unoffi cial labour market. Provide - in the cases where social security system requires, provide social security benefits also to people who, for reasons beyond their control, have not fulfilled qualifying requirements (i.e., pensions, minimum health care benefits ). - guarantee provisions of benefits on the agreed level. - support social security measures with social assistance. - meet i ndividual’s specific needs for entering her into the labour market. Promote - disseminate information on social security benefits widely with special attention on marginalized groups and disadvantaged regions. iv. Va gue and precise state obligations Civil and political rights were described in precise terms, while economic, social, and cultural rights – in general terms. At the time of drafting two Covenants there were two schools of thought: first one suggested to write rights in general terms, the second school recommended to write them with the greatest possible precision. The result was that the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights and the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights included rights written in general terms and some were more specifically. Nowadays economic, social, and cultural rights suffer an enormous disadvantage. The vagueness of many of these rights is a consequence of the lack of attention. For example, the ‘right to health’ or the ‘right to housing’ have “no clear meaning, and that they offer no obvious 84 standard by which one can determine whether an act or omission conforms to the right or diverges from it, i.e., whether an act or omission fulfils the right, or violates it 269 ”. In academic discussions, Langford M. thought that: “The claim of vagueness has emphasized the brevity of the articulation of the rights and their programmatic nature 270 ”. Another author, S. Liebenberg has pointed that: “The fact that the content of many social and cultural rights is less well defined than civil and political rights is more a reflection of their exclusion from the processes of adjudication than of their inherent nature 271 ”. Indeed, civil, and political rights “have received far more attention than economic, social, and cultural rights 272 ”. It is often claimed that econom ic, social, and cultural rights are imprecise with regards to the timeline given for state compliance. “The progressive realization requirement imposed by Article 2 of the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights of 1966 contributes to the vagueness of economic, social, and cultural rights since states can never know for certain what their obligations are at any time 273 ”. “For a court to adjudicate on a matter it must be aware of the necessary obligations that the State is required to meet, without a clear demarcation of the content and nature of economic, social, and cultural rights a court will be incapable of rendering a decision 274 ”. Succeeding this is the argument that “the absence of an individual complaint mechanism under of the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights of 1966 has hindered its clarification process as it is well known that the individual complaints procedures under the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights 269 ‘ Court and legal enforcement of economic, social , and cultural rights. Com parative analysis of justiciability ’ in Human Rights an d Ru l e of Law Series № 2 (2008) P. 15 < https://www.refworld.or g/pdfid/4a7840562.pdf > a ccessed 19 Ma rch 2 023. 270 L angford M , ‘ Closing Gaps? An int roduction to t he Opt ional Protoc ol t o the Int ernational Cov enant on Econo mic, Social and Cult ural Rig hts ’ ( Noddisk Ti dsskrift for Menne skerettig heter 2009 ) P .10. 271 L iebenberg S , ‘Social and Economic Rights’ in Con stitutional Law of South Africa (Cape Town 1996 ) P . 41 - 11. 272 S epulveda M.C , ‘ The Nature of obligations under the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights ’ in Intersentia ( 2003 ) P.176. 273 M arcus D, ‘The Norm ative Development of Socioeconomic Rights Through Suprana tional Adjudic ation’ in 42 Stanford Journal of I nternational Law ( 2006 ) P . 53 - 61. 274 I bid . 85 275 and European Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms 276 contribute significantly to the clarification of the scope of their obligations 277 ”. It is well known that the rights require precision because “they fail to outline the nature and extent of obligations imposed on the State 278 ”. For instance, with the right to health, “ a state is obliged to improve all aspects of environmental and industrial hygiene, treatment and control of epidemic, endemic, occupational, and other diseases, yet nowhere in the International Covenant on Economic, Social, and Cultural Rights of 1966 does it outline the programs or laws that will oversee such implementation 279 ”. Moreover, the Committee on Economic, Social, and Cultural Rights in the General Comment № 14 named ‘The right to the highest attainable standard of health (Article 12 of the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights of 1966)’ stated that: “The right to health in all its forms and at all levels contains the following interrelated and essential elements, the precise application of which will depend on the conditions prevailing in a particular State party: (a) Availability. The precise nature of the facilities, goods and services will vary depending on numerous factors, including the State party’s developmental level 280 ”. Another rights, the right to education, specifically refe rs to the requirement that primary education be compulsory and free. Thus, by answering on the question: “Is the lack of accuracy grounds for the recognition of the rights of the second generation are not subject to judicial protection?” Based on the experience of civil and political rights, it can be argued that the sign of inaccuracy of the ri ghts of the second generation cannot serve as a basis for non-consideration in court. Furthermore, Committee on Economic, Social, and Cultural Rights 281 have taken tangible steps to establish the precision and exactness of socio-economic rights and begun to issue series of General 275 International Covenan t on Civil and Political Rights (adopted 16 December 1966, entered into force 23 March 1976) 999 UNTS 171 (ICCPR) . 276 Eu rope an Convention for the Protect ion of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms (Eur opean Convention on Human Rights, as amended) (ECHR) 1950. 277 S epulveda M.C , ‘ The Nature of obligations under the Internationa l Coven ant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights ’ in Intersentia ( 2003 ) P.132 . 278 J heelan N, ‘ The Enforc eability of Socio - Economic Ri ghts ‘in 2 European Human Rights Law Rev iew ( 2007 ) P. 147. 279 International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights ( adopted 16 December 1966 ), entered into force 23 March 1976) 999 UNTC 171 ICESC R < https://www.refworld.org/ docid/3ae6b36c0.html > accessed 16 May 20 23 , Art.12. 280 CESCR , ‘ General Comment № 14 ’ in ‘ The Right to the Hi ghest Att ainable St andard of Health (Art. 12) (a dopted at the t wenty - second Sessio n of the Co mmit tee on E cono mic, S ocial a nd Cul tural R ights E/C.12/2000/4 ( 11 August 2000 ) at 12 and 12(a) . 281 Committee on Economic, Soci al and Cultur al Rights. 86 Comments which elucidate the scope and content of the rights contained in the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights of 1966 282 ”. v. Justiciab le and non-justiciab le state obligations What is justiciability ? The word “justiciability” refers to several meanings: - “an ability to claim a remedy before an independent and impartial body when a violation of a right has occurred or is likely to occur, - an access to mechanisms that guarantee recognized rights, - a legal course of action to enforce them 283 ”. The debate a bout justiciability of social and economic rights is an old and well-worn one. Some countries framed their opinion in next terms: “the main question is not whether economic, social and cultural rights were justiciable, but whether an international human rights committee was the appropriate body to adjudicate upon these rights or if their interpretati on should be left to adjudication at the national level 284 ”. Back to past, the National Human Rights Concern Centre did not support the inclusion of economic, social, and cultural rights in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights of 1948, and recommended that if they were to be included, they not be made “justiciable”. It important to state that denying judicial protection to economic, social, and cultural rights does not simply exclude one category of rights. It excludes a critical dimension of all human rights and has vast implications for the extent to which civil and political rights, such as the right to equality, will be protected by the courts, particularly for the most disadvantaged groups in society. Moreover, concerns about the justiciability of social and economic rights have been based on general assumptions or propositions: i) “that social and economic rights are inherently different from civil and political rights. “Elements of certain economic, social, and cultural rights are less easy to adjudicate 285 ”; ii) that it is not legitimate or appropriate for courts to intrude into the sphere of social and economic policy; 282 CESCR, ‘ Genera l Comments ’< http: //www2.ohchr.org/english/bodies/cescr/comments.ht m > a ccessed 7 May 2023. 283 ‘ Court and legal enforcement of economic, social , and cultural rights. Com parative analysis of justiciability ’ in Human Rig hts and R u l e of Law Series № 2 (2008) P.6 < https://www.refworld.org/pdfid/4a7840562. pdf > a ccessed 19 Ma rch 2 023. 284 Personal communication from representative of a State active in opposi ng the Protocol at the time, April 2001 . 285 ‘ Court and legal enforcement of economic, social , and cultural rights. Com parative analysis of justiciability ’ in Human Rights an d Ru l e of Law Series № 2 (2008) P. 11 < https://www.refworld.or g/pdfid/4a7840562.pdf > a ccessed 19 Ma rch 2 023. 87 iii) that courts or other decision-making bodies lack the capacity to properly adjudicate and enforce social and economic rights; iv) that the courts lack the information required to deal with social and economic rights; v) that the judiciary lacks the necessary expertise, qualification, or experience to deal with social and economic rights issues; “judges may lack the experience and skill to interpret and process specialised information of a financial or policy nature and are, therefore, incapable of adjudicating social and economic rights claims competently 286 ”’ vi) that the courts are incapable of dealing successfully with ‘polycentric’ tasks, such as those entailed by adjudication involving social and economic rights; vii) that the courts lack the necessary tools and remedies to deal effectively with social and economic rights; viii) the curial process is poorly designed, and which is pre-eminently a question for the democratically elected legislature to determine 287 ”. “All these assumptions are highly questionable 288 ”. The most common argument against the justiciability of economic, social, and cultural rights is an allusion to the text of Article 2 of the International Covenant on Economic, Social, and Cultural Rights of 1966. The Committee on Economic, Social, and Cultural Rights regrettably noted that: “In relation to c iv i l a nd politi cal rights, other rights – economic, social, and cultural rights are generally taken for granted that judicial remedies are necessary; this discrepancy is needless either by the nature of the rights or by the relevant Covenant provisions 289 ”. However, in its General Comment № 9 the Committee on Economic, Social, and Cultural Rights overtly affirms that: “The espousal of a rigid classification of economic, social, and cultural rights which positions them, by definition, beyond the reach of courts, would thus be arbitrary and incompatible with the principle that the two sets of human rights ar e indivisible and interdependent 290 ”. It would also radically restrain the competence of the courts to protect the rights of the “most vulnerable and disadvantaged groups in society 291 ”. 286 H orowitz D , ‘ The Courts and Social Policy ’ (Washington DC: The B rookings Institute, 1977) P . 25 - 32. 287 B yrnes A , ‘ Second class right s yet again? Economic, socia l and cultura l rights i n the report of the national human rights consultati on ’ in UNSW Law Journal Volume ( 33(1) 2010 ) P .200. 288 L angford M , N olan A , P orter B, ‘ The Just iciability of Social a nd Economic Rights: An Updat ed Appraisa l ’ in CHRGJ Working Paper ( № 15 ,2009) < http://ssrn.com/abstract=1434944 > ac cessed 8 May 2 023. 289 CESCR , ‘ General Comment № 9’ in ‘ The Domestic Applicati on of the Cov enant ’ (Nineteenth Session ) U.N. Doc. E/C. 12/1998/2 4 (1998) p ara.10. 290 CESCR , ‘ Gene ral Comment № 9' in ‘ The Domestic Appli cation of the Cov enant ’ (Nineteenth Session ) U.N. Doc. E/C. 12/1998/2 4 (1998) para . 10. 291 CESCR , ‘ General Comment № 9' in ‘ The Domes tic Applicati on of the Covenant ’ (Nineteenth Session ) U. N. Doc. E/C. 12/1998/2 4 (1998) para . 10. 88 The Committee on Economic, Social, and Cultural Rights has argued that: “The provision of remedies for alleged violations of the International Covenant on Economic, Social, and Cultural Rights is a corollary of States Parties’ obligation to provide effective prot ection of the rights – and that judicial remedies may sometimes be a necessary or appropriate measure (in addition to other forms of remedy) 292 ”. “The provision of judicial remedies, of course, depends on the rights in question being capable of enforcement by a court (directly applicable) and the Committee on Economic, Social, and Cultural Rights has consistently maintained that aspects of all the rights in the International Covenant on Economic, Social, and Cultural Rights are in fact capable of judicial enforcement 293 ”. It explain ed that: “Among the measures which might be considered appropriate in addition to legislation is the provision of judicial remedies with respect to rights which may in accordance with the national legal system be considered justiciable 294 ”. Existing trend has been to pronounce that the debate is over and that : “economic, social, and cultural rights have been proven to be justiciable 295 ”. For example, the United Nations Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights has made it clear that: “Economic, social, and cultural rights must be subject to effective remedies 296 ”. A Working Group established to consider the Optional Protocol heard from several experts that “social and economic rights must now be agreed to be justiciable 297 ”.It was considered that economic, social and cultural rights are justiciable for some reasons: 292 Human Rights Act 1998 (HRA 1998 ) c 42; Human Rights Act 2004 ( HRA 2 004 ); Charter of Human Rights and Responsibilities Act 2006 . 293 CESCR , ‘ General Comment № 3 ’ in ‘The nature of States parties’ obligations’ (F ifth session ) U.N. Doc. E/1991/23 (1991) where the CESCR had argued that ‘the enjo yment o f th e rig hts r ecognized, with out discrimination, will often be appropriately promoted, in part, throug h the provision of judicial or other ef fective remedies’ and that there are other provisions of the ICESCR – including arts 3, 7(a)(i), 8, 10(3), 13(2)(a), (3) and (4) and 15(3) – ‘which would seem to be capable of immediate application by judicial and oth er organs in many national legal systems. Any s uggestion that the provi sions indicated are i nherently non - self - executing would seem to be difficult to susta in’. 294 CESCR , ‘ General Comment № 3 ’ in ‘The nature of States parties’ obligations’ (F ifth session ) U.N. Doc. E/1991/23 (1991) . 295 L angford M , N olan A , P orter B, ‘ The Just iciability of Social a nd Economic Rights: An Updat ed Appraisa l ’ in CHRGJ Working Paper ( № 15 ,2009) < http://ssrn.com/abstract=1434944 > ac cessed 8 May 2 023. 296 CESCR , ‘ Gene ral Comment № 9' in ‘ The Domestic Appli cation of the Cov enant ’ (Nineteenth Session ) U.N. Doc. E/C. 12/1998/2 4 (1998) para . 2. 297 ECOS OS, ‘ Report of the open - ended working group to consider options regarding t he elaboration of an optional protocol to the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights on i ts first session ’ , U.N. Doc E/CN.4/2004/4 4 (Geneva, 23 February - 5 March 2004) < https:// documents - dds - ny.un.org/doc/UNDOC/ GEN/G 0 4/120/29/PDF/G0412029.pdf?OpenElement > accessed 5 A pril 2023 ; ECOSOS, ‘ Report from the Second Session of the Open - Ended Working Group to consider opt ions for an Optional Protocol to the Internationa l C ovenant on Economic, Soci al and Cultu ral Rights E/CN.4/ 2005/52 (2005). 89 1) it is not genuine rights, but public goals. 2) it involves the adoption of complex political decisions rega rding budgetary and resource allocations. 3) the judiciary does not have the necessary detailed understanding of government spending, so it cannot make decisions to protect this category of rights. Moreover, as Mary Dowell-Jones points out, “much of the academic discussion in the human rights literature and among activists has been dominated by legal analysis of the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights of 1966 obligations and directed to establishing that “e co nomic, social, and cultural rights are real rights and that they are in certain respects capable of judicial enforcement 298 ”.“The result has been a skewed emphasis on the legal measures necessary or appropriate for their implementation with a resulting neglect of the many other policies and strategies necessary to ensure the enjoyment of the rights guaranteed 299 ”. v i. Derogab le and non- derogab le state obligations It is crucial to note that there are no clauses in the United Nations Conventions guaranteeing economic and social rights (the International Covenant on Economic, Social, and Cultural Rights, Convention on the Elimination of all Forms of Discrimination Against Women and other documents) allowing for derogation in a state of emergency. For example, considering the Convention on the Elimination of all Forms of Discri mination Against Women. State s with an adherence to Sharia law that have made significant reservations to this convention have not always made similar reservations to the International Covenant on Economic, Social, and Cultural Rights and must be considered bound by the latter, including its requirement of non- discrimination in the application of Covenant rights. States have made relatively few reservations to the Convention on the Elimination of all Forms of Discrimination Against Women articles relating to economic and social rights 300 ”. The question is whether states can derogate from the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights 1966 in time of armed conflict, war, or natural disasters? The travaux preparatoires of the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights of 1966 “do not reveal any specific discussion on the issue of whether a derogation 298 D owell -J ones M, ‘ Contextuali zing the International C ovenant on Eco nomic, Social an d Cultural Rights: Assessi ng the Eco nomic Defici t ’ (Martinus N ijhoff, 2004) P .4. 299 D owell -J ones M , ‘ Contextualizing the International Covenant on Economic, Social an d Cultura l Right s: Assessi ng the Eco nomic Defici t ’ (Martinus N ijhoff, 2004) P .4. 300 C hinkin C , The protection o f economic, soci al and cult ural rights post - conflict < https://www2.ohchr.org/engli sh/issues/women/docs/Paper_Pro tection_ESCR.pdf > accessed 8 May 2023. 96 The Committee on Economic, Social and Economic Rights in its General Comment № 16 (2005), devoted to the equal right of men and women to the enjoyment of all economic, social, and cultural rights, explain ed the different levels of obligation: ü The obligation to respect requires State parties to “refrain from intervening with a citizen’s right, from discriminatory actions that directly or indirectly result in the denial of the equal right of men and women to their enjoyment of economic, social, and cultural rights 331 ”. “Respecting the right obliges States parties not to adopt, and to repeal laws and rescind, policies, administrative measures and programs that do not conform with the right protected by article 3 332 ”. For example, it is incumbent upon States parties “to take into account the eff ect of apparently gender-neutral laws, policies and programs and to consider whether they could result in a negative impact on the ability of men and women to enjoy their human rights on a basis of equality (para 18) 333 ”. Moreover, the Committee on Economic, Social and Economic Rights in its General Comment № 14 called “T he right to health” clarified that: “State parties must respect the enjoyment of the right health in other countries and to prevent third parties from violating the right in other countries if they are able to influence these third parties by way of legal or political me ans 334 ”. In the issue of obligations of corporations to respect, in the Guiding Principles on Business and Human Rights’ in ‘Implementing the United Nations: Protect, Respect and Remedy’ it is noted in Paragraph 11 that corporations “should respect human rights [,] … mean [ing] that they should avoid infringing on the human rights of others and should address adverse human rights impacts with which they are involved 335 ”.The Guidelines for Multinational Enterprises of the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development includ e provisions that: “Both states and enterprises that lend to sovereign states “shou ld” respect human rights “within the framework of internationally recognized human rights, the international human rights obligations of the countries in which they operate 336 ”. In addition, 331 F riedman S , ‘Human Rights transformed: Posit ive rights and Positive duties’ ( Oxf ord, Oxf ord Unive rsity Pr ess, 2008 ) P . 69. 332 F riedman S , ‘Human Rights transformed: Posit ive rights and Positive duties’ ( Oxf ord, Oxf ord Unive rsity Pr ess, 2008 ) P . 69. 333 CESCR , ‘ General Comment № 16 ’ in ‘ The Equal Right o f Men and Women to the Enj oyment of All Economi c, Social and Cultural Right s (Art . 3 of the Covenant) ’ E/C. 12/2005/4 ( 11 August 2005 ) < https://www.refworld.org /docid/43f3067ae.htm l > accessed 5 May 2023. 334 CESCR , ‘ General Comment № 14 ’ in ‘ The Right to the Hi ghest Att ainable St andard of Health (Art. 12) (a dopted at the t wenty - second Sessio n of the Co mmit tee on E cono mic, S ocial a nd Cul tural R ights E/C.12/2000/4 ( 11 August 2000 ) at 39. 335 HRC , ‘ Guiding Pri nciples on Business a nd Human Rights ’ in ‘ Implementing the United Nations : Protect, Respect a nd Remedy ’ U.N. Doc. A/HRC/17/ 31 (Mar ch 21, 2011) P .13. 336 C ernic J. L, ‘ The 2011 Update of the OECD Gui delines for Multinationa l Enterprise s ’ < http://www.asil.or g /insi 97 J.L. Cernic considered that corporations must not only “undertake due diligence to ensure not only what they comply with human rights obligations…, but also they do everything possible to avoid causing harm 337 ”, and they are also obliged “to prevent and investigate violations, address complaints brought by victims, and potentially provide reparations for harm and injuries caused 338 ”. ü The obligation to protect requires that : “States take measures to prevent third parties from interfering with the enjoyment of human rights 339 ”, to take steps aimed directly at the elimination of prejudices, customary and all other practices that perpetuate the notion of inferiority or superiority of either of the sexes, and stereotyped roles for men and women. States parties’ obligation to protect under Article 3 of the International Covenant on Economic, Social, and Cultural Rights includes, inter alia, the respect and adoption of constitutional and legislative provisions on the equal right of men and women to enjoy all human rights and the prohibition of discrimination of any kind; the adoption of legislation to eliminate discrimination and to prevent third parties from interfering directly or indirectly with the enjoyment of thi s right; the adoption of administrative measures and programs, as well as the establishment of public institutions, agencies and programs to protect women against discrimination(para.19) 340 ”. According to N. Bernaz’s opinion, “A state’s obligation to protect is a duty of conduct and requires the states to adopt protective measures that help prevent human rights violations by its corporations overseas 341 ”. In addition, J. L. Černič add ed that: “The obligation to protect includes employing its expertise and resources ; c orporations have a duty to supervise their supply chains to ensure that their suppliers, distributers, and other business partners also comply with socioeconomic rights 342 ”. ghts/volume/16/issue/4/ 2011 - update - oecd - guidelines - multinati onal - enterprise > accessed 7 May 202 3. 337 C ernic J. L, ‘ State Obligati ons Concerning Indigenous Peoples’ Rights t o their Ancestral Lands: Lex Imperfecta? ’ i n 28 AM. U. INT’L L . REV. (2013) P.11 52. 338 C ernic J. L , ‘ Sovereign Financing and Corporate Responsibility for Economic and Social Rights ’ in Maki ng Sovereign Financing and Human Rights Work , ( Oxfor d ; Portland, Oreg on: Hart Publishing , 2014 ) P.1 52. 339 C hapm an A , R ussell S, ‘Core Obligations: Building a framework for Economic, Social and Cultural rights’ ( Antwerp, Intersen tia, 2002 ) P . 12. 340 CESCR , ‘ Gen eral Comment № 16 ’ in ‘ The Equal Right of Men and Women to the Enjoyment of All Economi c, Social and Cultural Right s (Art . 3 of the Covenant) ’ E/C. 12/2005/4 ( 11 August 2005 ) < https://www.refworld.org /docid/43f3067ae.htm l > accessed 5 May 2023. 341 B ernaz N , ‘ Enhancing Corporate Accountability for Human Rights Violations: Is Extraterrito riality the Magic Potion? ’ in 117 J. OF BUS. ETHICS (2012) P. 493, 494 . 342 HRC , ‘ Guiding Pri nciples on Business a nd Human Rights ’ in ‘ Implementing the United Nations : Protect, Respect a nd Remedy ’ U.N. Doc. A/HRC/17/ 31 (Mar ch 21, 2011) P .13. 98 ü The obligation to fulfil entails states taking positive measures to ensure rights 343 . This obligation is called as a positive obligation. The obligation to fulfil may be further disintegrated into obligations to facilitate, promote, and provide. To comply with these obligations’ states must adopt and implement comprehensive and integrated plans and strategies to ensure realization of civil and political rights, and economic, social, and cultural rights. Such steps should “include: − To make available and accessible appropriate remedies, such as compensation, reparation, restitution, rehabilitation, guarantees of non-repetition, declarations, public apologies, educational programs, and prevention programs; − To establish appropriate venues for redress such as courts and tribunals or administrative mechanisms that are accessible to all based on equality, including the poorest and most disadvantaged and marginalized men and women; − To develop monitoring mechanisms to ensure that the implementation of laws and policies aimed at promoting the equal enjoyment of economic, social, and cultural rights by men and women do not have unintended adverse effects on disadvantaged or marginalized individuals or groups, particularly women and girls; − To design and implement policies and programmes to give long-term effect to the economic, social, and cultural rights of both men and women based on equality. These may include the adoption of temporary special measures to accelerate women’s equal enjoyment of their rights, gender audits, and gender-specific allocation of resources; − To conduct human rights education and training programmes for judges and public officials; − To conduct awareness-raising and training programmes on equality for workers involved in the realization of economic, social, and cultural rights at the grassroots level; − To integrate, in formal and non-formal education, the principle of the equal right of men and women to the enjoyment of economic, social, and cultural rights, and to promote equal participation of men and women, boys and girls, in schools and other education programmes; − To promote equal representation of men and women in public office and decision- making bodies; − To promote equal participation of men and women in development planning, decision- making and in the benefits of development and all programmes related to the realization of economic, social, and cultural rights 344 ”. In relation of corporations, “they must take [] active measures to ensure the availability, accessibility [,] and affordability of [human] rights, work towards abolition of obstacles for the enjoyment of human rights ; a corporation such as Royal Dutch Shell in O goniland, may become the primary holder of an obligation to fulfil economic rights in the context of a failed state where there is no governmental control or no efficient authority to protect [human] rights and 343 Ibid, P .12. 344 CESCR , ‘ Gener al Comment № 16 ’ in ‘ The Equal Ri ght of Men and Women t o t he En joyment of All Economi c, Social and Cultura l Rights (Art. 3 of the Covenant) ’ E/C.12/ 2005/4 ( 11 August 2005 ) < https://www.refworld.org /docid/43f306 7ae.html > accessed 5 May 2023. 99 where corporations were asked to provide public func tions on behalf of the state 345 ”. A corporation “may assume some of these obligations where the state is not present and can no longer guarantee human rights, provided that the corporation has stepped in the role of the state 346 ”. The tripartite system of obligations is concluded in the following Table 347 : Obligation to State Obligation Respect - traditional negative duty of non - interference, - obligation not to take any measures tha t result i n denying or limiting access to the enjoyment of human rights, - application of non - discrimination principle and equal ity. Phrases used: avoid, r espect, refrain from, abstai n, not to t ake measures . Protect - protection against third parties, - adoption of non - discrimination laws, control application, - creation of complaint procedures. Phrased us ed: protect, take mea sures to ensure, a dopt law, control, prevent. Fulfil Facilitate - to take positive measures that enable and assist indi viduals to enjoy the rights Phrases used: ensure, pro - actively engage in, assist, adopt pol icy, plan of actions, measures, to give sufficient recognition, provide for, assist access to. Provide - Recognition of h uman rights in legal systems, 345 C ernic J. L , ‘ Sovereign Financing and Corporate Responsibility for Economic and Social Rights ’ in Maki ng Sovereign Financing and Human Rights Work , ( Oxfor d ; Portland, Oreg on: Hart Publishing , 2014 ) P. 155 - 156 . 346 ‘C orporate liability in a new setting: Shell & The changing legal landscape for the multinational oil ind ustry in the N iger D elta ’ (2012) < https://www.business - humanrights.org/en/latest - news/pdf - corporate - liability - in -a- new - setting - shell - the - changing - leg al - landscape - fo r - the - multinati onal - oil - industry - in - the - niger - delta/ > accessed 6 May 2023. 347 K ont -K ontson K , ‘ International State Obligation s in protecting social rights: right to social security ’ ( Univ ersity of Ta rty 2005 ) P.30. 100 - provide a specifi c r ight when individuals are unable by reasons beyond their control to realise rights themselves by means at their disposal. Phrased used: provide directly, to take steps to ensure, ensure, adopt, recognize, provide aid. Promote - make researche s, - provide information on human rights, - provide training. Phrases pr ovided: researc h, train, ensure dissemina tion of information, give due to attention, take steps to ensure. From the analysis of typology of obligations and from the perspective of justiciability, obligations of states can be seen as described in following Table 348 : Table ‘Relationship between justiciability and tripartite obligations system’ Obligation t o Immediate Progressive Respect Justiciable Protect Some elements might be justiciable Fulfil Facilitate Some elements might be justiciable Usually, non - justiciable Provide Some elements might be justiciable Usually, non - justiciable Promote Non - justiciable Non - justiciable To sum up, the advantage of analysis based on types of State duties imposed by human rights is that “it serves to illustrate the significance and interdependence of human rights and all duties, the equal nature of all human rights and the scope of obligations 349 ”. 348 K ont -K ontson K , ‘ International State Obligation s in protecting social rights: right to social security ’ ( Univ ersity of Ta rty 2005 ) P . 30. 349 S epulveda M.C , ‘ The Nature of obligations under the Internationa l Coven ant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights ’ in Intersentia ( 2003 ) P .169 - 173. 101 1.7. State obligations under Article 2 of the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights: general outlines In 1966, two International Covenants were adopted for two groups of rights which established obligations in respect of these rights. The International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights of 1966 obliges States to guarantee that economic, social, and cultural rights will be exercised without discrimination of any kind and to ensure the equal right of men and women to enjoy these rights. M. Sennyonjo calls the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights of 1966 as the most comprehensive human rights treaty for economic, social, and cultural rights. According to Article 2 of the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights of 1966 350 : “1. Each State Party to the present Covenant undertakes to take steps, individually and through international assistance and co-operation, especially economic and technical, to the maximum of its available resources, with a view to achieving progressively the full realization of the rights recognized in the present Covenant by all appropriate means, including particularly the adoption of legislative measures 351 ”. M. Ssenyonio distinguishes four key human rights obligations arise from Article 2(1) of the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights of 1966 352 namely: (i) the obligation to “take steps … by all appropriate means”, (ii) “achieving progressively the full realization” of economic, social, and cultural rights, (iii) the obligation to utilize “maximum available resources”, (iv) the obligation to seek (or provide) international assistance and co-operation 353 . 350 International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights ( adopted 16 December 1966 ), entered into force 23 March 1976) 999 UNTC 171 ICESC R < https://www.refworld.org/ docid/3ae6b36c0.html > accessed 16 May 20 23 . 351 International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights ( adopted 16 December 1966 ), entered into force 23 March 1976) 999 UNTC 171 ICESC R < https://www.refworld.org/ docid/3ae6b36c0.html > accessed 16 May 20 23 . 352 International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights ( adopted 16 December 1966 ), entered into force 23 March 1976) 999 UNTC 171 ICESC R < https://www.refworld.org/ docid/3ae6b36c0.html > accessed 16 May 20 23 . 353 S senyonjo M , ‘ Reflections on state obligation s with res pect to e conomic, soci al and c ul tural rights in international hum an rights law ’ in T he International Journal of Human Rights ( 15(6) , 2011) P. 969 - 1012 < https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/ful l/10.1080/13642981003719158 > accessed 17 March 2 023. 102 In addition, J.L. Černič considers that: “this provision includes the most common characteristics of economic and social rights, including that their full realization is to be achieved progressively depending on the state’s available financial resources 354 ”. Next two part of Article 2 of the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights of 1966 355 ar e the following: “2. The States Parties to the present Covenant undertake to guarantee that the rights enunciated in the present Covenant will be exercised w ithout discrimination of any kind as to race, colour, sex, language, religion, political or other opinion, national or social origin, property, birth, or other status 356 ”. “3. Developing countries, with due regard to human rights and their national economy, ma y determine to what extent they would guarantee the economic rights recognized in the present Covenant to non-nationals 357 ”. M. Ssenyonio arises several questions regarding these rights: 1). What are the real human rights obligations of states parties to the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights of 1966 358 ? 2). Are such obligations territorially limited or is there scope for extra-territorial obligations? 3). Are states permitted to derogate from (some) economic, social, and cultural rights during emergencies even though the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural 354 C ernic J.L , ‘ Placing Human Rights at the Centre of Sovereign Financing ’ in Making Sovere ign fi nancing and human rights work (2014) P. 155 - 56. 355 International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights ( adopted 16 December 1966 ), entered into force 23 March 1976) 999 UNTC 171 ICESC R < https://www.refworld.org/ docid/3ae6b36c0.html > accessed 16 May 20 23 . 356 International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights ( adopted 16 December 1966 ), entered into force 23 March 1976) 999 UNTC 171 ICESC R < https://www.refworld.org/ docid/3ae6b36c0.html > accessed 16 May 20 23 . 357 International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights ( adopted 16 December 1966 ), entered into force 23 March 1976) 999 UNTC 171 ICESC R < https://www.refworld.org/ docid/3ae6b36c0.html > accessed 16 May 20 23 . 358 International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights ( adopted 16 December 1966 ), entered into force 23 March 1976) 999 UNTC 171 ICESC R < https://www.refworld.org/ docid/3ae6b36c0.html > accessed 16 May 20 23 . 103 Rights of 1966 359 does not contain a derogation clause either permitting or prohibiting derogations? 4). Was it necessary to adopt in 2008 the Optional Protocol to t he International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights to provide for the competence of the committee monitoring the obligations of states parties under the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights of 1966 360 , the Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, to receive and consider communications alleging violations of any of the rights protected by the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights of 1966 361 ? Sh ould states parties to the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights of 1966 362 sign and ratify this Optional Protocol without delay? 363 ”. i. Minimum core obligations: definition, doctrine, and approaches Minimum core obligations are identified as a sub-set of obligations associated with economic, social, and cultural rights that must be fulfilled immediately and in full, by all states. The doctrine of ‘minimum core’ was introduced by the Committee on Economic, Social, and Cultural Rights with the aim of ensuring “the satisfaction of, at the very least, minimum essential levels of each of the rights is incumbent upon every State party 364 ”. It has used the doctrine “to identify a sub-set of demands within the total body of requirements imposed by economic, social, and cultural rights in General Comment issued by the Committee on Economic, Social, and Cultural Rights 365 ”. 359 International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights ( adopted 16 December 1966 ), entered into force 23 March 1976) 999 UNTC 171 ICESC R < https://www.refworld.org/ docid/3ae6b36c0.html > accessed 16 May 20 23 . 360 International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights ( adopted 16 December 1966 ), entered into force 23 March 1976) 999 UNTC 171 ICESC R < https://www.refworld.org/ docid/3ae6b36c0.html > accessed 16 May 20 23 . 361 International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights ( adopted 16 December 1966 ), entered into force 23 March 1976) 999 UNTC 171 ICESC R < https://www.refworld.org/ docid/3ae6b36c0.html > accessed 16 May 20 23 . 362 International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights ( adopted 16 December 1966 ), entered into force 23 March 1976) 999 UNTC 171 ICESC R < https://www.refworld.org/ docid/3ae6b36c0.html > accessed 16 May 20 23 . 363 Ibid. 364 M uller A , ‘ An Analysis of Health - Rel ated Issues in Non - International Armed Conflicts ’ in Michael O’Fla herty and David Harris (eds) The Relationship between Economic , Social and Cultural Rights and Internat ional Humanitar ian Law ( Nottingh am Studies on Human Rig hts 2013). 365 CESCR , ‘ Gene ral Comment № 3 ’ in ‘The nature of States parties’ oblig ations’ (Fifth session), U.N . Doc. E/1991/23 (1991) at annex III, 86 ; CESCR , ‘ Gener al Comment № 14 ’ in ‘ The Right to the Highest Attainable 104 Nowadays the doctrine is under-developed and often misunderstood because its content might be different: - Alston and Scott’s approach seeks to identify a framework that make minimum core obligations workable. They propose it through universal and state specific standards ( ‘two minimum cores’). “The universal standard e vidences the absolute floor of obligations, and this terminology is used in relation to social security policy at the international and national levels 366 ”. “The state -specific obligations element was a key to early developments” at the Committee on Economic, Social, and Cultural Rights 367 . - Takioullah’s approach focuses on the nature and implications of minimum core obligations 368 . He consider ed the four key associated features of minimum core obligations to be: immediacy, special content, non-derogability, and justiciability. The doctrine of ‘minimum core’ s hould provide direction for de velopment policy makers practitioners to establish priority needs in resource - constrained contexts and it may help place some limits on the excessive deployment of ‘progressive realizations’ to excuse poor performance on economic, social, and cultural rights realization or defend inadequate or inappropriate resource allocation with respect to economic, social, and cultural rights 369 ”. According to some accounts, the “minimum core doctrine aims to set a quantitative and qualitative floor of economic, social, and cultural rights that must be immediately realized by the state as a matter of priority 370 ”. - Young’s approach addresses what makes minimum core obligations represent terms of “normative value”. The author explain ed that different bodies sought to establish that minimu m Standard of Heal th ( Art. 12) (a dopted at the t wen ty - second Sessio n of t he Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights E/C.12/2 000/4 ( 11 August 2000 ). 366 CESCR , ‘Social protection floors: an essential element of the right to social security and of the sustainable development goals’ UN Doc . (E/C.12 /2015/1 (15 April 2015) p ar a . 7 - 8. 367 CESCR , ‘Social protection floors: an essential element of the right to social security and of the sustainable development goals’ UN Doc . (E/C.12 /2015/1 (15 April 2015) p ar a . 7 - 8. 368 S hields K , ‘ The Minimum Core Obligation s of Economi c, So cial and Cult ural Rights: The Righ ts t o Healt h and Education ’ ( Univer sity of Edinburgh 2017 ) P.16. 369 S hields K , ‘ The Minimum Core Obligation s of Economi c, So cial and Cult ural Rights: The Righ ts t o Healt h and Education ’ ( Univer sity of Edinburgh 2017 ) P.1 6. 370 Craven M, ‘ Ass essment of the progres s on adju dication of economi c, so cial and cultural righ ts ’ in J. Squires, M. L angford, M., B. and Thiel e (ed s.) The road to a remedy: Current issues in the litigation of economic, so cial and cultural rights ( Aust ralian Hu man Rights Centre and Centre on Housing Ri ghts and Evictions 2005) P. 39. 105 core obligations should be representative of either the essence of the rights or “needs’ at issue 371 ”, “the consensus around the right 372 ”, or “the level of obligations around the right 373 ”. Among different ap proaches, it is important to analyse key associated features of minimum core obligations. They were developed in General Comments (№ 3,13,14 and 22) of the Committee on Economic, Social, and Cultural Rights. The International Commission of Juri sts , the creator of the Maastricht Guidelines on Violations of Economic, Social and Cultural Rights of 1997 would state that : “T he mi nimum core obligations referred in General Comment № 3 “apply irrespective of the availability of resources of the country concerned or any other factors and difficulties (para. 9) 374 ”. This however is not an accurate reading of the Committee's own position. Although it is true that: “Resource scarcity does not relieve States of certain minimum obligations in respect of the implementation of economic, social and cultural rights (para.10) 375 ”, it does facilitate the burden of the S tate asked to justify why it has failed to satisfy the minimum obligations prescribed. In accordance with a view of K. Shields, key associated features of minimum core obligations are: a) “Immediacy. It must be fully satisfied with ‘immediate effect’ by all states, as opposed to belonging to that aspect of a right’s content which may in principle permissibly be fully complied with in the longer-term in accordance with the doctrine of ‘progressive realization 376 ”, b)“Special value. Its justification or content bears some peculiarly intimate relationship to an underlying, high-priority value, such as human dignity or basic needs required for survival 377 ”, 371 Inter - American Co mmission on Human Rights, ‘ Annua l Report 197 9 - 1980 ’ OEA /S er.L/V/II.50, doc. 13 rev. 1, at 2 (1980) < http://www.iachr. org/annual rep/79. 80eng/chap.6.htm > accessed 5 April 2 023. 372 For example , this ap proach is employed by Maastri cht Guid elines on Violat ions of Economic , Social and Cultural Rights 1997. 373 This is t he approach devel oped by Tasioul as in his commissioned rese arch. 374 International Commission of Jurists , ‘ Maastr icht Guideli nes on Viol ations of Ec onomic, Socia l and Cult ural Rights ’ ( 26 January 1997 ) < http://www.refworld.org/doci d/48abd5730.html > accessed 21 March 2023. 375 International Commission of Jurists , ‘ Maastr icht Guideli nes on Viol ations of Ec onomic, Socia l and Cult ural Rights ’ ( 26 January 1997 ) < http://www.refworld.org/doci d/48abd5730.html > accessed 21 March 2023. 376 S hields K , ‘ The Minimum Core Obligation s of Economi c, So cial and Cult ural Rights: The Righ ts t o Healt h and Education ’ ( Univer sity of Edinburgh 2017 ) P .16. 377 S hields K , ‘ The Minimum Core Obligation s of Economi c, So cial and Cult ural Rights: The Righ ts t o Healt h and Education ’ ( Univer sity of Edinburgh 2017 ) P .16. 112 also suggested that states’ investment in employment, education, training and healthcare should be increased fore resource mobilization 412 ”. There are two practical difficulties in applying this requirement to measure state compliance with the full use of maximum available resources. The first is in determining what resources are “available” to a particular state to give effect to the substantive rights under the Covenant. The second difficulty is to determine whether a state has used such available resources to the “maximum”. It has been suggested that the word “available” leaves too much “wiggle room for the state 413 ”. “The availability of resources refers not only to those which are controlled or filtered through the state and other public bodies, but also to the social resources which can be mobilized by the widest possible participation in development, as necessary for the realization by every human being of economic, social and cultural rights 414 ”. Several measures were suggested: 1) “to adopt strong, efficient, and time-framed measures to promote good governance and combat corruption that negatively impacts on the availability of resources 415 ”, 2) “to make appropriate choices in the allocation of the available resources in ways which ensure that the most vulnerable are given priority 416 ”. To fulfil this type of obligation the Com mitte e on Economic, Social, and Cultural Rights developed indicators. For example, one indicator is “to consider the percentage of the national budget allocated to specific rights under the Covenant (such as health, education, housing, and social security) relative to areas outside the Covenant (such as military expenditure 417 or debt-servicing (para.23)) 418 ”. Many resource problems revolve around the misallocation 412 CESC R, ‘ Concl uding Observati ons, Democratic Rep ublic of the Congo ’ E/C. 12/COD/ CO/4 ( 16 December 2009 ) para . 16 - 17. 413 R obertson R , ‘ Measuri ng Stat e Compliance with the obligation to devote the “Maximum Available resources” to Realizing Eco nomic, Social an d Cultural Rights ’ in Human Rights Quaterly 16 (№ 4, 1994 ) P .694. 414 E ide A , ‘ Economic and Social Rights ’ in Human Ri ghts: Concepts . Declara tion on the Right to Development, (GAR 41/128 , 4 December 1986). 415 CESCR, ‘ Concl uding Obser vations , Nig eria ’ UN Doc. E/1999/ 22 (1999) para . 97 and 119; CESCR, ‘ Concluding Observati ons , Cambodia ’ UN Doc. (22 May 2009) pa r a.14; CESCR, ‘ Concluding Observati ons , Democratic Republic of Co ngo ’ UN Doc. E/C.12/COD/ CO/4 (20 November 2009) para.11; CESCR, ‘ Conclu ding Observat ions , Madaga scar ’ UN Doc. E/C.12/MDG/CO/ 2/ (20 Nov ember 2009) para.11. 416 E ide A, ‘ The use of Indicators in the Practice of the Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights ’ in Economic, Soci al and Cultu ral Rights: A Textbook ( Dordrech t: Martin us Nijhoff Pu blishers 2001) P .549. 417 The Committee n oted with regret that more i s spent by the state party on the military and on s erving its debt than on basic social services . CESCR , ‘ Concluding Observations: Senegal ’ UN Doc. E/ C/12/1/Add.62 (24 September 2001) para.23. 418 CESCR, ‘ Concluding Obs e rvations: Philippines ’ UN Doc. E/C.12/1995 /7 (7 Jun e 1995) para.23. 113 of available resources (for example, to purchase expensive weapon systems rather than to invest in primary education or primary or preventive health services (para.21) 419 . v. Obligation to seek international assistance and co -operation Following the interpretation, the Com mitte e on Economic, Social, and Cultural Rights provides that: “international assistance and cooperation obligations are not the same for all states 420 ”. Moreover, the obligation to provide “international assistance and cooperation, especially economic and technical” is “different for developing and developed states (“those in a position to assist”) 421 ”. States Parties to the International Covenant on Economic, Social, and Cultural Rights, the Convention on the Rights of the Child, and the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities that lack the necessary resources for economic, social, and cultural rights realisation are obliged to “actively seek assistance’ to ensure economic, social, and cultural rights assertion on the part of everyone under their jurisdictions (para.271) 422 ”. It should not be understood as encompassing only financial and technical assistance, because “it also includes a responsibility to work actively towards equitable multilateral trading, investment and financial systems that are conducive to the realization of human rights and the elimination of poverty (para.28) 423 ”. Moreover, in the General Comment of the Committee on Eco nomic, Social, and Cultural Rights № 15 ‘The right to water’, “the international cooperation requires State parties to refrain from actions that interfere, directly or indirectly, with the enjoyment of the rights to water in other countries 424 ”. M. Craven states that “although there is clearly an obligation to cooperate internationally, it is not clear whether this means that wealthy States Parties are obliged to provide aid to assist in the realization of the rights in other 419 CESCR, ‘ Concluding Obs e rvations: Philippines ’ UN Doc. E/C.12/1995 /7 (7 Jun e 1995) para.21. 420 S epu lveda C .M, ‘ The oblig ations of ‘inter national assistance and c ooperation’ under t he Inter national Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights. A possible entry point to a hum an rights - based approach to Millennium Development Goal ’ in International Journal on Human Rights (V ol.9, Issue 1, 2 009) P. 86. 421 CESCR , ‘ General Comment № 14 ’ in ‘ The Right to the Hi ghest Att ainable St andard of Health (Art. 12) (a dopted at the t wenty - second Sessio n of the Co mmit tee on E cono mic, S ocial a nd Cul tural R ights E/C.12/2000/4 ( 11 August 2000 ), para 45; CESCR, ‘ General Comment № 15 ' in ‘Right to water’ U.N. Doc. HRI/GE N/1/Rev.6 at 105 (2003) para 38 ; CESCR, ‘Statement on substantive issues arising in the implementation of the interna tiona l covenant on economic, social and cultural rights: poverty and the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights’ E/C. 12/2001/10 (2010) para . 15 – 18. 422 CESCR , ‘ Concluding Observati ons Ukraine ’ E/19 96/22 (1996) ; CESCR, ‘ Concluding observat ions on th e combined s econd to fourth pe riodic reports of Guyana’ E/C.1 2/ GUY/CO/2 - 4 (28 October 2015); CESCR, ‘ Concluding obs ervations o n the init ial report of Uganda ’ E/ C.12/UGA/CO/1 ( 8 Jul y 2015). 423 UNCHR ( H unt P), ‘Report The right of everyone to the enjoyment of the highest attainable standard of physical and mental health ’ UN Doc. E/CN.4/200 4/49/Add.1 (2004). 424 CESCR , ‘ General Comment № 15 ’ in ‘ The Right to Water ’ E/C.12/ 2002/11 (20 January 2003 ) P .31. 114 countries 425 ”. The criteria for doing so “are not yet clearly drawn and seem to be difficult to justify 426 ”. Donor states have “a responsibility not to withdraw critical aid without first giving the recipient state reasonable notice and opportunity to make alternative arrangements (para.113) 427 ”. States providing aid “must refrain from attaching conditions to such aid which are reasonably foreseeable to result in the violation of international human rights law in other states 428 ”. vi. Extraterritorial scope of state obligations under Article 2 of the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights The extraterritorial application of the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights is reflected in several General Comments of the Committee on Economic, Social, and Cultural Rights. General Comment № 1 of the Committee on Economic, Social, and Cultural Rights indicates that: “State parties to the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights of 1966 have to monitor the actual situation with respect to each of the rights on a regular basis and thus be aware of the extent to which the various rights are, or are not, being enjoyed by “all individuals within its territory or under its jurisdiction(para.3) 429 ”. In its Concluding Observations of 1998 on Israel, the Committee on Economic, Social, and Cultural Rights confirmed that: “The State’s obligation under the Covenant apply to all territories and populations under its effective control (para.15, 31) 430 ”. In addition, the International Court of Justice has acknowledged some space for the extraterritorial application of the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights of 1966. In its Advisory Opinion of 9 July 2004, Legal Consequences of the Construction of a Wall in the Occupied Palestinian Territory, the International Court of Justice concluded that: “The International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights of 1966 contains no provision on its scope of application. This may be explicable by the fact that this Covenant guarantees rights which are essentially territorial. However, it is not to be excluded that it applies both to territories over 425 C raven M , ‘ The Inte rnational Co venant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights”, in An Introduction to the International Protection of Hum an Rights: A Textbook ’ ( Abo Akademi Univ ersity, 1999) P . 101 - 23. 426 S senyonjo M , ‘ Reflections on state obligation s with res pect to e conomic, soci al and c ul tural rights in international hum an rights law ’ in T he International Journal of Human Rights ( 15(6) , 2011) P. 969 - 1012 < https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/ful l/10.1080/13642981003719158 > accessed 17 March 2 023. 427 UNCHR, ‘ Report on the right of e veryone to the e njoyment of the h ighest a ttainable s tandard of p hysical and m ental h ealth ’ A/HRC/7/11/Ad d.2 2006) (5 March 2008) . 428 UNGA , ‘ Rainbow Warrio r ( New Zealand v. Franc e ) (1990 ) 82 ILR 449. 429 CESCR, ‘ Gener al Comment № 1 ’ in ‘ Reporting by Stat e Partie s ’ (Third Session ) UN Do c. E/1989 /22, an nex III at 87 (1989) . 430 CESCR, ‘ Concluding Observations . I srael ’ UN Doc. E/C.1 2/1/Add.90 (23 May 1 998) . 115 which a state party has sovereignty and to those over which that state exercise territorial jurisdiction. Thus, Article 14 makes provision for transitional measure in the case of any state which “at the time of becoming a Party, has not been able to secure in its metropolitan territory or other territories under its jurisdiction compulsory primary education, free of charge (para.112) 431 ”. Moreover, on 28 September 2011 the Maastricht Principles on Extraterritorial Obligations of States in Economic, Social and Cultural Rights were issued by 40 international law experts from all regions of the world, including members of international human rights treaty bodies, regional human rights bodies, as well as Special Rapporteurs of the United Nations Human Rights Council. In General Principles it stated that states “have obligations to respect, protect and fulfil human rights, including cultural, economic, rights, within their territories and extraterritorially as well as civil and political rights 432 ”. These obligations are identical with obligations established at universal level. “[A]ll States must take action, separately, and jointly through international cooperation, to fulfil economic, social [,] and cultural rights of persons within their territories and extraterritorially 433 ”. “Such obligations apply under the qualifying condition to fulfil economic, social [,] and cultural rights in its territory to the maximum of its ability 434 ”. This addition confirms the positive nature of econo mic , social, and cultural rights. In paragraph 23 of the Maastricht P rinciples states that: “States must desist from acts omissions that create a real risk of nullifying or impairing the enjoyment of economic, social and cultural rights extraterritorially 435 ”. It is an example of negative obligations of states. It is important to provide differen t ac ademic views of the extraterritorial scope of state obligations. For example, M. Ssenyonjo notes that: “A lthough the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights of 1966 refers to international assistance and co- operation, but it does not make any explicit reference to territory or jurisdiction, it contrasts to 431 ICJ , ‘Report’ in ‘ Legal Conseq uences of the Constructi on of a Wall in th e Occupi ed Pale stinian Territory ’ ( 2004 ) P.4. 432 Maastr icht Pri nciple s on Extra territ orial Obligati ons of Sta tes in th e Area of Econ omic, Social and Cultural Rights ( adopted 28 September 2011 by Maast richt Uni versit y a nd the Inter national Commission of Jurists, a group of exper ts ) P.6 < https://www.fidh.org/IMG/pdf/maastricht - eto - principles - uk_web.pdf > a cces sed 1 M ay 2023 . 433 Maastr icht Pri nciple s on Extra territ orial Obligati ons of Sta tes in th e Area of Econ omic, Social and Cultural Rights ( adopted 28 September 2011 by Maast richt Uni versit y a nd the Inter national Commission of Jurists, a group of exper ts ) P. 8 < https://www.fidh.org/IMG/pdf/maastricht - eto - principles - uk_web.pdf > a cces sed 1 May 2023 . 434 C ernic J. L , ‘ Sovereign Financing and Corporate Responsibility for Economic and Social Rights ’ in Maki ng Sovereign Financing and Human Rights Work , ( Oxfor d ; Portland, Oreg on: Hart Publishing , 2014 ) P. 155 - 156 . 435 Maastr icht Pri nciple s on Extra territ orial Obligati ons of Sta tes in th e Area of Econ omic, Social and Cultural Rights ( adopted 28 September 2011 by Maast richt Uni versit y a nd the Inter national Commission of Jurists, a group of exper ts ) P. 7< https://www.fidh.org/IMG/pdf/maastricht - eto - principl es - uk_web.pdf > a cces sed 1 May 2023 . 116 Article 2 (1) 436 the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights 1966 437 ”.Another author, H. Craven, expressed the position as follows: “Article 2(1) itself is somewhat confused and unsatisfactory provision; the combination of convoluted phraseology and numerous qualifying sub-clauses seems to defy any real sense of obligation. Indeed, it has been read by some as “giving states an almost tota l freedom of choice and action as to how the rights should be implemented 438 ”. Compared to this article, Article 2 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights 1966 439 requires a State Member “to undertake to respect and to ensure 440 ”. Article 2 of the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights “is weak with respect to implementation 441 ”. This difference reflects the different implementation methods. However, the Committee on Economic, S ocial and Cultural Rights denied any sharp distinction between Article 2(1) of each Covenant, and noted: “While the great emphasis has sometimes been placing on the difference between the formulation used in this provision [Article 2 of the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights] and that contained in the equivalent Article 2 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, it is not always recognized that there are also significant similarities. While the Covenant provides for a progressive realization and acknowledges that the contrasts due to the limits of available resources, it also imposes various obligations which are immediate effect (para.1) 442 ”.Thus, extraterritorial protection of economic, social, and cultural rights “offers an important means to strengthen the protection and enforcement of economic, social, and cultural rights specially 436 “Each s tate party to the present Covenant undertakes to respect and to ensure to all individuals within its territory and subject to its jurisdiction the right recognized in the present Covenant” , International Covenant on Civil and Political Right s (adopted 16 December 1966, e ntered into force 23 March 1976) 99 9 UNTS 171 (ICCPR) . 437 Ssenyonjo M, ‘Reflect ions on state obligat ions with respect t o economic, social and cultural rights i n international human rights law’ in International Journal of Human Rights (15(6), 2011) P. 969 - 1012 <h ttps://www .tandfonline.com /doi/full/10.108 0/136429810 03719158 > accessed 17 March 2023. 438 C raven M , ‘ The Justiciabilit y of Economic, Social and Cultural Rights’, in Economic, Social and Cultural Rights: Their Impleme ntation in United Kingdom Law ’ (Nottingham: University of Nottingham Human Rights Law Centre, 1999) P. 5. 439 International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (adopted 16 Decemb er 196 6, entere d into force 23 March 1976) 999 UNTS 171 (ICCPR) . 440 Ibid. 441 A lston P, S teiner H , ‘ Internatio nal Hu man Rights in Con text: Law , Politics, Morals – Te xt and Materials ’ ( 2nd ed. , Oxford: OUP, 2000) P. 275. 442 CESC R , ‘ Gene ral Co mment № 3 ’ in ‘ The Nature of States Parti es’ Obli gations (Art. 2, Par a. 1 of the Covenant) ’ UN Doc. E/ 1991/23 (1 4 December 1990 ). 117 where host states lack the ability to effectively regulate non-state actors and monitor their compliance, yet home states are able to do so 443 ”. 1.8. T he Optional Protocol to the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights 1966 Human rights are a universal category, which represents the opportunities arising from the very nature of man to enjoy elementary, most important benefits in conditions of a safe, free existence of the individual in society. Human rights are one of the fundamental values of modern world civilization a complex and multifaceted concept. It is difficult to give them a single definition and an unambiguous interpretation, because this category is not only legal, but also philosophical, political, and moral. Human rights are emerging at the moment of birth, a person has not only as integral conditions of existence, which human nature requires for his survival, and essential development opportunities, but also as a means and goal of life, regardless of whether they are realized or not. Economic, social, and cultural rights are essential for individuals to lead fulfilling and dignified lives and are recognized as being fundamental human rights under internationa l human right s law. The y need the same protection as civil and political rights have in the Internation al Covenant on Civil and Political Rights. The drafting process of the Optional Protocol to the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights 1966 shows efforts of counti es economic, social, and cultural rights development and protection. There are some exhaustive oversight deba tes in the 1950s and 1960s in the United Nations. In 1968, the International Conference on Human Rights urged Governments of all countries to focus “on developing and perfecting legal procedures for prevention of violations and defence of economic, social, and cultural rights (para.6) 444 ”.The United Nations Secretary-General in a follow-up study noted the right to an effective remedy by the competent national tribunals applied “of course, also to economic, social and cultural rights 445 ”. It went on to note that many of rights were capable of being protected at the national level “by the ordinary courts” and th at “it was already the case in some states” 446 .Some statements made by some states a t t he first session of the Working Group concluded that : “A complaint mechanism for economic, social, and cultural rights was specifically rejected, and 443 S senyonjo M , ‘ Reflec tions on state obli gations wit h respect to econ omic, socia l and c ultural rights in international human rights law ’ in International Journal of Human Rights ( 15(6) , 2011) P. 969 - 1012 < https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/ful l/10.1080/13642981003719158 > accessed 17 March 2 023. 444 UN, ‘ Final Act of t he International Conference on Human R ights ’ Sales № E.68.SIV.2 R esolution XXI (196 8). 445 Ibid , para. 157. 446 Ibid , para. 159. 118 there was markedly little support for parallel oversight and supervisory provisions between the two prospective covenants ; t hey would have the international community overlook the reasons for those decisions and, in effect, rewrite the relevant provisions of the Internation al Covenant on Econom ic , Social, and Cultural Rights 447 ”. The Committee on Economic, Social, and Cultural Righ ts worked on an Optional Protocol to enable complaint procedures under the Internation al Covenant on Econom ic , Social, and Cultural Rights. The first formal discussion of an Optional Protocol was initiated by the Committee on Economic, Social, and Cultural Righ ts in 1990 448 . At the Fifth Session (26.11.1990 -14.12.1990) of the Committee on Economic, Social, and Cultural Righ ts , the Committee stated that there was a “need for an Optional Protocol to the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights 1966 providing a complaint/communication procedure for individuals and groups seeking redress in instances where they consider their human rights guaranteed under the Covenant to have been violated (para.2; para.25) 449 .In December 1992, Committee on Economic, Social, and Cultural Righ ts adopted an “analytical paper” that examined the various modalities of such [an Optional] protocol, inter alia, the possibility of the collective and individual complaints (Annex I, para.18 and Annex II) 450 . It was encouraged in this direction by States at 1993 World Conference on Human Rights (para.75) 451 and culminated in a report with a draft protocol on the grounds that it would better highlight “concrete and tangible issues”, “provide a focuses “framework for inquiry and help realise economic, social, and cultural rights since decisions would carry some weight even though they would be “non-binding(para.32-38) 452 ”.The Commission on Human Rights, in paragraph 6 of its Resolution 1994/20, took note of the “steps taken by the Committee … for 447 D enni s M , S tewar t D, ‘ Justiciability of Economic, Social, and Cu ltural Rights: Should There Be a International Complaints Mecha nism to Adjudicate the Rig hts to Food, Water, Housing , and Health? ’ in 98 Ameri can Journal of International Law , (2004) P . 489. 448 CESCR, ‘Report on the Seventh Session’ UN Doc. E/C.12/1 991/Wp.2 (11 December 1992). 449 CESC R , ‘ Gene ral Co mment № 3 ’ in ‘ The Nature of States Parti es’ Obli gations (Art. 2, Par a. 1 of the Covenant) ’ UN Doc. E/1991/23 (1 4 December 1990 ) ; CESC , ‘ General Comment № 3 ’ in ‘ The Nature of States Parties’ Obligati ons (Art. 2, Para . 1 of the Covenant) ’ UN Doc. E/1991/23 (1 4 December 1990 ) ; E/C N.4/19 97/105 . 450 UNGA, ‘ Co ntribution of t he Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights to t he World Conference on Human Right s ’ UN Doc. A/ CONF.157/PC/62/ Add.5 ( 26 March 1993 ). 451 U N (Distr. Ge neral) , ‘ Vienna Declarat ion and Program of Acti on ’ A/CONF.157/23 (12 July 1993); M ahon C , ‘ Progress at the Front: The Draft Optional Protoc ol t o the Int ernational Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights ’ 8 Human Rights La w Review (2008) P. 617. 452 UNGA, ‘ Co ntribution of the Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights to the World Conference on Human Rights ’ UN Doc. A/CONF. 157/PC/62/Add .5 ( 26 March 1993 ) . The Commit tee’ s draft was subject t o some scholarly debate and one workshop produced a slightly different draft. Arambulo K , ‘ Strengtheni ng the Supervision of the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights ’ (Antwerpen: Intersentia, 1999). 119 the drafting of an Optional Protocol... granting the rights of individuals or groups to submit communications concerning non-compliance with the Covenant, and invited the Committee to report thereon to the Commission…” A draft of an Optional Protocol was adopted in 1996 at the Committee’s fifteenth session 453 . From 1997-2000 the Commission “did not take any decision” 454 . M. Dennis and D. Steward c haracterized the actions of those pushing this process within the United Nations as being “dismissive of other viewpoints, and self-serving” and having a “build it and they will come attitude 455 ”. However, some states made critical comments. F or example, two US State Department legal advisers stated that: “the proposal for a new individual - complaints mechanism remains an ill-considered effort to mimic the structures of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights – and largely for mimicry’s sake ; the rights and obligations contained in the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights were “never intended to be susceptible to judicial or quasi - judicial determination 456 ”. C. Tomuschat have praised these jurisprudential developments and question ed how an individual complaints mechanism could make these obligations justiciable. Considering the right to work, he concludes that: “It is incumbent on [on States] … to take steps which activate the economy so that job opportunities may arise for everyone desirous of finding employment. … but the general obligation is not owed specifically to every individual…. Judicial protection against State action is generally confined to measures which adversely affect a person individually. General political measures which have repercussions on all citizens alike, are not subject to judicial review. This position can be explained by the opposition between East and West and, moreover, by willing of West not to admit equality and justiciability of economic, social, and cultural rights 457 ”. 453 UN C HR , ‘ Draf t Optional Protocol to t he Interna tional Cove nant on Econ omic, Social and Cultur al Rights ’ (53d Session), U.N. Doc. E/CN.4/1997/105 (1997) . 454 O HCH R, ‘ Question of the realiza tion in all cou ntries of the eco nomic, soci al and cultural rights contained i n the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and in the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultur al Right s, and s tudy o f speci al prob lems w hich the dev elopi ng cou ntries f ace in their e fforts t o achi eve the se hum an rights ’ UN Doc.E/CN.4/ RES/1997/17 (11 April 1997 ). 455 D enni s M , S tewar t D, ‘ Justiciability of Economic, Social, and Cu ltural Rights: Should There Be a International Complaints Mecha nism to Adjudicate the Rig hts to Food, Water, Housing , and Health? ’ in 98 Ameri can Journal of International Law , (2004) P . 475 - 476. 456 D enni s M , S tewar t D, ‘ Justiciability of Economic, Social, and Cu ltural Rights: Should There Be a International Complaints Mecha nism to Adjudicate the Rig hts to Food, Water, Housing , and Health? ’ in 98 Ameri can Journal of International Law , (2004) P . 524. 457 T omuchat C , ‘ An Optional Prot ocol f or th e Int ernational Covena nt on Economi c, Soc ial a nd Cult ural Rights ’, in Weltin nenr echt: Liber amicorum Jost Delbr üc (Berlin: Duncker and Hum blot, 2005), P . 81 5, 828. 120 In 2001 the Committee made an important step and appointed an Independent Expert (Professor Hatem Kotrane) who created two reports and concluded that “there is no longer any doubt about essentially justiciable nature of all the rights guaranteed by the Covenant 458 ”. The Representative of the United States of America said that : “While his country had joined consensus on the decision it did not support the draft optional protocol, as it confused econo mic , social and cultural rights, which should be realized progressively with legally enforceable entitlements 459 ”. In 2003 the Commission established an “Open-ended Working Group on an Optional Protocol to the International Covenant on Economic, Social, and Cultural Rights” that met three times to “considering options” regarding the elaboration of an Optional Protocol (para.12- 13) 460 . In the first session of the Working Group in 2004, the competing views on this aspect of justiciability amongst States was evident from “the opening paragraphs of the Chairperson’s report: -some delegations believed that the provisions of the Covenant were insufficiently clear to lend themselves to a complaints procedure or to be justiciable, -other delegations referred to national and regional legislation and case law, arguing that experience shows that the vagueness of legal provisions of the Covenant can be clarified by courts, - some delegations stated that action by the legislature is sometimes necessary to clarify the scope of obligations, -several delegations underlined that States parties have an immediate obligation to take prompt and effective measures towards the implementation of the rights covered by the Covenant (para.23) 461 ”. Moreover, M. Dennis and D. Steward suggest ed that the Independent Expert was pressured to be more supportive of a protocol of his second report and critical of the 458 O HCHR, Independent Expert ( Mr Kotra ne Hatem ) , ‘Report on the Questi on of a Draft Optional Protocol to the ICESCR’ UN Doc.E/CN.4/20 02/57 (12 February 2002) . 459 ECOSOC , ‘ The situation of human r ights in part s of South - Eastern Eur ope ’ Decision 2 001/219 ( 4 June 2001 ). 460 OHCHR , ‘ Question of the r ealizatio n in all c ountries of the e conomic, s ocial and cultur al rights containe d in the Universal Declaration of Human Ri ghts a nd in the Int ernational Covenan t on Economi c, So cial and Cultural Right s, and s tudy o f speci al prob lems which the deve lopin g coun tries fa ce in t heir ef forts to achie ve the se hum an rights’ Resolution 2003/18 , E/CN.4/2 003/L.11/Add.3 (22 April 2003). 461 ECOS OS, ‘ Report of the open - ended working group to consider options regarding t he elaboration of an optional protocol to the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights on i ts first session ’ , U.N. Doc E/CN.4/2004/4 4 (Geneva, 23 February - 5 March 2004) < https://documents - dds - ny.un.org/doc/UNDOC/ GEN/G 0 4/120/29/PDF/G0412029.pdf?OpenElement > access ed 5 A pril 2023. 121 Chairperson’s recommendation to proceed to drafting despite t he 2004 meeting of the Working Group ending in what they saw as “disarray 462 ”. In July of 2007, “a draft Optional Protocol was presented to the Working Group by Catarina de Albuquerque 463 ”. The Committee on Economic, Social, and Cul tural Righ ts ’ version of a protocol was not used as a basis for drafting but was produced with reference to other existing United Nations communications procedures. As “some States were “allergic” to the Committee on Economic, Social, and Cultural Righ ts ’ draft, it allowed for a fresh way forward and increased the level of support” 464 . On 4 April 2008 consensus on a final draft of the Option Protocol was achieved. N. Pillay, the UN High Commissioner for Human Rights, greeted the Optional Protocol to the International Covenant on Economic, Social, and Cultural Rights by saying that it “is of singular importance … closing a historic gap in human rights protection under the international system 465 ”. The Finnish delegate stated that: “The protocol was a ‘great step towards full realization of all human rights’ and that his country would sign it ‘at the earliest possible occasion 466 ”. However, Denmark was of a wholly other view. According to their representative, “the majority of the rights in the Covenant did not carry immediate legal effect and, considering the vague nature of the rights and the principle of progressive realisation, Denmark believed that the majority of rights were insufficiently judiciable and less suited to form the basis of an individual complaints mechanism 467 ”.Curiously though, on adoption of the Protocol, States were given the opportunity to lodge formal “explanations of the vote ”, but no States did so 468 . 462 D enni s M , S tew ar t D, ‘ Justiciability of Economic, Social, and Cultural Rights: Should There Be a International Complaints Mecha nism to Adjudicate the Rig hts to Food, Water, Housing , and Health? ’ in 98 Ameri can Journal of International Law , (2004) P .462. 463 UNHR Council , 'Draf t Optional Protocol to the Intern ational Co venant on Econom ic, Social and Cultu ral Rights' UN Doc A/HRC/6/WG.4 /2 (23 April 2007) . 464 Communication from Catarin a de Albuquerq ue. 465 UNHR, ‘ Statement of Ms. Nava nethem P illay ’ ( 65th Plenary meeting ) U.N. Doc. A/ 63/PV. 66 ( 10 December 2008 ). 466 UNGA , Th i rd Committee , ‘ Third Co mmitte e Recommends Gene ral Assembl y Adoption of Opt ional Prot ocol to Interna tional Co nvention on Eco nomic, Social and Cultural Rights, Sixty - third Gen eral Assem bly ’ ( 40 and 41 st Meetin gs ) GA/SHC/3938 (1 8 Nove mber 2008) P . 11. 467 Ibid, P .9. 468 UNGA , ‘ Res olution No 832 ’ ( 63rd Sess ion ) UN Doc A/RES/63/ 117 (2008 ). 128 organizations, and other stakeholders on issues related to the protection and promotion of economic, social, and cultural rights. -to strengthen the monitoring and impl ementation of the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights. An Optional protocol to International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights could strengthen the ability of the Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights to monitor and facilitate the implementation of the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights at the national level. Despite abovementioned, there are several potential disadvantages to the Optional Protocol to the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights: -Limited number of states parties. As of January 2023, only a limited number of states have ratified the Optional Protocol to the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, which means that the number of individuals and groups who have access to the complaint’s mechanism provided by the Optional Protocol is relatively small. -Limited scope. The Optional Protocol to the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights only applies to the economic, social, and cultural rights recognized in the ICESCR, which means that it does not provide a mechanism for the protection of other human rights such as civil and political rights. -Limited remedies. The remedies available under the Optional Protocol to the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights are limited to the adoption of views or recommendations by the Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights. While these views or recommendations may be influential, they do not have the same legal force as a judicial decision and may not be enforceable. -Potential for abu se . There is a potential for the Optional Protocol to the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights to be abused by individuals or groups who seek to use it for frivolous or vexatious purposes. This could place an undue burden on the Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights and undermine the effectiveness of the complaint’s mechanism s. It is possible that the Optional Protocol to the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights might need to be amended in the future in order to address emerging issues or to make improvements to the existing system. Any decision to amend the Optional Protocol to the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights would need to be taken by the state’s parties to the Optional Protocol, in consultation with civil society organizations and other stakeholders. Any proposed amendments would need to be adopted by a two -thirds majority of states parties and would enter into force for those states that have accepted the amendments once they have been ratified by enough states. 129 Conclusion of Chapter 1 The origins of the rights of the second generation originate from ancient centuries, and laid in written sources, doctrines, theories. In the sayings of philosophers, these rights (the rights of the second generation) were inextricably linked with the rights of the first generation. The idea that was laid down in the Universal Declaration dates back much earlier. Nowadays these rights are reflected in many documents, including constitutions and declarations. There are many different approaches in the literature to determine the value of these human rights that either recognize these human rights or be little them. However, despite the consolidation of equality of these rights, in science disputes about the dominance of one of the categories of rights do not cease. The process of preparing the Universal Declaration on Human Rights has not been easy. The philosophical doctrines underlying this document have been advocated by the countries concerned. Preparation of the Universal Declaration1948 is the struggle of East and West, the struggle of Western liberalism and Marxism, the struggle for world domination. The question arises why countries have established a sign of universality, indivisibility of rights only formally? Can we assert confidently that the drafters of the Universal Declaration on Human Rights were not ‘blinded by their own ambitions’ ? As C. Tomuschat says that “they did not realize that the existing cultural differences between the many nations and other ethnic as well as linguistic communities of this globe 486 ”. Y. Khushalani thought that “evidently, there cannot be universal understanding of human rights 487 ”. Mrs Eleanor Roosevelt, the United States representative to the General Assembly and Chairman of the United Nations Commission on Human Rights during the drafting of the Universal Declaration on Human Rights, noted that this document “is not, and does not purport to be a statement of law or of legal obligation” but “a common standard of achievement for all peoples of all nations 488 ”. However, this document serves as a normative basis for constitutions because many provisions of the Universal Declaration on Human Rights are included in modern constitutions. Some scholars 489 note that it is a basis for assess the legal systems, policies and practices of all States under the universal periodic reviews. Three doctrines as western liberalism, socialism, third world approach contributed the inclusion of economic, social and cultural rights in the Universal Declaration on Human Rights 1948. The combination of ideas of three doctrines has made it possible to consolidate in the Universal Declaration on Human rights 1948 the maximum possible list of 486 T omuchat C , ‘ Human ri ghts in a World - Wid e Framew ork Some Curren t Issu es ’ (1985) , P .548 < https://www.za oerv.de/45_1985/45_1985_3_k_547_584.pdf > ac ce ssed 2 A pril 2023. 487 K hushalani Y , ‘ Human Rights in Asia and Africa ’, in 4 HRLJ ( 1983 ) P .4 05. 488 19 US Department of State Bullet in 751 (1948). 489 OHCHR , ‘ Human Rights and Constitution making ’ HR/PUB/ 17/5 (New York and Geneva , 2018) < https://w w w. .ohchr.org/D ocuments/ Publications/Constituti on Mak ing_RU.p df > accessed 1 April 2023. 130 human rights and freedoms, becoming a universal standard for States with different political systems, adhering to different ideological, religious, cultural directions in their development. The work of the Soviet Union and Latin American countries in implementing second-generation rights was significant. The debate between the West and the East about the supremacy of a particular category of rights is still being discussed in the scientific literature. Two categories of rights are of the same nature and their differentiation into two international covenants was unreasonable. The analysis shows that the rights of the second generation contain similar features belonging to the rights of the first generation. This means that two groups of rights are subject to judicial protection at the same level. With its elements such as the right to free s peech and solidarity, political rights emerge as a primary instrument to claim social and economic rights. On the other hand, without economic and social rights t he exercise of civil and political rights can be undefined. Especially, the right to education prepares a proper foundation to understand and practice civil and political rights. Advocating civil and political rights and blaming social and economic rights for downgrading the importance of human rights would be unfair and may lead to miss the foundational logic of these rights. Because of all these basic reasons and the indivisible connection, rights should not be concern superior to each other. The second-generation rights meet the same criteria as first-generation rights. These rights should therefore be afforded similar protection. 131 Conclusión del Capítulo 1 Los orígenes de los derechos de la segunda generación se remontan a siglos antiguos y se encuentran en fuentes escritas, doctrinas y teorías. En los dichos de los filósofos, estos derechos (los derechos de la segunda generación) estaban ine xtricablemente ligados a los derechos de la primera generación. La idea que se plasmó en la Declaración Universal data de mucho antes. Hoy en día estos derechos se reflejan en muchos documentos, incluidas constituciones y declaraciones. En la literatura existen muchos enfoques diferentes para determinar el valor de estos derechos humanos que, o bien los reconocen, o bien los menosprecian. Sin embargo, a pesar de la consolidación de la igualdad de estos derechos, en la ciencia no cesan las disputas sobre el predominio de una de las categorías de derechos. El proceso de elaboración de la Declaración Universal de los Derechos Humanos no ha sido fácil. Las doctrinas filosóficas subyacentes a este documento han sido defendidas por los países interesados. La preparación de la Declaración Universal 1948 es la lucha de Oriente y Occidente, la lucha del liberalismo occidental y el marxismo, la lucha por la dominación del mundo. Cabe preguntarse por qué los países han establecido un signo de universalidad, de indivisibilidad de los derechos sólo formalmente. ¿Podemos afirmar con seguridad que los redactores de la Declaración Universal de los Derechos H umanos no estaban “cegados por sus propias ambiciones”? Como dice C. Tomuschat que “no se dieron cuenta de las diferencias culturales existentes entre las numerosas naciones y otras comunidades étnicas y lingüísticas de este globo 490 ”. Y. Khushalani pensaba que “evidentemente, no puede haber una comprensión universal de los derechos humanos 491 ”. La Sra. Eleanor Roosevelt, representante de Estado s Unidos ante la Asamblea General y Presidenta de la Comisión de Derechos Humanos de las Naciones Unidas durante la redacción de la Declaración Universal de Derechos Humanos, señaló que este documento “no es, ni pretende ser, una declaración de derecho o de obligación jurídica”, sino “un ideal común por el que todos los pueblos de todas las naciones deben esforzarse 492 ”. Sin embargo, este documento sirve de base normativa para las constituciones, ya que muchas disposiciones de la Declaración Universal de Derechos Humanos están incluidas en las constituciones modernas. Algunos 493 estudiosos señalan que sirve de base para evaluar los sistemas jurídicos, las políticas y las prácticas de todos los Estados en el marco de los exámenes periódicos universales. Tres doctrinas como el liberalismo occidental, el socialismo 490 T omuchat C , ‘ Human ri ghts in a Wor ld - Wide Fra mework Some Curr ent I ssues ’ (1985) , P .548 < https://www.zaoerv.de/45_1985/45_1985_3_k_547_584.pdf > acce ssed 2 A pril 2023. 491 K hushalani Y , ‘ Human Rights in Asia and Africa ’, in 4 HRLJ ( 1983 ) P .4 05. 492 19 US Department of State Bullet in 751 (1948). 493 OHCHR , ‘ Human Right s and Constitution maki ng ’ HR/PUB/1 7/5 (New York and Gen eva , 2018) < https://w w w. .ohchr.org/D ocuments/ Publications/Constituti on Mak ing_RU. pdf > accessed 1 April 2023. 132 y el enfoque tercermundista contribuyeron a la inclusión de los derechos económicos, sociales y culturales en la Declaración Universal de Derechos Humanos de 1948. La combinación de ideas de las tres doctrinas ha hecho posible consolidar en la Declaración Universal de los Derechos Humanos de 1948 la máxima lista posible de derechos humanos y libertades, convirtiéndose en una norma universal para Estados con diferentes sistemas políticos, adheridos a diferentes direcciones ideológicas, religiosas y culturales en su desarrollo. La labor de la Unión Soviética y los países latinoamericanos en la aplicación de los derechos de segunda generación fue significativa. El debate entre Occidente y Oriente sobre la supremacía de una determinada categoría de derechos sigue debatiéndose en la literatura científica. Las dos categorías de derechos son de la misma naturaleza y su diferenciación en dos pactos internacionales no era razonable. El análisis muestra que los derechos de la segunda generación contienen características similares pertenecientes a los derechos de la primera generación. Esto significa que dos grupos de derechos son objeto de protección judicial al mismo nivel. Con sus elementos como el derecho a la libertad de expresión y a la solidaridad, los derechos políticos surgen como instrumento primordial p ara reclamar derechos sociales y económicos. Por otra parte, sin derechos económicos y sociales el ejercicio de los derechos civiles y políticos puede quedar indefinido. Especialmente, el derecho a la educación prepara una base adecuada para comprender y practicar los derechos civiles y políticos. Defender los derechos civiles y políticos y culpar a los derechos sociales y económicos de restar importancia a los derechos humanos sería injusto y podría llevar a perder la lógica fundacional de estos derechos. Por todas estas razones básicas y por su conexión indivisible, los derechos no deben considerarse superiores unos a otros. Los derechos de segunda generación cumple n los mismos criterios que los derechos de primera generación. Por lo tanto, estos derechos deberían gozar de una protección similar. 133 Chapter 2. T he contribution of the Inter-American and African regional levels in featuring economic, social and cultural rights Introduction of Chapter 2 The Chapter I is devoted to the universal level of economic, social, and cultural rights protection. Some documents such as Peace treaties, the Universal Declaration on Human Rights, the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights and its Optional Protocol are analyzed in order to show the unified nature of two categories of human rights through different types of State obligations: positive and negative, cost free and expensive, progressive and immediate, vague and precise, justiciable and non-justiciable, derogable and non- derogable, thin and thick. As a result, it was shown that the system of the protection of economic, social, and cultural rights at the universal level is weaker than the protection of civil and political rights at the same level, and it is still an issue why there was a need to adopt two international covenants instead of one. Before moving to Chapter 2, it is important to note that the main milestones at the regional level were the adoption of the European Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms on November 4, 1950, the American Convention on Human Rights on November 22, 1969 (entered into force in 1978), the African Charter on Human and Peoples' Rights on June 26, 1981, the Islamic Declaration of Human Rights of 1990, and the Arab Charter of Human Rights adopted on September 15, 1994.The catalogue of rights and freedoms of these documents repeats the universal set of rights from the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. The implementation of the se rights turned out to be complicated, “it encounters resistance from real life relationships that have historically formed and are developing on other value networks 494 ”. For example, main differences are religion, in which the population professes Judaism, Buddhism, Hinduism, Confucianism. However, there are some difficulties in these regional human rights systems: ü The limited legal recognition of economic, social, and cultural rights. While the above- mentioned documents recognize a range of economic, social, and cultural rights, these rights are not given the same level of legal recognition as civil and political rights. This can make it more difficult to enforce economic, social, and cultural rights and to hold states accountable for violations of these rights. ü The lack of effective remedies. Economic, social, and cultural rights often require significant resources to be realized, and it can be difficult for individuals and groups to obtain effective remedies for violations of these rights through both human rights systems. Two commissions (the African Commission on Human and Peoples' Rights, and the Inter -American Commission on Human Rights), and two courts (the African Court on H uman and Peoples' 494 Lu kasheva E.A , ‘ Human right s and the processe s of globaliz ation o f the modern world ’ ( Publishing House NORM, 2007 ) ; M ingazov L , ‘ Problemy universalizma i regionalizma v sfere mezhduna rodnoj zashchity prav cheloveka ’ in JS , ( 2021 ) P . 99. 134 Rights and the Inter-American Court of Human Rights) have had a limited power to order states to take specific actions to remedy violations of these rights. ü The limited capacity of national human rights institutions. Th ey play an important role in promoting and protecting human rights in the African and Inter-American regions, however, some of the m lack the capacity and resources to effectively address economic, social, and cultural rights issues, which can hinder the protection of these rights. ü The poverty and inequality. Economic, social, and cultural rights are often most relevant for marginalized and disadvantaged groups, who may face barriers to accessing justice and seeking remedies for violations of these rights. Poverty and inequality can also be drivers of human rights violations, including violations of economic, social, and cultural rights. Considering the Inter-American human rights system, it is important to note that the American Convention on Human Rights is the main regional human rights treaty and provides for the protection of economic, social, and cultural rights. The Inter-American Commission on Human Rights and the Inter-American Court of Human Rights are responsible for promoting and protecting human rights in the region and have issued numerous decisions on economic, social, and cultural rights. The ir work includes two stages: complaints submitted to the Court are first considered by the Commission. The Commission performs the function of protecting human rights by considering “petitions” submitted by individuals and non-governmental organizations and “communications” from States that it receives (Articles 44 -45) 495 . The competence of the Commission extends to all member States of the American Convention on Human Rights (Article 61.1) 496 . The competence of the Inter-American Court extends to the interpretation of the American Convention on Human Rights, any other American document relating to human rights, as well as to any issues within the competence of OAS bodies, at the request of OAS member States. This distinguishes it from the European Court of Human Rights which is designed to ensure strict compliance and enforcement only of the norms of the European Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms by its member States. Decisions taken by the Inter-American Court of Human Rights may include compensation for victims of violations of these rights. “The Inter-American Court monitors each case individually, and also conducts joint monitoring of compensation measures issued in several court decisions against the same State 497 ”. The Inter-American Court also differs from 495 A merica n C onvent ion on H uman R ights (a dopted at the Inter - Americ an Spe cialized Confer ence o n Human Rights, San José, Costa Rica, entered into force 18 July 1978 ) Tre aty Series No 36 ( Organization o f American States, 1969 ) < htt ps://www.cidh.oas.org/basicos/engli sh/basic3.americ an%20convention.htm > accessed Mar ch 23, 2023. 496 A merica n C onvent ion on H uman R ights (a dopted at the Inter - Americ an Spe cialized Confer ence o n Human Rights, San José, Costa Rica, entered into force 18 July 1978 ) Tre aty Series No 36 ( Organization o f American States, 1969 ) < htt ps://www.cidh.oas.org/basicos/engli sh/basic3.americ an%20convention.htm > accessed Mar ch 23, 2023. 497 D avtyan M.K , N ik olaev A .M, ‘ Ispolnenie reshen ij Evropejskogo Suda I Mezham erikanskogo S uda po pravam cheloveka: sravnitel'nyj analiz ’ in Mez hdunaro dnoe i integr acionnoe pravo . Zh urnal zarubezhnogo zakonodatel'stva i sravnitel'nogo pravovedeniya ( № 4 , 2018) P .43. 135 the European Court of Human Rights in that individuals cannot apply directly to the Inter- American Court. Only the Member States and the Commission have the right to refer the case to the Court (Article 61.1) 498 . One of the conditions for the admissibility of the case is that the Commission exhausts all the procedures provided for (Article 61.2) 499 .Applications of individuals are first submitted to the Inter-American Commission on Human Rights, which decides whether to refer them to the Inter-American Court of Human Rights established by the Convention, if the respondent State recognizes the jurisdiction of the court. Next, in the African human rights system, the African Charter on Human and Peoples' Rights is the main regional human rights treaty, and this document provides the protection of a range of economic, social, and cultural rights, including different rights such as the right to education, the right to work, and the right to health. In addition, the Protocol to the African Charter on Human and Peoples' Rights on the Rights of Women in Africa contains specific provisions on the rights of women in relation to economic, social, and cultural rights. The African sys tem also includes the African Court on Human and Peoples' Rights, which has jurisdiction t o hear cases involving alleged violations of the African Charte r and other regional human rights instruments. The African Court has the authority to consider cases involving alleged violations of economic, social, and cultural rights and has issued several decisions on these issues. The Chapter II explores special provisions for the protection of economic, social, and cultural rights at two levels: the African and Inter-American. These regional systems of human rights protection, their uniqueness, including the case-law on specific state obligations, its relation to economic, social, and cultural rights, and the contribution of the Inter-American and African (regional) level in featuring economic, social, and cultural rights are considered. The Chapter 2 consists of paragraphs such as: 2.1. The uniqueness of the Inter-American human rights system, 2.2. State’s obligations on economic, social and cultural right protection in Inter- American legal documents and reports (including i. Obligation to respect, ii. Obligation to protect, iii. Obligation to fulful, iv. Obligation to promote),2.3. Selected case-law of the Inter- American Commission and Court of Human Rights on state obligations aimed at economic, social, and cultural rights protection (including i. Positive and negative obligations, ii. Cost free and expensive state obligations, iii. Progressive and immediate stat e obligations, iv. Vague and precise state obligations, v. Justiciable and non-justiciable state obligations, vi. Derogable and non- derogable state obligations, vii. Thin and thick state obligations, Table ‘Case-law of the Inter-American Commission and Court of Human Rights on obligations for realization of 498 A merica n C onvent ion on H uman R ights (a dopted at the Inter - American Spec ialized Confer ence on Human Rights, San José, Costa Rica, entered into force 18 July 1978 ) Tre aty Series No 36 ( Organization o f American States, 1969 ) < htt ps://www.cidh.oas.org/basicos/engli sh/basic3.americ an%20convention.htm > accessed Mar ch 23, 2023. 499 A merica n C onvent ion on H uman R ights (a dopted at the Inter - Americ an Spe cialized Confer ence o n Human Rights, San José, Costa Rica, entered into force 18 July 1978 ) Tre aty Series No 36 ( Organization o f American States, 1969 ) < htt ps://www.cidh.oas.org/basicos/engli sh/basic3.americ an%20convention.htm > accessed Mar ch 23, 2023. 136 economic, soci al, and cultural rights’, 2.4. The uniqueness of the African human rights system, 2.5. Indivisibility of economic, social and cultural rights within the African Commission on Human and Peoples’ Rights’ understanding, 2.6. The concept of minimum core obligations in the African Commission on Human and Peoples’ Rights’ activity, 2.7. Approaches to th e adjudication of economic, social, and cultural rights, 2.8. A difference between the United Nation Committee on economic, social, and cultural rights understanding of the obligations engendered by the International Covenant on Economic, Social, and Cultural Rights of 1966 and the African Commission on Human and Peoples’ Rights view of the obligations engendered by the African Charter on Human and P eoples’ Rights of 1981, 2.9. Reasonableness test on economic, social and cultural rights enforcement, 2.10. State obligations to respect, protect and fulfil economic, social and cultural rights (including i. Obligation to respect, ii. Obligation to protect, iii. Obligation to fulfil, iv. Obligation to promote), 2.11. Selected case-law of the African Commission and Court on Human and People’s Rights on state obligations aimed at economic, social, and cultural rights protection (including i. Positive and negative state obligations, ii. Cost free and expensive state obligations, iii. Progressive and immediate stat e obligations, iv. Vague and precise state obligations, v. Justiciable and non-justiciable state obligations, vi. Derogable and non- derogable state obligat ions, vii. Thin and thick state obligations), Table “Case-law of the African Commission and Court on Human and Peoples’ Rights on obligations for realization of economic, social, and cultural rights”. 137 Introducción del Capítulo 2 El capítulo I está dedicado al nivel universal de protección de los derechos económicos, sociales y culturales. Se analizan algunos documentos como los tratados de Paz, la Declaración Universal de Derechos Humanos, el Pacto Internacional de Derechos Económicos, Sociales y Culturales y su Protocolo Facultativo con el fin de mostrar la naturaleza unificada de dos categorías de derechos humanos a través de difere ntes tipos de obligaciones estatales: positivas y negativas, gratuitas y costosas, progresivas e inmediatas, vagas y precisas, justiciables y no justiciables, derogables e irrenunciables, delgadas y gruesas. Como resultado, se demostró que el sistema de protección de los derechos económicos, sociales y culturales a nivel universal es más débil que la protección de los derechos civiles y políticos al mismo nivel, y sigue siendo un problema por qué era necesario adoptar dos pactos internacionales en lugar de uno. Antes de pasar al Capítulo 2, es importante señalar que los principales hitos a nivel regional fueron la adopción del Convenio Europeo para la Protección de los Derechos Humanos y las Libertades Fundamentales el 4 de noviembre de 1950, la Convención Americana sobre Derechos Humanos el 22 de noviembre de 1969 (entró en vigor en 1978), la Carta Africana de Derechos Humanos y de los Pueblos el 26 de junio de 1981, la Declaración Islámica de Derechos Humanos de 1990 y la Carta Árabe de Derechos Humanos adoptada el 15 de septiembre, 1994. El catálogo de derechos y libertades de estos documentos repite el conjunto universal de derechos de la Declaración Universal de Derechos Humanos. La implementación de estos derechos resultó complicada, “encuentra resistencia de relaciones de la vida real que históricamente se han formado y se están desarrollando en otras redes de valores 500 ”. Po r ejemplo, las principales diferencias son la religión, en la que la población profesa el judaísmo, el budismo, el hinduismo y el confucianismo. Sin embargo, existen algunas dificultades en estos sistemas regionales de derechos humanos: ü Abolir el limitado reconocimiento legal de los derechos económicos, sociales y culturales. Si bien los documentos mencionados reconocen una serie de derechos económicos, sociales y culturales, estos derechos no reciben el mismo nivel de reconocimiento legal que los derechos civiles y políticos. Esto puede hacer que sea más difícil hacer cumplir los derechos económicos, sociales y culturales y responsabilizar a los Estados por las violaciones de estos derechos. ü Paliar la falta de remedios efectivos. Los de rechos económicos, sociales y culturales a menudo requieren recursos significativos para su realización, y puede ser difícil para individuos y grupos obtener remedios efectivos para las violaciones de estos derechos a través de ambos sistemas de derechos humanos. Dos comisiones (la Comisión Africana de Derechos Humanos y de los Pueblos y la Comisión Interamericana de Derechos Humanos) y dos tribunales (la Corte Africana de Derechos Humanos y de los Pueblos y la Corte Interamericana de Derechos 500 Lu kasheva E.A , ‘ Human rig hts and t he proces ses of g lobalizati on of th e modern wor ld ’ ( Publishing House NORM, 2007 ) ; M ingazov L , ‘ Problemy universalizma i regi onalizma v sfere mezhdunarodnoj zashchity prav cheloveka ’ in JS , ( 2021 ) P . 99. 144 ü There is a widespread use of consultative procedures for resolving disputes. The advisory jurisdiction of the Inter-American Court of Human Rights is the broadest to all other regional courts, since it makes “a significant contribution to enhancing the uniformity and consistency of interpretation of the substantive and procedural provisions of the American Convention and other human rights treaties”, “forms a uniform culture of human rights in the region”, providing for the “constitutiona li zation of Inter-American human rights law”, allowing to characterize the Inter-American Court of Human Rights as “the only body in the international arena that effectively carries out its advisory jurisdiction 512 ”. ü The Inter-American Court of Human Rights is the main importer of the practice of interpreting international human rights law. ü There is a low percentage of enforcement of decisions made within the framework of the Inter-American System of Human Rights Protection. Article 68 of the American Convention on Human Rights of 1969 states: “The S tates Parties to the Convention undertake to obey the Court's decision in any case to which they are parties. The part of the deci sion that relates to compensatory damages may be executed in the relevant country according to the internal procedure governing the execution of decisions rendered against the State 513 ”. According to some data, “the level of enforcement of decisions of the Inter-American Court of H uman Rights is only 4% 514 , 83% of decisions of the Inter-American Court of Human Rights are partially executed, 11% of decisions are not fully executed, and only 6% of decisions are fully executed. The respondent States fulfil the financial part of the decision (about 50% of such obligations are fulfilled), but the situation is much worse with the regulations concerning legislative changes - about 5-10% of such orders of the Inter-American Court of Human Rights are executed 515 ”. 2.2. State’s obligations on economic, social and cultural right protection in Inter- American legal documents and reports i. Obligation to respect 512 P asqualucci J.M , ‘ The Practice and Pr ocedure of the I nt er - American Court o f Hu man Rights ’ ( Cambridge, 2003 ) P. 80 ; H ennebel L, ‘ The Int er - American Co urt of Human Rights : The Ambassador of Univers alism ’ in Quebec Jo urnal of Internati onal Law (Special Edition , 2011 ) P . 71 — 76. 513 Additi onal Protocol to the Ame rican Convention on Human Ri ghts i n the Area of Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (Prot ocol of San Sal vador) (entered into forc e 16 November 1999) OAS Treat y Ser ies No 69 (1988) reprinted in Ba sic Doc uments Pertaining to H u man Rights in the Inter - American System OEA/Ser L V/II.82 Doc 6 Rev 1 (1992) . 514 P osner E , Y oo J, ‘ Judicial Independence in International Tribunals’ in Cali fornia L aw Review ( Vol. 93 , № 1 , 2005), P. 1- 74. 515 I spolinov A, ‘ Evolyuciya i put i razviti ya sovremennogo mezhdunarodnogo pravosudiya ’ in Mezhduna rodnoe publichnoe pravo ( № 10 , 2017) P . 70. 145 Before moving to the obligation to respect, it is important to note that the Inter- Am erican Court of Human Rights takes the position that the obligations of States enshrined in the American Convention on Human Rights 516 , contain the responsibility of a State Party both for acts performed by officials acting on behalf of the State, and for acts committed by third parties, if they were the result of the state's failure to fulfil its obligations to exercise control over their activities. The obligation to respect economic, social, and cultural rights in the Inter-American regional system of human rights protection refers to the obligation of states to refrain from interfering with the enjoyment of these rights by individuals. This means that states must not take any action that would diminish or restrict the enjoyment of these rights. In “Compendium on the Obligation of States to adapt their Domestic Legislation to the Inter-American Standards of Human Rights” which was approved by the Inter-American Commission on Human Rights on January 25, 2021, it is stated that this type of the obligation is “the norm [] that determine the linkage and articulation between inter-American law and domestic law 517 ”. For example, states have an obligation to respect the right to education by not enacting laws or policies that would limit access to education or prevent individuals from obtaining an education. Similarly, states have an obligation to respect the right to work by not enacting laws or policies that would restrict the ability of individuals to work or engage in economic activities. In addition to this general obligation to respect economic, social, and cultural rights, states may also have specific obligations to respect certain rights in certain circumstances. The obligation to respect economic, social, and cultural rights is set forth in several Inter- American legal instruments, including the American Declaration of the Rights and Duties of Man and the Protocol of San Salvador. It is also interpreted and applied by the Inter-American Commission on Human Rights and the Inter-American Court of Human Rights. In Valasquez Rodriguez the Inter-American Court of Human Rights held: “The first obligation assumed by the States Parties under Article 1 (1) is “to respect the rights and freedoms” 518 recognized by the Convention. The exercise of public authority has certain limits which derive from the fact 516 A merica n C onvent ion on H uman R ights (a dopted at the Inter - Americ an Spe cialized Confer ence o n Human Rights, San José, Costa Rica, entered into force 18 July 1978 ) Tre aty Series No 36 ( Organization o f American States, 1969 ) < htt ps://www.cidh.oas.org/basicos/engli sh/basic3.americ an%20convention.htm > accessed Mar ch 23, 2023. 517 Inter – Amer ican Commission on Human Righ ts, ‘ Compendium on the Obli gation of State s to adapt their Domestic Legisl ation t o the Inter - Ameri can Stan dards o f Human Rights ’ OEA/Ser.L/ V/II. Do c. 11 ( January 25, 2021 ). 518 Article 1, A meri can C onvent ion on H uman R ights (a dopted at the Inter - American Spe cialized Conferen ce on Human Rig hts, San José, Costa Rica, entered into force 18 July 1978 ) TS No 36 ( Or ganization of Americ an State s, 1969 )< https://www.cidh.oas.org/basicos/engl ish/basic3.americ an%20convention.htm > accessed March 23, 2023. Velázquez - Rodrí guez v. Honduras ( Article s 1 .1. and 4 of the American Conventio n) Inter - American Cour t of Human R ights Series C No 4 (Ju ly 29, 1988) . 146 that “human rights are inherent attributes of human dignity and are, therefore, superior to the power of the state (para.165)” 519 . In another case of González and Others v. Mexico , the Inter-American Court of Human Rights found that: “T he State had to tak [e] steps to ensure that children from disadvantaged groups had access to quality education 520 ”. For example, states have an obligation to respect the rights of indigenous peoples to their traditional lands, cultures, and ways of life. The American Convention on Human Rights 1969 includes provisions that directly relate to the rights of indigenous peoples. “States Parties to this Convention undertake to respect the rights and freedoms and to ensure to all persons within their jurisdiction the free and full exercise of such rights and freedoms without discrimination on account of race, colour, sex, language, religion, political or other opinion, national or social origin, economic status, birth, or any other social condi tion (Article 1) 521 ”.“Where t he exercise of any of the right s or freedoms referred to in Article 1 is not yet secured by law or other provisions, the participating States undertake to accept, in accordance with their constitutional the procedure and provisions of this Convention, such legislative or other measures as may be necessary to give effect to such rights and freedoms (Article 2) 522 ”. These articles are very important to ensure the equality of rights of indigenous peoples and other members of this society. Analyzing other cases, it is also important to demonstrate a case such as Pacotaype Chaupin, Martín Cayllahua Galindo, Marcelo Cabana Tucno and Isaías Huamán Vilca v. Peru 523 . In this case, the Peruvian State included the obligation to respect rights in domestic laws. 519 Velázquez - Rodrí guez v. Honduras ( Artic les 1 .1. and 4 of the American Conventio n) Inter - American Court of H uman R ights Series C No 4 (Ju ly 29, 1988). 520 González et al. ( ‘ Cotton Fiel d ’ ) v. Mexico ( Arti cles 4 , 5, 8, 19, and 25 of the American Conventio n) Inter - American Court of H uman R ights Se ries C No 205 ( November 16, 2009 ) < https: //www.corteidh.or.cr/docs/ c asos/ articulos/seriec_205_ing.pdf > ac cessed 24 March 20 23. 521 A merica n C onvent ion on H uman R ights (a dopted at the Inter - Americ an Spe cialized Confer ence o n Human Rights, San José, Costa Rica, entered into force 18 July 1978 ) Tre aty Series No 36 ( Organization o f American States, 1969 ) < htt ps://www.cidh.oas.org/basicos/engli sh/basic3.americ an%20convention.htm > accessed Mar ch 23, 2023. 522 A merica n C onvent ion on H uman R ights (a dopted at the Inter - Americ an Spe cialized Confer ence o n Human Rights, San José, Costa Rica, entered into force 18 July 1978 ) Treat y Series No 36 ( Organizati on of American States, 1969 ) < htt ps://www.cidh.oas.org/basicos/engli sh/basic3.americ an%20convention.htm > accessed Mar ch 23, 2023. 523 P aragraph 76 , M anuel P acotaype C haupin, M artín C ayllahua G alindo, M arcelo C abana T ucno and I saías H uamán V ilca v . P eru ( Artic les 3, 4, 5, 7, 25 of the American Conventio n) Inter - American Co mmis sion on H uman R ights No 47/00 Case 10 / 908 ( April 13,200 0 ) ; P aragraph 68 , A mérico Z avala M artinez v . P eru ( Art icles 3, 4, 5, 7, and 25 of the American Conventio n) Inter - American Co mmissi on on H uman R ights No 44/00 Case 10 / 820 ( April 13, 2000 ). 147 ii. Obligation to protect The obligation to protect economic, social, and cultural rights refers to the obligation of states to take steps to prevent harm or abuse to individuals in the enjoyment of these rights. For example, in 2017 the Inter- Ame rican Convention on the Promotion and Protection of the Rights of Older Persons 524 came into force and showed that old er people also need the protection. States must adopt measures to e nsure that individuals are able to enjoy these rights without f ear of harm or abuse from state or non-state actors. The Inter-American Court of Human Rights held that states have an obligation to protect the right to education by adopting measures to ensure that individuals have access to education and that the education system is of good quality. Similarly, the Inter-American Court of Human Rights stated that states have an obligation to protect the right to work by adopting measures to ensure that individuals have access to employment opportunities and that the working conditions are safe and fair. iii. Obligation to fulfil The obligation to fulfill economic, social, and cultural rights requires that counties “take appropriate legislative, administrative, budgetary, judicial and other measures towards the full realization of such rights (para.6) 525 ”. In the case of Velásquez Rodríguez v. Honduras , Inter- American Court of Human Rights found that: “T he State had an obligation to fulfill the right, which included taking steps to prevent deaths that resulted from its failure to provide basic services such as health care and police protection 526 ”. In another case of Mayagna (Sumo) Awas Tingni Community v. Nicaragua, the Inter-American Court of Human Rights considering rights of indigenous people, stated that: “The State had an obligation to fulfill the right to property which included providing the indigenous community with access to land and natural resourc es and had an obligation to consult with indigenous communities and to obtain their consent prior to taking any action that may affect their rights 527 ”. In next case, in Yakye Axa Indigenous 524 Inter - American Convention on the Promotion and Protection of the Rights of Older Person s (entered into force January 1 1 , 2017 , th e thirtieth day a fter the date of d eposit of the s econd instrum ent of ratification o r accession to the Convention with the General Secretariat of the Organization of American States ) General Secreta riat OAS (Washington, 2017) < https://www.oas.org/en/sla/di l/inter_american_treaties_a - 70_human_rights_older _person s. asp accessed 22 March 2023. 525 International Commission of Jurists , ‘ Maastr icht Guideli nes on Viol ations of Ec onomic, Socia l and Cult ural Rights ’ ( 26 January 1997 ) < http://www.refworld.org/doci d/48abd5730.html > accessed 21 March 2023. 526 Velázquez - Rodrígu ez v. Honduras ( Articles 1 .1. and 4 of the American Conventio n ) Inter - American Court of H uman R ights Series C No 4 (Ju ly 29, 1988). 527 Mayagna (Sum o) Awas Tingn i Communit y v. Nicara gua (Article s 1, 2, 21 and 25 of the American Conventio n) Inter - American Co urt of H uman R ights Series C No 4 ( Augus t 31, 2001 ) < https ://www.corteidh.or.cr/docs/casos/a rticulos/seriec_79_ing.pdf > accessed 19 March 2023. 148 Community v. Paraguay, the Inter-American Court of Human Rights held that: “In acc ordance with Articles 24 (Equality before the law) and 1.1 of the American Convention on Human Rights of 1969, States must ensure the full realization and exercise of the rights of indigenous peoples who are under their jurisdiction. In order to ensure these rights [including economic, social, and cultural rights] effectively, when interpreting and applying their domestic legislation, S tates should consider the peculiarities that distinguish representatives of indigenous peoples from the general population and the components of their cultural ident ity. The same justification should be applied …to assess the scope and content of the articles of the American Convention on Human Rights of 1969, the violation of which the Commission charges the State” 528 . Moreover, while serving as president of the Court, Diego García-Sayán cultivated the idea when he asserted in a concurring opinion that, “. . . national courts are called upon to fulfill a crucial role as one of the main vehicles for translating the obligations specified in international human rights treaties into domestic norms—applying them in their case law and other everyday challenges. National courts must put into practic e the legally binding decisions of the Inter- American Court that interpret and define international regulations and standards of human rights protection (para.30) 529 ”. iv. Obligation to promote In general, state parties to the Inter-American human rights system have an obligation to respect, protect, fulfill and promote economic, social, and cultural rights. Sates must refrain from interfering with the enjoyment of these rights, take steps to protect individuals from harm or abuse, and take positive steps to ensure that individuals are able to enjoy these rights. Analysing the right to promote, it is important to note that: “ States have an obligation of the to promote the welfare of its individual citizens 530 ”. It was declared in the first two drafts of the American Declaration of the Rights and Duties of Man prepared by the Inter-American Juridical Committee. Thus, the four types of obligations to protect, respect, fulfill, and promote economic, social and cultural rights are important because they provide a framework for governments to ensure that all individuals within their jurisdiction can fully enjoy rights of the second generation possible. Overall, the four types of obligations are critical for ensuring that 528 Yakye Axa Indigenous Community v . Paraguay (Articles of 4, 8, 21, 25 of the American Convention) Inter - American Court of Hu man Rights Se ries C No 125 ( June 17, 2005) . 529 Manuel Cepeda V argas v. Colombi a ( Artic les 23 and 16 of the American Conventio n ) Inter - American Cou rt of Human R ights S eries C No 213 (May 26, 2010) ; B azán V, ‘ Control de conv encionalidad, aperturas dia lógicas e influencias jurisdiccionales recíprocas ’ in R evista E uropea de D erechos F undam entales ( № 18/ 2 , 2011) P.75. 530 Inter - American Ju ridical Co mmitte e, ‘ Draft Declaration of the Int ernational Rights and Dut ies of M a n and Accompanyin g Report ’ E/CN.4/2 ( Was hingt on 1947) P .21 - 22 . 149 all individuals can live free from discrimination, abuse, and oppression, and are able to enjoy the full range of their economic, social and cultural rights. 2.3. Selected case-law of the Inter-American Commission and Court of Human Rights on state obligations aimed at economic, social, and cultural rights protection i. Positive and negative state obligations In recent decades the massive and systematic violations of civil and political rights were the subject of litigations. For this reason, V. Ambramovich considers that economic, social, and cultural rights have not been “a common subject of complaints before the Inter-American Commission on Human Rights 531 ”. Ge nerally, the Inter-American Court of Human Rights found that a S tate violated a duty to protect rights of the second generation (for example, in cases od Mapiripán Massacre v. Colombia , Ituango Massacres v. Colombia 532 wh ere the massacres caused the forced eviction, and the loss of their homes and means of livelihood. In the case- law of the Inter-American Commission and Court of Human Rights considered different types of state obligations to protect economic, social, and cultural rights which correspond state obligations of rights of the first generation. In accordance with an opinion of Burgorgue-Larsen Laurence, “the dichotomy negative/positive obligation dichotomy has never been determinative in the jurisprudence of the Inter-American Court of Human Rights 533 ”. In addition, in the first two drafts of the American Declaration of the Rights and Duties of Man wh ich were prepared by the Inter-American Juridical Committee, i t was proposed that “newer economic and social rights of a positive character which [had] come to be recognized… as a necessary inference from the conception of the democratic state as a cooperative commonwealth seeking the general welfare of all its members 534 .There are some examples of positive state’s obligations on economic, social, and cultural right protection. For examp le, in the case of Acevedo-Buendía et al. v. Peru it is stated that: “the States are under the positive 531 A mbramovich V, ‘ Los dere chos economicos , sociales y culturales en la denuncia ante la Comisión Interamericana de Derechos Humanos ’ , in Present e y Futur o de los Derecho s Humanos : Ensay os en hono r a F. V. J imnez ( Instituto Interamerican o de Derechos Humano s, San José, Costa Rica, 1997) P.137 . 532 Mapiri pán Massac re v . Co l ombia ( Article 25 of the American Conventio n) Inter - American Court of H uman R ights Series C No 140 ( September 15, 2005 ); Ituango Massacres v. Colombia ( Arti cles 6.2, 7 of the American Conventio n) Inter - American Court of H uman R ights Series S No 148 ( July 1, 2006 ). 533 Aliverti M , ‘P ositive Obligatio ns in the Inter - American System’ in Interrights Bulletin (2006) P . 120. 534 Inter - American Ju ridical Co mmitte e, ‘ Draft Declaration of the Int ernational Rights and Dut ies of M a n and Accompanyin g Report ’ E/CN.4/2 ( Was hingt on 1947) P .21. 150 obligation of adopting measures in order to guarantee the satisfaction of [economic, social and cultural rights], but this obligation was considered to be subject to the economic and financial resources of the States” 535 . Considering another right - the right to health, in the case of Jorge Odir Miranda Cortéz and others v. El Salvador , the State (re spondent) did not provide medicines for HIV treatment. The Inter-American Commission on Human Rights indicated that : “it will interpret the provisions of Article 10 of the San Salvador Protocol on the Right to Health in the light of the provisions of Articles 26 and 29 of the American Convention on Human Rights 536 ”. In another decision, Mendoza Beatriz Silva and others v. Argentina , the Inter-American Court of Human Rights “ordered the defendants to take positive measures to improve the quality of life of the population of the Matanza/Riachuelo River basin, compensate for environmental damage and prevent similar consequences in the future without direct reference to the provisions of international human rights law 537 ”. Moreover, the Inter-American Court of Human Rights “has focused on issues that have far-reaching implications in terms of human rights and their relationship to the state of the environment, including health, sanitation and a healthy environment 538 ”. This decision contains “an action plan: to ensure more timely and comprehensive public awareness of the current situation [p. 17.II]; containment and elimination of the consequences of industrial pollution [p. 17.III]; commissioning of additional water supply facilities, as well as sewerage and sanitation [p. 17, VI–VIII]; development of emergency medical response plan [item 17.IX]; as well as the creation of an international monitoring system to assess the achievement of the goals set out in the plan. The Court clarified 535 Acevedo Buendia et al. ( ‘ Discharged and Retired Employees of the Comptroller ’ ) v. P eru ( Articles 1, 21, 25 of the American Conventio n) Inter - American Cou rt of H uman R ights Series C No 54 (July 1, 2009 ) ; Sawhoyamaxa Indigenous Community v . Paraguay ( Articl es of 3, 4 .1, 8, 21, 25 of the American Convention) Inter - Americ an Court of Human Rights Series C No 146 ( Mar ch 29, 2006) ; Gon zalez - Salzberg D.A, ‘Economic and social rights within the Int er - American Human Rights System: thinking s trategies for obtaining judicial protection ’ in 18 International Law, Revista Co lombiana de Derec ho Internacional, (2011), P . 117 - 154 < http: //www.scielo.org. co/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid =S1692 - 81562011000100005#nota_36 > accesse d 19 March 2023 . 536 Jorge O dir Miranda Cortéz and Others v. El Sal vador ( Articles 2, 24, 25, and 26 of the American Con ventio n) Inter - American Cour t of H uman R ights case № 12.249 ( Mar ch 20, 200 9). 537 Mendoza Beat riz Sil va et al v. State of Ar gentina et al ( Articles 41 and 43 of the Fun damental Law and Article 30 of Law 25. 675, the National State and the Provi nce of Buenos Aires ) Supreme Court of A rgentine File M. 1569. XL (J uly 8, 2008 ) < https://www.icj.org/escr_lit igation/mendoza - beatriz - silva - et - al -v- state -o f- argentina - et - al - file - m- 1569 - xl/ > acce ssed 20 March 2023. 538 Mendoza Beat riz Sil va et al v. State of Ar gentina et al ( Articles 41 and 43 of the Fun damental Law and Article 30 of Law 25. 675, the National State and the Provi nce of Buenos Aires ) Supreme Court of A rgentine File M. 1569. XL (J uly 8, 2008 ) < https://www.icj.org/escr_lit igation/mendoza - beatriz - silva - et - al -v- state -o f- argentina - et - al - file - m- 1569 - xl/ > acce ssed 20 March 2023. 151 that the main goal should be to improve the quality of life of the local population [paragraph 17.I] 539 ”. More than 10 years later, in the case of Cuscul Pivaral and Others v. Guatemala , the Inter-American Court of Human Rights explained that this rights “is protected by Article 26 of the American Convention on Human Rights; the protection of [it] requires the State guarantee timely and appropriate medical care in accordance with the principles of availability, accessibility, acceptability and quality; the State should pay special attention to providing medical care to vulnerable and marginalized groups 540 ”. Next right to analyse – the right to health care. In the case Poblete Vilches and Others v. Chile , being an autonomous right, the right to health care “requires States to properly regulate medical services under conditions of maintaining equality and non-discrimination, as well as providing support to vulnerable groups of the population; the elderly should enjoy increased protection in the field of healthcare in cases of prevention and urgent care 541 ”. In the case I.V. v. Bolivia , the Inter-American Court examined women's right to freedom and autonomy in relation to sexual health issues. This right “has historically been restricted, restrained, or rejected as a result of negative and harmful gender stereotypes. Such stereotypes could influence and influence access to information about a woman's sexual and reproductive health, as well as the process and method of obtaining such consent. Sterilization in the absence of informed consent is a product of historical inequality between men and women and affects women disproportionately because of their socially assigned reproductive role and responsibility for contraception 542 ”. The Inter-American Court of H uman Rights decided that: “the State should apply preventive measures to ensure the right to make its own decisions regarding w omen's reproductive health and to choose contraceptive measures more adapted to a woman's life plan 543 ”. 539 Mendoza Beat riz S ilva et a l v. State of Argent ina e t al ( Arti cles 4 1 and 43 of the Fu ndamental Law and Article 30 of Law 25. 675, the National State and the Provi nce of Buenos Aires ) Supreme Court of A rgentine File M. 1569. XL (J uly 8, 2008 ) < https://www.icj.org/escr_lit igation/mendoza - beatriz - silva - et - al -v- state -o f- argentina - et - al - file - m- 1569 - xl/ > acce ssed 20 March 2023. 540 С uscul P ivaral et al. v. G uatemala ( Arti cles 26 of the American Conventio n) Inter - American Cour t of H uman R ights S eries C No 359 (A ugust 23, 2018 ) < https://www.corteidh.or.cr/docs /casos/articulos/ seriec_359 ing.pdf > accessed 20 March 2023. 541 Poblete Vilches and Others v. Chile ( Art icles 26, 1(1), 4, 5, 13, 7 and 11 the American Conventio n) Inter - American Court of H uman R ights S eries C No 349 (March 8, 2018) < https://www.corteidh.or.cr/docs/ c asos/ar tic ulos/seriec_349_ing.pdf > accessed 21 March. 542 I.V. v. Bolivia ( Article s 5.1, 7 .1, 11.1 ,1 1.2 , 13.1 , 17 .2 of the American Conventio n) Inter - American Court of H uman R ights Series C No 329 (Nove mber 30, 2016) < https://www.corteidh.or.cr/docs/casos/ articulos/seriec_329 _ing.pdf > a ccessed 20 M arch. 543 I.V. v. Bolivia ( Article s 5.1, 7 .1, 11.1 ,1 1.2 , 13.1 , 17 .2 of the American Conventio n) Inter - American Court of H uman R ights Series C No 329 (Nove mber 30, 2016) < https://www.corteidh.or.cr/docs/casos/ articulos/seriec_329 152 A rights which also requires the positive obligations from states is the right to cultural expression. On June 27, 2012, the Inter-American Court of Human Rights unanimously decided that : “in accordance with the provisions of Article 21, the State of Ecuador is responsible for violating the rights to cultural identity of indigenous peoples of the American Convention, with respect to its Articles 1.1 and 2, to the detriment of the indigenous peoples of Kichwa de Sarayaku due to the permission of private oil companies have been engaged in oil exploration on their territory since the late 1990s without consulting them earlier 544 ”. “The Inter-American Court of Human Rights reiterated that, since the hereditary rights of indigenous communities on their territory are not defined, other fundamental rights may be affected, such as the right to cultural identity and the very survival of indigenous communities and their members. Since the effective enjoyment and exercise of the right to communal ownership of land ensures t hat members of indigenous communities preserve their heritage, States must respect these special relationships in order to guarantee their social, cultural, and economic survival. In addition, the close connection of the territory was recognized with traditions, customs, languages, art, rituals, knowledge and other aspects of the identity of indigenous peoples, noting that, depending on their environment, their integration with nature and its history, members of indigenous communities transmit from generation to generation this intangible cultural heritage, which is constantly recreated by members of indigenous communities and groups 545 ”. Considering economic rights, one of the examples is the right on communal land ownership. In the case of Awas Tingni Community v Nicaragua the Inter-American Court of Human Rights stated that: “these rights should be recognized in the Nicaraguan Constitution, as well as regulated in the national law in accordance with the American Convention on Human Rights. Therefore, under Article 2 of the American Convention on Human Rights, the State must take the necessary legislative, administrative, and other measures to establish an effective mechanism for the identification and ownership of such property by members of the Mayagna Awas Tingni community in accordance with the law, values, traditions, and customs of that community 546 ”.The Government also “must provide replacement lands of equivalent size and _ing.pdf > a ccessed 20 M arch. 544 Kichwa indigenous people of Sarayaku v. Ecuador ( Article 21 of the American Convention) Inter - American Court of Human Righ ts Series C No 245 (J une 27, 2012) < http://corteidh.or.cr/ docs/casos/articulos/seriec_245_ Ing .pdf > accessed 19 Mar ch 2023. 545 Kichwa indigenous people of Sarayaku v. Ecuador ( Article 21 of the American Convention) Inter - American Court of Human Righ ts Series C No 245 (J une 27, 2012) < http://corteidh.or.cr/ docs/casos/articulos/seriec_245_ Ing .pdf > accessed 19 Mar ch 2023. 546 Mayagna (Sum o) Awas Tingn i Communit y v. Nicara gua (Article s 1, 2, 21 and 25 of the American Conventio n) Inter - American Co urt of H uman R ights Series C No 4 ( Augus t 31, 2001 ) < https ://www.corteidh.or.cr/docs/casos/a rticulos/seriec_79_ing.pdf > accessed 19 March 2023. 153 quality, to be de termined by agreement with community members and in accordance with their own decision-making and negotiation processes 547 ”. Another example of positive State’s obligations is for the right to work under Article 26 of the Inter-American Convention on Human Rights. The Inter-American Court of Human Rights stated that: “[ T]he State's duties with regard to the protection of the right to stable employment in the private sphere are mainly expressed in the following requirements: - ta king appropriate measures to properly regulate and monitor compliance with the s aid right, -ensuring protection of workers by the competent authorities against unfair dismissal, -restoration of rights in case of unfair dismissal (through reinstatement or, as the case may be, compensation or other payments provided for in national legislation, as the case may be), - the right to work in the private sphere 548549 ”. Very similarly, in an issue of the right to work stability, in the case Lagos del Campo v. Peru , the Inter-American Court of Human Rights analysed “the scope and content of [this right] from the Charter of the Organization of American States and the American Declaration of Human Rights and Duties, [and] the rules of interpretation established in Article 29 of the American Convention on Human Rights, international and regional corpus juris, and the legislation of Peru, [and ] established, that the protection of the right to work stability in the private sphere corresponds to the specific duties of the state, such as adequate regulation and audit, protection of employees from unjustified dismissals, provision of remedies in case of unjustified dismissal and the creation of effective legal mechanisms 550 ”, which are by nature positive. 547 Sawhoyamaxa Indigenous Community v . Paraguay ( Arti cles of 3, 4 .1, 8, 21, 25 of the American Convention) Inter - American Cour t of Human Rights Series C No 146 ( March 29 , 2006) . 548 Parra O, Tarr e P, ‘The Inter - American Cour t of Human Rights: A revi ew of the jurisprudence of 20 17’ in International Justice (20 1 8 ) P . 3. 549 Lagos del Campo v . Pe ru ( Articl es 13, 8, 26, 16, 1(1) and 2 of the Americ an Conventio n) Inter - American Court of Human R ights Series C No 340 (31 A ugust 2017). 550 Lagos del Campo v . Pe ru ( Articl es 13, 8, 26, 16, 1(1) and 2 of the Americ an Conventio n) Inter - American Court of Human R ights Series C No 340 (31 A ugust 2017). 256 ü be the continuous improvement of the standard of living of all members of society to the greatest extent possible in the light of economic conditions, and the fair distribution of available resources as well as the equal sharing of burdens; ü declare their intention of maintaining a high level of production, a growing liberalization of trade, financial stability and a high level of employment. Other principles whose inclusion might be considered were various (for example, security of employment for everyone; wages or other remunerations sufficient to guarantee a decent living for the workers and their families; equal pay for work of equal value; safe and healthy working conditions; sufficient rest and leisure ; p eriodic holidays with pay; facilities for healthy spare time activities; social security covering all ordinary contingencies; general health protection; general family protection; special protection for certain groups (mothers, children and young persons, physically and mentally handicapped, aged persons); fair distribution of economic burdens through a just taxation system with effective control of tax evasion; adequate food, clothing and housing for everyone)), What legislative gaps have the countries considered at the regional level regarding social rights? 1) Employment of older workers. This has recently been given careful consideration both on the national and international plane. It is studied from the point of view of national economy – to utilize the economic value in skill and experience of older people as long as possible and if socially and economically desirable. The possibility should be opened for the older workers to continue their work if they so desire through an appropriate organization of the working processes, so that the skill of these workers can be utilized, with due consideration to their physical abilities and without danger of over strain. They should not be forced to continue their work by any direct or indirect means, such as, for example, by the raising of the ordinary pensionable age. Furthermore, the question of retiring age has been placed on the Agenda of the Regional European Conference. 2) Obtaining full employment 924 ; 924 The Asse mbly recall s that it has already adopted three Recommendatio ns on a co mmon policy for full employment, namely: Recommendation 25(1950), Recommendation 5 (1951) and Recommendation 10 (1951) . See more n.10 of Consu ltative Assembly of the Council of Europe , ‘ Official Re po rt ’ on ‘ Debat e on the Rep ort of the Committee on Social Questions expressing an opinion on Chapter III of the Special Message of the Committee of Ministers dealing wit h the socia l program of the Council of Europe ’ Doc. 252 (2 8 th May 195 4 ). 257 3) Vocational training 925 , particularly from the point of view of the retraining of workers who have become unemployed, adult workers and young people 926 . M. Haekkerup from Denmark on debate on the Report of the Committee on Social Q uestions expressing an opinion on the [European Social] Chapter III of the Special Message of the Committee of Ministers dealing with the social program of the Council of Europe underlined the importance of the question of demographic development which brings a great number of young persons 927 . These issues were designed to cover existing gaps in the legislation. To sum up, after the Second World War, there was a growing recognition among countries that economic, social, and cultural rights were essential for ensuring the well-being and dignity of individuals. It is important to note that the recognition and protection of rights of the second generation has not been consistent across all countries and regions because some countries have been more resistant to th is idea. The adoption of the European Social Charter 1961 was motivated by a desire of European counties to address the social and economic problem s facing Europe in the aftermath of World War II. The Charter was considered as a way of promoting social justice and reducing inequality. Based on opinion of D. Gomien, D. Harris, and l. Zwook, the European Social Charter was designe d to require that “State Parties uphold the European Social Chapter Standards, irrespective of their national resources, and that they do so immediately upon ratification” 928 . The Charter has been ratified by most of the countries in Europe, and it is legally binding on those countries that have ratified it. Moreover, the adoption of the European Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms and the European Social Charter was not a copy of the actions of states at the universal level. Both documents were specific to Europe and were guided and inspired by principles and norms of human rights emerging at the universal level. 925 The whole quest ion of vocational t raining is bei ng studied by var ious other int ernational org anizations. The Assembly wished to draw part icular attention to International Labour Organization № 8 8, conc erning the vocational training of adults, includi ng disabled persons. This Recommendation, which was adopted by the International Conference in 1930, contains a special chapter on international co - operation in the t raining of adults . It might well serve as a basis for the work of the Council of Europe in this fi eld. See m ore at n.11 of: Consultative Assembly of t he Council of Eur ope , ‘Official Report’ on ‘ Debate on t he Report of the Committee on S ocial Question s ex pressing an opi nion on Chapter II I o f t he Sp ecial Message of the Commit tee of Ministe rs dealing with th e social program of the Counc il of Eur ope ’ Doc.252 (2 8 th May 195 4 ). 926 I bid. 927 Consu ltative Assembly of the Council of Europe , ‘Official Report’ on ‘ Debate o n the Report of the Committ ee on Social Questions expressing an O pinion on Chapter III of the Special Message of the Committee of Ministers dealing with the s ocial program of the Council of Europe ’ ( Speech of M. H aekkerup ( Denmark) ) Doc . 252 (2 8 th May 19 5 4 ). 928 G omien D , H arris D , Z wak L , ‘ Law and pra ctice of the European Convention on Human Rights and the European Soci al Charter ’ ( Council of Europe Pub lishing , Strasbourg, 1996 ) P. 381. 258 3.2. A comparative analysis of the European Social Charter 1961, the Revised European Social Charter 1996 and the European Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms 1950 i. Understanding the nature, development and content of economic, social, and cultural rights Based on the theory of Professor M. Mikkola, human rights may be divided into two categories: ü “F undamental human rights. This first c ategory can itself be divided into two types of rights: - firstly, those which can suffer no restriction and no derivation, and which are extremely limited and appear only in the human rights convention, namely Article 2 of the right to life and Article 3 [of European Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms 929 ] of prohibition of inhuman or degrading treatment 930 ” ; - “Secondly, all of the rights which can be claimed immediately by every individual as from the entry into force of the treaty in which they are enshrined but may be subject to restrictions according to certain conditions provided by the said treaty. These are the rights of European Convention for the Protection of H uman Rights and Fundamental Freedoms except the rights which cannot be subject to any restriction. In this category there are many of the rights of the European Social Charter 1961, for e xample the freedom to organize, non-discrimination in employment, and right to education 931 ”. - “Welfare /development rights. The second category is composed only of rights appearing in the European Social Charter 1961 which are of a different nature from the category of fundamental rights because of their complexity, the cost of their implementation for public and/or private authorities, and their link with the economy situation of the country concerned 932 ”. R. Brillat, Executive Secretary of the European Committee of Social Rights, 929 European Convent ion for the Prot ection of Human Right s and Fundamental Fr eedoms (European Convent ion on Human Rights, as amended) (ECHR) <https ://www.echr.coe. int/do cuments/convention_eng.pdf> accessed 26 May 20 23. 930 B rillat R , ‘ Divisio n of soci al human r ights in to fundamen tal right s and wel fare/devel opment rig hts ’ in Reform of the European Social Chart er ( 2011 ) P .47. 931 B rillat R , ‘ Divisio n of soci al human r ights in to fundamen tal right s and wel fare/devel opment rig hts ’ in Reform of the European Social Chart er ( 2011 ) P .47. 932 B rillat R , ‘ Divisio n of soci al human r ights in to fundamen tal right s and wel fare/devel opment rig hts ’ in Reform of the European Social Chart er ( 2011 ) P .47. 259 considered that “several provisions of the European Social Charter 1961 933 proclaim rights constituted of several elements which may belong to either of the two categories” 934 . Moreover, J. Hausermann considers that ensuring social welfare rights is part of governmental responsibility. Economic, social, and cultural rights are a category of human rights, or rights of the second generation, which ensure that individuals and communities have access to basic needs, such as food, housing, education, healthcare, and employment. In other words, L. Senghor, a former President of Senegal stated that: “Human rights begin with breakfast”, the obvious necessity for access to adequate food, shelter, healthcare and other essentials confirmed 935 . For example, M.M. Utyashev and L.M. Utyasheva, Russian scholars, combine the rights enshrined in Articles 22-28 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights of 1948 into one group which is called “economic, social and cultural rights” 936 . According to an opinion of E.A. Lukasheva 937 , instead of one complex term – economic, social and cultural rights, it is more accurate and easier to use specific designations of types of rights: -Social rights. P. Alston made a conclusion that “some social rights remain the poor step - sister of civil and political rights and [that] this is every bit as true within the Council of Europe as elsewhere 938 . -Economic rights. I.A. Fedotov argues that “economic rights are a subsystem in the general system of human and civil rights and freedoms and suggests that they be considered as a set of legal opportunities in the economic sphere enshrined and guaranteed by the Constitution of the Russian Federation, allowing a person and a citizen to participate in the functioning of the economic system of the Russian Federation” 939 . 933 European Social Charter (18 October 1961) ETS 35 <https:/ /rm.coe.int/ 168006b642> accesse d 25 May 2023. 934 B rillat R , ‘ Division of social human rights into fundamental rights and welfare/deve lopment rights ’ in Reform of the European Social Chart er ( 2011 ) P .47. 935 B eddard R , H ill M.D , ‘ Economic, Social and Cultur al Rights: progress and achievement ’ ( Macmi llan, Basingstoke 2016 ) P. 49 – 50 < https://www.abebooks.com/book - search/title/economic - social - cultural - rights/ author/beddard/ > accesse d 22 M ay 2023. 936 U tyashev M.M , U tyasheva L.M , ‘ Prava cheloveka v Rossii: sost oyanie i perspektivy ’ ( Ufa, 1997 ) P .20. 937 L ukasheva E.A , ‘ Prava cheloveka ’ in Uchebnik (2- e izd , M oscow, 2010 ) P .1 87. 938 A lston P, ‘ Assess ing the streng ths and weaknesse s of t he Europea n Social Charter’ s Superv isory System ’ in G. Búrca, B. Witte, & L. Ogertsc hnig (Eds. ), Social rights in Europe ( Oxford Uni versity Pr ess , 2005) P .47 < https://doi.org/10.1093/ acprof:oso/9780199287994.003.0004 > accessed 21 May 2023. 939 F edotov I. A, ‘ Ekonomiche skie prava cheloveka i grazh danina v social'nom gosudarstve: sovremenniy opyt Rossii ’ in Avtoref . dis. .. . kand. yuri d. nauk. (Mo scow , 200 9 ) P .7. 260 -Cultural rights. M. Mikkola, a Professor of Labour Law at the University of Helsinki, demonstrated the stages of development of human rights at the European level in: Table “Three generation of human rights” 940 It is important to note that Professor M. Mikkola connected each stage of human rights’ development with the most significant legal documents adopted at the Council of Europe (the European Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms 1950 941 and the European Social Charter 1961 942 ) and in the European Union (the Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union 943 ).The latter document 944 is also significant because it has “consolidated all three generations of rights into one legal document, and their monitoring is done by the same bodies 945 ”.However, there were also other legal documents 940 M ikkola M , ‘ Need to strengthen the monitor ing mechanism of social human right s ’ in Reform of the European Social Charter (2 011 ) P .27 < https://rm.coe.int/168048db08 > accessed 22 May 2023. 941 European Convent ion for the Prot ection of Human Right s and Fundamental Fr eedoms (European Convent ion on Human Rights, as amended) (ECHR) <https ://www.echr.coe. int/do cuments/convention_eng.pdf> accessed 26 May 20 23. 942 European Social Charter (18 October 1961) ETS 35 <https:/ /rm.coe.int/ 168006b642> accesse d 25 May 2023. 943 Charter of Fundamental Right s of the European Union (adopted 1 8 December 2000 ) < https://eur - lex.europa.eu/leg al - content/EN/TXT/?ur i=CELEX :12012P/TX T > accessed 26 May 2023. 944 Ibid. 945 M ikkola M , ‘ Need to stren gthen t he monit oring mechanism o f soci al human right s ’ in Reform of the European Social Charter (2 011 ) P .27 - 28 < https://rm.coe.i nt/168048db08 > accessed 22 May 2023. 261 which have contributed to the development of economic, social, and cultural rights and which should not be underestimated. It is a wide list, but in the analysis of social rights, there are: - the European Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms 1950 946 which regulates rights of the first generation, civil and political rights (for example, the right to life, liberty and personal integrity, respect for private and family life, freedom of thought, conscience and religion, the right to an effective remedy, etc. ) and indirectly protects economic, social and cultura l rights. The Convention includes provisions related to economic, social, and cultural rights. For example, Article 2 of the European Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms 1950 947 protects the right to life, which includes a duty on the part of the state to take positive steps to protect individuals from threats to their health and well-being. It can include ensuring access to healthcare, clean water, and adequate food. Article 3 of the European Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms 1950 948 prohibits torture and inhuman or degrading treatment, which includes a duty on the part of the state to ensure that individuals have access to necessities such as s helter, and medical care. Article 8 of the European Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms 1950 949 protects the right to respect for private and family life, which can include economic and social aspects such as the right to family reunification, social security, and adequate housing. Article 14 of the European Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms 1950 950 prohibits discrimination on various grounds, including social and economic status, which can affect access to education, employment, and other basic rights. Mo reover, the European Court of Human Rights has also recognized the importance of economic, social, and cultural rights in its jurisprudence, particularly in cases related to access to healthcare, education, and housing. - the Protocol № 1 to the European Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms 1952 951 which enshrined the right to education. 946 European Convent ion for the Prot ection of Human Right s and Fundamental Fr eedoms (European Convent ion on Human Rights, as amended) (ECHR) <https ://www.echr.coe. int/do cuments/convention_eng.pdf> accessed 26 May 20 23. 947 Ibid, Article 2. 948 Ibid, Article 3. 949 Ibid, Article 8. 950 Ibid, Article 14. 951 Article 5. Protocol № 1 to Europea n Convention for t he Protection of Human Ri ghts and Fundamental Freedoms (ad opted 20 March 1952 ) ETS 9 < https://www.refworld.org/docid/3ae6b38317.html > accessed 17 May 2023. [Document text truncated for crawler view.]