Universal Numeric Quantifiers in Japanese

©!Iberia:!An!International!Journal!of!Theoretical!Linguistics!vol!4.2,!2012,!40=77! ! ! http://revistas.ojs.es/index.php/iberia!ISSN!1989=8525! ! !!!!!!! Universal!Numeric!Quantifiers!in!Japanese1! ! Masao!Ochi! [email protected]=u.ac.jp! Osaka*University* DOI!to!be!assigned! ! Abstract:!This!paper!examines!a!subtype!of!floating!quantifiers,!in!which!a! universal!quantifier!along!with!a!numeral!appear!at!a!distance!from!their! nominal! associate.! According! to! Cirillo! (2010),! this! floating! universal! numeric! quantifier! (UNQ)! construction! is! found! in! some! (but! not! all)! Romance!and!Germanic!languages.!While!Cirillo!provides!strong!evidence! for!a!stranding!analysis!(cf.!Sportiche,!1988;!Bošković,!2004)!of!the!floating! UNQ!rather!than!an!adverbial!approach!(cf.!Bobaljik,!2004;!Nakanishi,!2006),! his!most!crucial!data!could!be!accommodated!under!a!particular!version!of! the! adverbial! view,! advocated! by! Doetjes!(1997)! and! Fitzpatrick! (2006),! which!postulates!pro!inside!a!base=generated!adjunct!nominal.!Building!on! Kawashima’s! (1994;! 1998)! observations! about! Japanese,! this! paper! argues! that!(i)!Japanese!also!has!the!adnominal/floating!UNQ!and!(ii)!the!stranding! approach! is! superior! to! the!pro=based! adverbial! analysis! noted! above! in! handling!the!floating!UNQ.!To!show!this,!I!will!examine!in!some!depth!the! syntax!of!adnominal!quantification!in!Japanese!(and!Chinese)!with!a!special! focus! on! the! ways! in! which! numeral! classifiers! interact! with! other! adnominal!elements.!Several!theoretical!consequences!of!the!analysis!will!be! explored,!including!the!nature!of!quantifier!stranding!and!syntactic!locality.! Keywords:*floating*quantifier,*Japanese,*noun*phrase,*numeral*classifier.* !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! !!!!!!!! 1!It!is!a!great!honour!for!me!to!be!able!to!contribute!this!paper!for!the!special! issue!in!honour!of!Andrew!Radford.!Andrew!taught!me!the!foundations!of!syntactic! theory!when!I!was!a!new!graduate!student!at!Essex!20!years!ago.!He!helped!me!work! on! the! structure! of! the! noun! phrase! in!Japanese!for! my! MA! thesis,! and! now! I! am! revisiting!the!same!issue!in!this!paper.!! The! material! in! this! paper! grew! out! of! recent! collaborative!work! with! Jim! Huang!(Huang!and!Ochi,!2011;!2012).!I!would!like!to!thank!Jim!for!discussing!with!me! various!issues!in!the!syntax!and!semantics!of!noun!phrases!in!East!Asian!languages.! My!sincere!thanks!also!go!to!two!anonymous!reviewers!for!useful!comments,!and!to! the! editors! of! Iberia!for! excellent! editorial! assistance.! This! research! is! financially! supported!by!the!Grant=in=Aid!for!Scientific!Research!(C)!(No.!22520398),!the!Ministry! of!Education,!Culture,!Sports,!Science,!and!Technology!of!Japan.! ! ©!Iberia:!An!International!Journal!of!Theoretical!Linguistics!vol!4.2,!2012,!40=77! ! ! http://revistas.ojs.es/index.php/iberia!! ISSN!1989=8525! 41! Masao!Ochi! Resumen:!Este!artículo!examina!un!subtipo!de!los!cuantificadores!flotantes,! en!el!que!un!cuantificador!universal!junto!con!un!numeral!aparece!a!una! cierta!distancia!de!su!asociado!nominal.!De!acuerdo!con!!Cirillo!(2010),!esta! construcción! de! cuantificador! numérico! universal! flotante! (CNU)! es! encontrada! en! algunas! (pero! no! todas)! lenguas! románicas! y! germánicas.! Mientras! Cirillo! facilita! evidencia! contundente! para! un! análisis! de! encallamiento!(cf.!Sportiche,!1988;!Bošković,!2004)!del!CNU!flotante!en!lugar! de!una!aproximación!adverbial!(cf.!Bobaljik,!2004;!Nakanishi,!2006),!su!dato! más!crucial!podría!ser!acomodado!bajo!una!versión!partícular!de!la!visión! adverbial,! defendida! por! Doetjes!(1997)! y! Fitzpatrick! (2006),!quienes! postulan!que!pro!se!encuentra!dentro!de!un!adjunto!nominal!generado!en!su! posición!superficial.!Basándome!en!las!observaciones!del!japonés!llevadas!a! cabo! por! Kawashima!(1994;! 1998),! este! artículo! arguye! que! (i)! el! japonés! también! tiene! el! CNU! adnominal/flotante!y! (ii)! la! aproximación! de! encallamiento! es! superior! al! análisis! adverbial! basado=pro!observado! anteriormente!en!el!manejo!del!CNU!flotante.!Con!el!fin!de!demostrar!esto,! examinaré!con!cierta!profundidad!la!sintaxis!de!la!cuantificación!adnominal! del!japonés!(y!chino)!prestando!especial!atención!a!las!formas!en!las!que!los! clasificadores! nominales! interaccionan! con! otros! elementos! adnominales.! Varias! consecuencias! teóricas! del! análisis! serán! analizadas,! incluida! la! naturaleza!del!encallamiento!del!cuantificador!y!la!localidad!sintáctica.! Palabras* clave: Cuantificador* flotante,* japonés,* sintagma* nominal,* clasificador* numeral.* Resumo:*Este!artigo!analisa!um!subtipo!de!quantificadores!flutuantes,!em! que!um!quantificador!universal!e!um!numeral!surgem!distantes!do!nome!ao! qual!estão!associados.!De!acordo!com!Cirillo!(2010),!estes!'ʹquantificadores! numerais!universais'ʹ!(UNQ)!flutuantes!surgem!em!algumas!(mas!não!todas)! línguas! românicas! e! germânicas.! Apesar! de! Cirillo! apresentar! fortes! evidências!para!uma!análise!de!encalhe!(e.g.,!Sportiche!1988,!Bošković!2004)! para! os! UNQ! flutuantes! em! vez! de! uma! análise! adverbial! (Bobaljik! 2004,! Nakanishi!2006),!os!dados!apresentados!devem! ser!analisados!a!partir!de! uma!versão!da!análise!adverbial,!postulada!por!Doetjes!(1997)!e!Fitzpatrick! (2006),!segundo!a!qual!pro!está!inserido!num!adjunto!adnominal!gerado!na! base.!Partindo!das!observações!de!Kawashima!(1994,!1998)!para!o!Japonês,! este! artigo! defende! que:! (i)! o! japonês! também! tem! UNQ! adnominais/flutuantes!e!(ii)!a!análise!de!encalhamento!é!mais!adequada!do! que! a! análise! adverbial,! já! apresentada,! para! explicar! os! UNQ! flutuantes.! Neste! sentido,! examinarei! a!sintaxe! dos! quantificadores! adnominais! no! japonês!(e!no!chinês)!com!especial!enfoque!na!forma!como!os!classificadores! numerais!interagem!com!outros!elementos!de!natureza!adnominal.!Diversas! consequências!teóricas!da!análise!serão!exploradas,!incluindo!a!natureza!do! quantificador!encalhado!e!localidade!sintática.! Palavras2chave:*quantificador*flutuante,*japonês,*sintagma*nominal,*classificador* numeral.* * ! ©!Iberia:!An!International!Journal!of!Theoretical!Linguistics!vol!4.2,!2012,!40=77! ! ! http://revistas.ojs.es/index.php/iberia!! ISSN!1989=8525! 42! Universal!Numeric!Quantifiers!in!Japanese! 1.!!Introduction! The!main!focus!of!this!paper!is!a!subtype!of!the!floating!quantifier!(FQ)! construction.!(1b)!shows!a!typical!example!of!this!construction.!! (1)! a.!All!the!students!have!left!the!party.! !b.!The!students!have!all!left!the!party.! There!has!been!debate!in!the!literature!about!whether!pairs!like!(1)!are! related!in!terms!of!transformation.!One!prominent!view,!typically!ascribed!to! Sportiche’s! (1988)! seminal! work,! is! known! as! the! ‘stranding’! approach! (see! Bošković,!2004!for!a!recent!analysis!along!these!lines).!According!to!this!view,!a! ‘floating’! quantifier! and! its! nominal! associate! (the* students! in! the! above! examples)!form!a!constituent!at!some!(early)!point!in!the!derivation!and!are! subsequently! separated! in! the! course! of! the! derivation.! Another! prominent! view!takes!the!FQ!to!be!a!base=generated!adverb!of!some!kind!(see!Bobaljik,! 2004!among!others).!Languages!like!Japanese!are!known!to!allow!quantifiers! other!than!universal!quantifiers,!including!numeral!classifiers,!to!be!separated! from! their! nominal! associates.! Not! surprisingly,! such! paradigms! in! Japanese! have! also! been! the! focus! of! intense! debate,! with! some! scholars! adhering! to! (variants!of)!the!stranding!approach!(following!Miyagawa’s!(1989)!early!work)! and! others! arguing! vehemently! in! favour! of! the! adverbial! approach! (see! for! example!Nakanishi’s!(2007)!recent!discussion!along!these!lines).!! Against! this! background,! this! paper! deals! with! a! subtype! of! floating! quantifiers! that! Cirillo! (2010)! calls! the! floating! universal! numeric! quantifier! (henceforth!UNQ),!which,!according!to!Cirillo,!is!found!in!some!Germanic!and! Romance! languages.! The! Dutch! example! in! (2a)! exemplifies! the! UNQ! construction!(all!Dutch!examples!in!this!paper!are!taken!from!Cirillo,!2010).!Just! like! in! (2a),! alle* drie! 'ʹall! three'ʹ! in! (2b)! modifies! the! subject! de* studenten! 'ʹthe! students'ʹ,! even! though! alle* drie! appears! separately! from! the! subject! noun.! Following! Cirillo! (2010),! I! will! refer! to! examples! like! (2b)! as! the! floating/stranded!UNQ!construction.! (2)! a.!Alle!drie!de!studenten!hebben!het!boek!gelezen.! ! !all!three!the!students!have!!the!book!read! !b.!De!studenten!hebben!alle!drie!het!boek!gelezen.! the!students!have!all!three!the!book!read! ! ! ©!Iberia:!An!International!Journal!of!Theoretical!Linguistics!vol!4.2,!2012,!40=77! ! ! http://revistas.ojs.es/index.php/iberia!! ISSN!1989=8525! 43! Masao!Ochi! One!important!feature!of!Cirillo’s!(2010)!analysis!is!that!the!floating!UNQ! clearly!resists!an! adverbial!analysis.!When! a!universal! quantifier! in!Dutch! is! stranded! on! its! own,! it! may,! and! often! does,! take! the! adverbial! form! (=maal! being!an!adverbial!suffix),!as!shown!in!(3b).!However,!it!cannot!appear!in!the! adverbial!form!in!the!UNQ!construction,!as!shown!in!(4b):!! (3)! a.!Al!de!studenten!hebben!het!boek!gelezen.! !all!the!students!have!the!book!read! !b.!De!studenten!hebben!allen/allemaal!het!boek!gelezen.! !the!students!have!all/all!(adv.)!the!book!read! (4)! a.!Alle!drie!de!studenten!hebben!het!boek!gelezen.! !all!three!the!students!have!the!book!read! !b.!*De!studenten!hebben!alle!/*allemaal!drie!het!boek!gelezen.! ! ! ! ! the!students!have!all/!all!(adv.)!three!the!book!read! While!this!fact!clearly!favors!the!splitting/stranding!view!of!the!floating! UNQ,!it!might!still!be!accommodated!under!a!version!of!the!adverbial!view,! advocated!by!Doetjes!(1997)!and!Fitzpatrick!(2006),!which!postulates!pro!inside! an!adjunct,!as!shown!in!(5):!! (5)! The!students!have![all!pro]!left!the!party.! Proponents!of! this!line! of! analysis!might! be!able! to!argue! that! the!adverbial! form!is!barred!from!the!floating!UNQ!because!it!is!a!nominal!adjunct:! (6)! De!studenteni!hebben![VP![alle/*allemaal!drie!proi]![VP!het!boek!gelezen]]! In! this! paper,! I! will! analyze! Japanese! examples! like! (7)! below,! which! were!originally!discussed!by!Kawashima!(1994,!1998):! (7)! taro=wa!! gyooza=o! (sono!toki)! hyakuBko!subete!tabe=ta.! !Taro=TOP!dumpling=ACC!that!time!100=CL!∀!eat=PAST! ! ‘Taro!ate!all!of!the!100!dumplings!(at!that!time).’! Here,!a!case!particle!appears!on!the!noun!gyooza!‘dumpling,’!which!is!followed! by!a!numeral!classifier!(NC)!and!a!universal!quantifier.!Although!Kawashima! takes!sequences!such!as!gyoozaCo*hyakuCko*subete!‘dumpling=acc!100=CL!∀’!to!be!a! nominal!constituent,!I!assume!the!contrary,!mainly!because!adverbs!like!sono* toki!‘that!time’!can!be!freely!inserted!inside!such!sequences,!as!shown!in!this! example.2!I! assume! that! Case=particles! such! as! –ga! and! –o! mark! the! right! boundary!of! the! nominal!constituent,! which!means!that! gyoozaCo!is! a! surface! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! !!!!!!!! 2!Kawashima’s!claim!is!mainly!based!on!the!coordination!of!the!sequence!NCCase+NC+ ∀ ! and! another! nominal,!but! such! data! can! be! reinterpreted! as!the! coordination! of! larger! constituents,!such!as!VPs!(see!Koizumi,!2000).! ! ©!Iberia:!An!International!Journal!of!Theoretical!Linguistics!vol!4.2,!2012,!40=77! ! ! http://revistas.ojs.es/index.php/iberia!! ISSN!1989=8525! 44! Universal!Numeric!Quantifiers!in!Japanese! constituent!on!its!own!in!the!above!example.!Given!the!similarity!between!the! UNQ!in!Germanic/Romance!(as!explained!by!Cirillo)!and!examples!like!(7)!in! Japanese,!I!will!explore!the!hypothesis!that!the!latter!is!also!an!instance!of!the! floating/stranded!UNQ.!! This!paper!has!two!major!goals.!First,!it!aims!to!provide!evidence!from! Japanese! that! even! the! Doetjes/Fitzpatrick! type! of! adverbial! analysis! is! inadequate! for! handling! the! floating! UNQ.! Second,! it! aims! to! identify! the! underlying!(i.e.,!pre=stranding)!structure!of!the!floating!UNQ!in!Japanese.!Due! to!the!intricate!nature!of!the!discussions!leading!to!the!identification!of!the!pre= stranding!source!of!the!floating!UNQ!in!Japanese,!I!will!focus!on!this!second! goal!first.!In!order!to!do!this,!I!will!base!my!analysis!on!previous!studies!on!the! syntax!of!noun!phrases!in!Japanese,!especially!Huang!and!Ochi!(2011,!2012).! The!crucial!evidence!for!the!stranding!approach!to!the!floating!UNQ!will!be! presented!towards!the!end!of!the!paper.!! The!paper!is!organized!as!follows:!section!2!introduces!several!properties! of! the! floating! UNQ! construction! in! Japanese.! Section! 3! consists! of! four! subsections,! and! is! devoted! to! the! investigation! of! the! adnominal! (i.e.,! pre= stranding)!UNQ.!I!will!introduce!and!rely!on!some!ideas!from!previous!studies,! especially!Saito!et!al!(2008),!Watanabe!(2006)!and!Huang!and!Ochi!(2011,!2012).! Having!identified!the!most!likely!source!of!the!floating!UNQ!in!section!4,!I!will! explore!some!additional!possible!sources!of!the!floating!UNQ!in!section!5.!A! crucial! piece! of! evidence! against! the! Doetjes/Fitzpatrick! type! analysis! of! the! floating! UNQ! is! also! discussed.! Section! 5! summarizes! and! concludes! the! discussion.! 2.!!Some!properties!of!the!floating!UNQ!in!Japanese! I!would!now!like!to!highlight!three!properties!of!the!floating!UNQ!in! Japanese,!which!will!be!useful!in!the!following!sections!when!probing!into!the! nominal!structure!of!Japanese!to!find!the!adnominal!(i.e.,!pre=stranding)!source! of! examples! like! (7).! First,! the! linear! order! of! a! numeral! and! a! universal! quantifier! cannot! be! reversed,! as! pointed! out! by! Kawashima.! Observe! the! contrast!in!acceptability!between!(7)!and!(8)!below:! ! ! ©!Iberia:!An!International!Journal!of!Theoretical!Linguistics!vol!4.2,!2012,!40=77! ! ! http://revistas.ojs.es/index.php/iberia!! ISSN!1989=8525! 45! Masao!Ochi! !(8)! *Taro=wa!! gyooza=o! (sono!toki)! subete!hyakuBko!tabe=ta.! !!!Taro=TOP!dumpling=ACC!that!time!∀!100=CL!eat=PAST! ! !‘Taro!ate!all!of!the!100!dumplings!(at!that!time).’! Second,! although! Japanese! allows! quantifiers! other! than! universal! quantifiers,!such!as!hotondo!‘most’!and! takusan! ‘many’,!to!float!(see!(9a)),!the! floating/stranded!UNQ!is!only!possible!with!a!universal!quantifier,!as!shown!in! (9b):!! (9)! a.! Taro=wa!tsukue=ni!aru!gyooza=o! takusan/hotondo!tabe=ta.! !Taro=TOP!table=DAT!be!dumpling=ACC!many/most!eat=PAST! ! ‘Taro!ate!many/most!of!the!dumplings!on!the!table.’!! !b.! Taro=wa!tsukue=ni!aru!gyooza=o! hyakuBko! ! !Taro=TOP!table=DAT!be!dumpling=ACC!100=CL! ! ! !*takusan/*hotondo/subete!tabe=ta.! ! !many/most/∀!eat=PAST! ! ! ‘(intended)!Taro!ate!many/most/all!of!the!100!dumplings!on!the!table’!! The!floating/stranded!UNQ!in!Japanese!is,!in!a!sense,!‘well!behaved’,!in!that!a! number!of!languages!only!allow!universal!quantifiers!to!float!(see!Fitzpatrick! 2006),!although!this!property!in!and!of!itself!demands!an!explanation.!! Third,!unlike!the!ordinary!floating!NC,!the!floating!UNQ!is!incompatible! with!a!partitive!interpretation.!This!is!demonstrated!by!the!examples!in!(10).!As! repeatedly! pointed! out! in! the! previous! literature! (see! Inoue! (1978)! and! Watanabe! (2008)! among! others),! a! floating! NC! typically! yields! a! partitive! reading,!especially!when!its!associate!is!a!definite!nominal!(e.g.,!when!the!latter! is! modified! by! a! relative! clause).! In! (10a),! for! example,! gyooza! ‘dumpling’! is! modified! by! a! prenominal! NC,! hyakuCko! ‘100=CL’,! as! well! as! a! floating! NC,! sanjyuCko! ’30=CL’.! The! former! NC! expresses! the! cardinality! of! the! set! of! dumplings!on!the!table,!and!the!latter!NC!(in!conjunction!with!the!denotation!of! the!head!noun)!picks!out!its!subset.!(10b)!shows!that!a!universal!quantifier!can! occur!in!the!same!environment!as!floating!NCs.!However,!(10c),!which!places! the!floating!UNQ!in!the!same!environment,!is!deviant.3! (10)! a.! Taro=wa!tsukue=ni!aru!hyakuBkoBno!gyooza=o! sanjyuBko!tabe=ta.! ! Taro=TOP!table=DAT!be!100=CL=GEN!dumpling=ACC!30=CL!eat=PAST! ! ‘Taro!ate!30!of!the!100!dumplings!on!the!table.’! !b.! Taro=wa!tsukue=ni!aru!hyakuBkoBno!gyooza=o! subete!tabe=ta.! ! Taro=TOP!table=DAT!be!100=CL=GEN!dumpling=ACC!∀!eat=PAST! ! ‘Taro!ate!all!of!the!100!dumplings!on!the!table.’! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! !!!!!!!! 3!The!example!is!of!course!fine!without!the!prenominal!NC!hyakuCko!‘100=CL’.! ! ©!Iberia:!An!International!Journal!of!Theoretical!Linguistics!vol!4.2,!2012,!40=77! ! ! http://revistas.ojs.es/index.php/iberia!! ISSN!1989=8525! 46! Universal!Numeric!Quantifiers!in!Japanese! !c.!*taro=wa!tsukue=ni!aru!hyakuBkoBno!gyooza=o!! !sanjyuBko!subete! ! !Taro=TOP!table=DAT!be!100=CL=GEN!dumpling=ACC!30=CL!∀! ! !tabe=ta! !eat=PAST! ! ! ‘Taro!ate!all!of!the!30!dumplings!out!of!the!100!dumplings!on!the!table.’! 3.!Adnominal!NCs/universal!quantifiers!in!Japanese! With!the!three!properties!identified!in!section!2!at!hand,!attempts!can!be! made!to!see!if!the!‘pre=stranding’!source!of!examples!like!(7)!can!be!identified,! assuming!that!the!floating!UNQ!indeed!involves!stranding!(a!crucial!piece!of! evidence!for!this!position!will!be!presented!towards!the!end!of!the!paper).!! 3.1!Data! First,! it! is! necessary! to! check! the! basic! distribution! of! adnominal! classifiers/quantifiers! in! Japanese.! As! shown! in! (11)! and! (12),! NCs! and! the! universal!quantifier!subete!can!appear!in!three!environments:!(a)!prenominally,! (b)!postnominally,!and!(c)!floating/stranded.! (11)! a.!Taro=wa!jyuBkoBno!(*kinoo)!gyooza=o! (kinoo)!tabe=ta.! ! ! Taro=TOP!10=CL=GEN!yesterday!dumpling=ACC!yesterday!eat=PAST! !'ʹTaro!ate!10!dumplings!(yesterday).'ʹ! ! b.! Taro=wa!gyooza!(*kinoo)!jyuBko=o! (kinoo)!tabe=ta.!! !Taro=TOP!dumpling!yesterday!10=CL=ACC!yesterday!eat=PAST! !'ʹTaro!ate!10!dumplings!(yesterday).'ʹ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! c.! Taro=wa!gyooza=o! (kinoo)!jyuBko! tabe=ta.! ! !Taro=TOP!dumpling=ACC!yesterday!10=CL!eat=PAST! !'ʹTaro!ate!10!dumplings.'ʹ! (12)! a.!Taro=wa!subeteBno!(*kinoo)! gyooza=o!! (kinoo)!tabe=ta.! ! !Taro=TOP!∀=GEN! ! yesterday!!dumpling=ACC!yesterday! eat=PAST! !'ʹTaro!ate!all!of!the!dumplings!(yesterday).'ʹ! !c.!Taro=wa!gyooza!(*kinoo)!subeteBo!(kinoo)!tabe=ta.! ! !Taro=TOP!dumpling!yesterday!∀=ACC!yesterday!eat=PAST! !'ʹTaro!ate!all!of!the!dumplings!(yesterday).'ʹ! !b.!Taro=wa!gyooza=o! (kinoo)!subete!tabe=ta.!! !Taro=TOP!dumpling=ACC!yesterday!∀!eat=PAST! !'ʹTaro!ate!all!of!the!dumplings!(yesterday).'ʹ! I!assume!that!a!prenominal!quantifier!and!a!postnominal!quantifier!are!part!of! the!noun!phrase:!adverbs!like!kinoo!'ʹyesterday'ʹ!cannot!separate!them!from!the! head!noun.! Given!that!subete!‘∀’!and!NCs!can,!in!principle,!appear!prenominally!or! postnominally,!there!are!several!possibilities!to!consider!when!they!combine:! ! ©!Iberia:!An!International!Journal!of!Theoretical!Linguistics!vol!4.2,!2012,!40=77! ! ! http://revistas.ojs.es/index.php/iberia!! ISSN!1989=8525! 47! Masao!Ochi! both!occurring!prenominally!(13),!both!occurring!postnominally!(15),!and!one! of!them!occurring!prenominally!and!the!other!postnominally!(14)!(see!Huang! and!Ochi,!2011,!2012):! (13)! a.!*Taro=wa!subeteBno!hyakuBko=no!gyooza=o! tabe=ta.! !Taro=TOP!∀=GEN!100=CL=GEN!dumpling=ACC!eat=PAST! ! ‘Taro!ate!all!(of!the)!100!dumplings’! !b.!*Taro=wa!hyakuBko=no!subeteBno!gyooza=o! tabe=ta.! ! !Taro=TOP!100=CL=GEN!∀=GEN!dumpling=ACC!eat=PAST! (14)! a.!*Taro=wa!subeteBno!gyooza!hyakuBko=o!tabe=ta.! !Taro=TOP!∀=GEN!dumpling!100=CL=ACC!eat=PAST! ! ! ‘Taro!ate!all!(of!the)!100!dumplings’! !b.!Taro=wa!hyakuBko=no!gyooza!subeteBo! tabe=ta.!! !Taro=TOP!100=CL=GEN!dumpling!∀=ACC!eat=PAS! (15)! a.!*Taro=wa! !gyooza!subete!hyakuBko=o!tabe=ta.! ! ! !Taro=TOP!dumpling!∀!100=CL=ACC!eat=PAST! ! ‘Taro!ate!all!(of!the)!100!dumplings.’! !b.!Taro=wa!gyooza!hyakuBko!subete=o!tabe=ta.! !Taro=TOP!dumpling!100=CL!∀=ACC!eat=PAST! Of! the! six! possibilities! shown! above,! only! two! yield! good! results:! (14b)! and! (15b).!In!particular,!subete!'ʹ∀'ʹ!must!appear!postnominally!in!the!presence!of!an! NC! modifying! the! same! nominal.! The! NC,! on! the! other! hand,! may! appear! prenominally! (14b)! or! postnominally! (15b).! I! will! therefore! proceed! with! the! assumption! that! the! pre=stranding! source! of! the! floating! UNQ! is! the! pattern! shown!in!(14b),!the!one!in!(15b),!or!potentially!both!(see!sections!4!and!5!for! details).!In!the!next!subsection,!I!will!lay!out!some!specific!assumptions!and! proposals!to!deal!with!the!(un)grammaticality!of!(13)=(15).!! 3.2!Theoretical!assumptions!(based!on!Huang!and!Ochi,!2011,!2012)! Regarding! the! syntax! of! adnominal! classifiers,! I! will! essentially! adopt! Huang!and!Ochi'ʹs!(2011,!2012)!proposal,!with!an!eye!to!extending!it!to!the!UNQ! construction.! The! gist! of! their! analysis! is! that! a! prenominal! CL! and! a! postnominal!CL!in!Japanese!should!not!be!given!a!unified!analysis,!contrary!to! Watanabe'ʹs!(2006)!proposal.!To!be!more!specific,!following!Saito!et!al!(2008)!and! Miyamoto!(2009),!Huang!and!Ochi!assume!that!a!prenominal!NC!occurs!as!an! adjunct!to!NP,!as!shown!in!(16).4!Following!Saito!et!al!(2008),!I!also!assume!that! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! !!!!!!!! 4!According!to!Miyamoto!(2009),!the!prenominal!NC!has!a!fairly!large!internal! structure!(i.e.,!a!relative!clause!structure).!I!will!not!go!into!details!here.! ! ©!Iberia:!An!International!Journal!of!Theoretical!Linguistics!vol!4.2,!2012,!40=77! ! ! http://revistas.ojs.es/index.php/iberia!! ISSN!1989=8525! 48! Universal!Numeric!Quantifiers!in!Japanese! any!prenominal!modifier!(e.g.,!adnominal!adjectives,!relative!clauses,!etc.)!has! the!same!adjunct!status!at!the!NP=level.!! (16) a. san-ko-no gyooza 3-CL-GEN dumpling ! ‘three!dumplings’! b. NP ! !!!!!!CLP=no!!!!NP! ! ! ! !!!! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!N! !!!!!san=ko!!!!gyooza!!!!!!!!!! As!for!postnominal!NCs,!Huang!and!Ochi!adopt!Watanabe'ʹs!(2006)!analysis,! shown!in!(17).!According!to!Watanabe,!the!postnominal!NC!is!a!(functional)! head! that! selects! NP! as! its! complement! (see! also! Murasugi,! 1991! and! Kawashima,!1998,!among!many!others),!and!a!number!phrase!is!located!in!the! specifier!of!the!classifier!phrase!(henceforth!CLP).!Watanabe!also!proposes!that! NP!moves!to!the!edge!of!the!(extended)!nominal!domain,!yielding!the!correct! surface!word!order.! (17)! a.!gyooza!san=ko! !dumpling!three=CL! !‘three!dumplings’! !b.! ! !!XP! ! ! ! !!! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!NP!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!X’! ! ! ! ! gyooza!!!CLP!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!X! ! san!!!!!!!!!!CL’! ! ****** ******************** tNP!!!!!!!!!!!!CL* ! ! ! ! ! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!ko! To!the!extent!that!this!line!of!analysis!for!a!numeral!classifier!is!tenable,!one! might! expect! other! quantifiers! to! fall! under! the! same,! non=uniform! analysis.! Accordingly,!I!will!explore!the!idea!that!the!prenominal!subete!‘∀’!is!an!adjunct! to!NP!whereas!the!postnominal!subete!is!a!head!taking!NP!as!its!complement.5! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! !!!!!!!! 5!If!the!postnominal!subete!is!in!the!specifier!of!an!abstract!head!(‘X’!in!(i)!below)! which!selects!NP!as!its!complement,!one!must!assume!that!NP!moves!to!the!edge!of!the! ! ©!Iberia:!An!International!Journal!of!Theoretical!Linguistics!vol!4.2,!2012,!40=77! ! ! http://revistas.ojs.es/index.php/iberia!! ISSN!1989=8525! 55! Masao!Ochi! Third,!Li!further!proposes!that!this!N=to=D!movement!can!be!blocked!by! an!intervening!head,!as!a!violation!of!the!Head!Movement!Constraint!(HMC).! This,!according!to!Li,!is!why!=men!and!a!classifier!cannot!co=occur!(see!(27a)).! (31)! [DP!D![CLP!CL![NP!N]]]! ! ! Now,!one!point!needs!to!be!clarified!in!Li’s!(1999)!analysis!of!Chinese.! Although!not!explicitly!stated,!Li!seems!to!assume!that!N=to=D!movement!takes! place! in! overt! syntax! in! Chinese.! This! is! questionable,! however.! In! Italian,! certain! adnominal! adjectives! (e.g.,! "ʺthematic"ʺ! adjectives)! are! necessarily! preceded!by!the!head!noun,!which!has!often!been!taken!as!evidence!for!(partial)! N=raising! (but! see! also! Cinque,! 2010! for! a! different! analysis):! observe! the! contrast!in!grammaticality!in!the!following!pair,!taken!from!Cinque!(1994):!! (32)! a.!*L’italiana!invasione!dell’! Albania! !the=Italian!invasion!of=the!Albania! !'ʹthe!Italian!invasion!of!Albania'ʹ! !b.! L’invasione!italiana!dell’! Albania! !the=invasion!Italian!of=the!Albania! !'ʹthe!Italian!invasion!of!Albania'ʹ! As! shown! in! (33),! however,! adnominal! adjectives! always! precede! the! head! noun! in! Chinese,! which! would! be! unexpected! if! N=raising! occurs! in! overt! syntax.! (33)! a.!wo!zhaodao=le!kaile=de!haizi=men!le.! ! I! found=ASP!happy=DE!child=MEN!! !'ʹI!found!the!happy!children.'ʹ! !b.!*wo!zhaodao=le!haizi=men!kaile(=de)!le.! ! I! found=ASP!child=MEN!happy! I!will!therefore!assume!that!N=raising!in!Chinese!takes!place!in!covert! syntax.! This! point! necessitates! a! slight! modification! of! Li'ʹs! analysis.! In! particular,!I!will!restate!Li'ʹs!analysis!in!terms!of!covert!feature!checking,!and! extend!it!to!Japanese:13! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! !!!!!!!! 13 !As! a! reviewer! notes,! postulation! of! a! covert! movement! needs! more! justification.! While! I! agree! with! this! methodological! point,! I! also! think! that! the! impressive! degree! of! success! that! Li'ʹs! analysis! has! achieved! in! capturing! a! rather! intricate! property! of! =men!(in! particular,! its! definiteness!effect! and! the! possible/impossible!interpretations!in!various!contexts!in!which!=men!appears)!would! amply!justify!recasting!her! analysis!in!terms!of! covert!movement!and,!furthermore,! ! ©!Iberia:!An!International!Journal!of!Theoretical!Linguistics!vol!4.2,!2012,!40=77! ! ! http://revistas.ojs.es/index.php/iberia!! ISSN!1989=8525! 56! Universal!Numeric!Quantifiers!in!Japanese! (34)! a.! =men!and!=tachi!are!plural!morphemes,!which!are!suffixed!to!a!nominal!element!! ! ! ! !when!the!latter!enters!the!derivation.! !b.!These!suffixes*bear!some!feature!relevant!for!definiteness!(but!see!also!footnote! ! ! ! 7),!which!needs!to!be!checked!against!a!higher!functional!head!Y.14! The!relevant!functional!head!of!(34b)!may!be!D,!but!I!will!not!commit!myself!as! to!the!exact!label!of!this!functional!head,!simply!referring!to!it!as!Y.15!Although! involving!some!degree!of!departure!from!Li'ʹs!original!analysis,!the!statements! in!(34)!retain!Li'ʹs!ideas!about!the!connection!between!the!two!readings!of!=men/= tachi!(i.e.,!plural!and!collective!readings)!and!the!merging!sites!of!an!element!to! which!these!plural!morphemes!are!suffixed:![N=men]!yields!the!plural!reading! when!it!is!base=generated!in!N,!and!the!collective!reading!when!base=generated! in!the!domain!of!YP.! Li'ʹs! (1999)! idea! about! the! HMC! effect! on! N=raising! can! be! also! maintained.!For!example,!the!nominal!in!(27a)!is!analyzed!as!in!(35):16! ! ! ! ! ! ! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! extending!it!to!Japanese,!given!the!overwhelming!amount!of!similarities!between!=men! and!=tachi.!! 14!This! is! in! fact! a! departure! from! Li’s! original! proposal,! since! Li! does! not! assume!any!syntactic!dependency!between!=men!and!a!higher!functional!head!(such!as! D).!For!her,!the!definiteness!effect!arises!as!=men!is!always!suffixed!to!an!element!in! SpecDP.! 15!This! Y! head! may! or! may! not! be! identical! to! X! in! (17).! As! pointed! out! by! Huang! and! Ochi! (2011),! the! postnominal! NC! nominal! in! Japanese! is! typically! interpreted! as! a! specific! nominal! (but! not! as! a! definite! nominal).! YP,! the! locus! of! definiteness,!may!be!projecting!on!top!of!XP,!a!possibility!that!is!compatible!with!the! analysis!in!the!main!text.!! 16!An! anonymous! reviewer! raises! the! following! question:! what! excludes! the! derivation!in!which![N=men]! first! raises! to! CL! and! then! moves! up! to! Y?! Under! the! standard! view! of! head! movement,! when! a! head! H! moves! and! adjoins! to! the! next! higher!head!K,!the!resulting!complex!head![H=K]!is!headed!by!K,!and!furthermore,!it!is! the! complex! head! [H=K]!that!moves.!Accordingly,!when! [N=men]!adjoins! to!CL,!the! latter!is!the!head!of!the!complex!head.!But!because!CL!has!no!need!to!move!to!D,!no! further!movement!can!take!place,!on!account!of!familiar!reasoning!about!economy.!!!! ! ©!Iberia:!An!International!Journal!of!Theoretical!Linguistics!vol!4.2,!2012,!40=77! ! ! http://revistas.ojs.es/index.php/iberia!! ISSN!1989=8525! 57! Masao!Ochi! (35)! !!!!YP!!!!!!! ! ! ! ! !!!!!!! !!!!!!!!!!!!Y!!!!!!!!!!!CLP! !!!!! san!!!!!!!!!!!!CL’! !!!!!!! ! ! !!!!!!!!!!!!! !!!!!!!!!!!!!CL!!!!!!!!!!!!NP! ! ! !! ! ! ! !! ! !!! !!!!!!!!!!!!ge!!!N! ! !!!!!!xuesheng=men! ! Now,! I! assume! that! this! covert! N=raising! is! also! available! in! Japanese.! (36)! illustrates! this! point! for! the! prenominal! NC! structure! with! =tachi.! Given! our! earlier!assumption!that!the!prenominal!NC!is!an!adjunct!to!NP,!it!is!no!surprise! that! it! does! not! block! N=raising! (see! also! Ueda! and! Haraguchi,! 2008! on! this! point):! (36)!!!!!!!!!!!!!!YP!!! ! ! ! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!! ! ! !!!!!!!!!! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!NP!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!Y! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!![def]! !!! !!!!CLP=no!!!!!!!NP! !!!! ! !!!!!!!3=nin!!!!!!!!!N! ! !!!gakusei=tachi! ! The!really!interesting!issue!here!is!why!the!postnominal!NC!and!=tachi! can! co=occur,! as! shown! earlier! in! (27c).! Recall! our! assumption! that! the! postnominal!CL!structure!in!Japanese!is!parallel!to!the!Chinese!CL!structure:!in! both!structures,!the!CL!head!takes!an!NP!as!its!complement.!This!is!where!the! alleged! overt! NP=movement! to! the! edge! of! the! extended! noun! phrase! (as! proposed!by!Watanabe,!2006)!plays!a!vital!role.!As!illustrated!in!(37),!an!NP,!to! whose!head!=tachi!is!attached,!moves!out!of!CLP!and!lands!in!the!spec!of!YP,! creating!a!local!relation!between!=tachi!and!the!functional!head!Y.!In!essence,!= ! ©!Iberia:!An!International!Journal!of!Theoretical!Linguistics!vol!4.2,!2012,!40=77! ! ! http://revistas.ojs.es/index.php/iberia!! ISSN!1989=8525! 58! Universal!Numeric!Quantifiers!in!Japanese! tachi!moves!as!a!free!rider,!carried!along!with!the!rest!of!the!NP,!which!moves! for!an!independent!reason!(see!the!discussion!in!section!4).! (37) YP ! ! !!!!!!!!!!!!NP!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!Y’!!! ! ! ! ! !!!!!! !!!!!!!!!!!!! !!!!!!!!!!!!!N!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!CLP!!!!!!!!!!!!Y! !!!!!!!!!!!!!! !!!![def]!!! ! gakusei=tachi!!san!!!!!!!!!CL’!!!!! ! ! !!!!!!!!!!!!! !!!!!!!!!!!!!! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!tNP!!!!!!!!!!!CL!! ! ! ! ! !!!!!!nin! I!will!now!examine!(24)!and!(28).!Recall!that!these!examples!contrast!in! terms!of!available!interpretations:!the!former!yields!the!plural!reading!whereas! the! latter! yields! the! collective! reading.! Li'ʹs! proposal! as! summarized! in! (29),! according!to!which!a!proper!name!can!be!base=generated!in!SpecDP!(or!YP!for! us)! or! under! N,! provides! an! immediate! answer.! Take! (28a)! as! an! example.! Along!the!lines!of!Li'ʹs!proposal,!I!assume!that!Xiao*Qiang!is!base=generated!in! the!spec!of!YP!in!this!example,!and!accordingly!the!collective!reading!obtains! (recall!the!earlier!discussion!about!the!form![pronoun=men]).!As!shown!in!(38),!= men! and! the! head! Y! can! enter! into! a! checking! relation! "ʺas! is"ʺ.! The! Japanese! examples!in!(28b,!c)!can!be!analyzed!essentially!in!the!same!fashion.! (38)! ! YP! !!!!!!!!! ! !!Xiao!Qiang=men!!!!!!!Y'ʹ! !!!!! ! ! ! ! ! ! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!Y!!!!!!!!!!!!!!CLP! ! ! ! !!!!!!!!!!!!![def]! ! ! ! ! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!san!!!!!!!!!!!CL’!! !!!!!!!!!!! ! ! ! ! !!!!!!!!CL!!!!!!!!!!!!!!NP! !!!!!!!!!!! !!!!!!!!!!!!ge!!!!!!!!!!!!!!ren! Turning!now!to!(24),!the!fact!that!hanako!is!preceded!by!the!prenominal!NC!sanC ninCno!'ʹthree=CL=GEN'ʹ!indicates!that!hanako!is!base=generated!in!N!in!this!case,!as! illustrated!below.!As!a!result,!only!the!plural!reading!obtains,!on!a!par!with! examples!like!(22)!with!a!common!noun,!gakusei!'ʹstudent'ʹ.! ! ©!Iberia:!An!International!Journal!of!Theoretical!Linguistics!vol!4.2,!2012,!40=77! ! ! http://revistas.ojs.es/index.php/iberia!! ISSN!1989=8525! 59! Masao!Ochi! (39)!!!!!!!!!!!!!!YP!!! ! ! ! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!! ! ! ! ! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!NP!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!Y! !!!!!!!!!!!![def]!! ! !! !!!!!!CLP=no!!!!!!NP! !!!!! !!!!!3=nin!!!!!!!!!N! ! hanako=tachi! ! To! recap,! the! postulated! NP=movement! in! the! postnominal! NC! construction! accounts! for! the! contrast! between! (27a)! and! (27b,! c)! in! purely! syntactic!terms!while!maintaining!that!=men!and!=tachi!are!endowed!with!the! same!set!of!lexical!properties:!the!desired!result.! 3.4.!Prenominal!NC!vs.!postnominal!NC! Having!provided!a!piece!of!potential!evidence!for!the!nominal=internal! NP=movement!in!the!postnominal!NC!construction!in!Japanese,!I!will!now!turn! to!reviewing!Huang!and!Ochi'ʹs!(2011,!2012)!analysis!of!the!paradigms!in!(13)= (15),!starting!with!(15).!On!the!assumption!that!the!postnominal!quantifier!is!a! head! selecting! a! complement! to! its! left,! Huang! and! Ochi! analyze! the! noun! phrases!in!(15a)!and!(15b)!as!shown!in!(40)!and!(41),!respectively.!In!both!cases,! the!complement!of!the!CL!head!(i.e.,!∀P!in!(40)!and!NP!in!(41))!moves!to!the! edge!of!the!(extended)!nominal.!Huang!and!Ochi!argue!that!the!unacceptability! of!(15a)!can!be!traced!to!the!impossibility!of!having!a!universal!quantifier!in!the! scope!of!a!numeral,!as!in!*ten*all*dumplings!vs.!all*ten*dumplings.17!Crucially,!this! constraint!looks!at!the!representation!prior!to!the!movement!of!∀P!in!(40).! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! !!!!!!!! 17!As!a!reviewer!notes,!the!paradigms!in!(13)!and!(14)!remain!constant!even!in! the! case! of!a! quantifier!like!hotondo! ‘most’! in! place! of! subete! ‘∀’.! Huang! and! Ochi’s! analysis! can! accommodate! this! fact:! cf.! most* of* the* ten* dumplings!vs! *ten* of* the* most* dumplings.! ! ©!Iberia:!An!International!Journal!of!Theoretical!Linguistics!vol!4.2,!2012,!40=77! ! ! http://revistas.ojs.es/index.php/iberia!! ISSN!1989=8525! 60! Universal!Numeric!Quantifiers!in!Japanese! (40)! ! !!!!!!!!!XP! ! ! ! !! !! ! ! ! ! ! !!!!!∀P! ! !!!!!!!!!!!!X’! !!!!! ! !!!!!!!!!!NP!!!!!!!!!!!!!∀!!!!!!!!!!!!!!CLP!!!!!!!!X! !!!!!!! ! !!!!!gyooza!!!!!!!subete!!hyaku!!!!!!CL’! !!!!!!!!!!!!! ! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!t∀P! !!!!!!!!CL! !!!!!!!!!!!! !!!!!!!!!!!! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!ko! ! (41)! ! !!!!!!!!!!!∀P! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !! !!!!!!!!!! !!!!!!!!!!!!XP!!!!!!!!!!!!∀! ! ! ! !! !! ! !! ! ! NP!!!!!!!!!!!!X'ʹ!!!!!!!subete! ! ! ! ! !!!!!!!!!!gyooza!CLP!!!!!!!!!!!!X! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !!!!hyaku!!!!!!!!!CL'ʹ! !!!!!!!!!!! ! ! ! ! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!tNP!!!!!!!!!!!CL! ! ! ! !!!!ko! ! Applying!the!same!logic!to!examples!like!(14),!Huang!and!Ochi!argue!that!the! contrast! here! shows! that! a! prenominal! element! is! structurally! lower! than! a! postnominal!quantifier.!The!structures!of!the!noun!phrases!in!(14a)!and!(14b)! are! shown! in! (42)! and! (43),! respectively.! (14a)! is! ungrammatical! because! a! universal!quantifier!originates!in!a!position!that!is!in!the!scope!of!a!numeral! classifier.! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ©!Iberia:!An!International!Journal!of!Theoretical!Linguistics!vol!4.2,!2012,!40=77! ! ! http://revistas.ojs.es/index.php/iberia!! ISSN!1989=8525! 61! Masao!Ochi! (42)! ! !!!XP! ! ! ! ! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!NP!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!X'ʹ! ! ! !!subete=no!gyooza!!!!!!CLP!!!!!!!!!!!X! ! !! !hyaku!!!!!!!!!CL'ʹ! ! *********** ******************************tNP!!!!!!!!!CL! ! ! ! ! !ko! (43)! ! !!!!!∀P! !!!!!!!! ! ! !!!!!!!NP!! !!!∀! ! ! ! ! ! ! !!!!!!!!CLP=no!!!!!!!!!NP!!!!!!!subete! ! !! !!!hyaku=ko!gyooza! I!will!henceforth!assume,!following!Huang!and!Ochi,!that!a!prenominal!element! is!part!of!an!NP!whereas!a!postnominal!element!is!a!head!taking!a!complement! to!its!left.!! Turning! to! (13),! the! ungrammaticality! of! (13b)! is! not! particularly! surprising,!given!our!earlier!discussion!that!a!universal!quantifier!cannot!be!in! the!scope!of!a!numeral.!On!the!other!hand,!(13a)!poses!interesting!questions.! Two!observations!can!be!made!about!this!example:! (44)! a.!It!is!bad!on!the!reading!‘Taro!ate!all!(of!the)!100!dumplings.’! !b.!It!is!(marginally)!acceptable!on!the!reading!‘Taro!ate!all!sets!of!100!dumplings.’! I! will! first! consider! the! point! in! (44a).! Imagine! that! this! example! has! the! structure! shown! in! (45).! Nothing! that! has! been! said! so! far! precludes! this! structure:! prenominal! quantifiers! appear! within! an! NP! and! the! universal! quantifier!is!not!in!the!scope!of!the!numeral.!What!is!wrong!with!this!structure?! (45)! ! !!!!NP! ! ! !!!!!! !! ! !!!!!!!∀=no!!!!!!!!!!!NP! !!!!!!!!!! !100=CL=no!!!NP! !!!!!!!!!! !!!! ! ! !!!!gyooza! ! ©!Iberia:!An!International!Journal!of!Theoretical!Linguistics!vol!4.2,!2012,!40=77! ! ! http://revistas.ojs.es/index.php/iberia!! ISSN!1989=8525! 62! Universal!Numeric!Quantifiers!in!Japanese! One! possibility! would! be! that! the! prenominal! field! in! Japanese! has! a! flat! structure,!from!which!it!may!follow!that!subete!and!100Cko!'ʹ100=CL'ʹ!cannot!occur! together!in!the!prenominal!domain:!the!resulting!nominal!expression!would!be! simultaneously! assigned! two! different! readings,! 'ʹ100* dumplings'ʹ! and! 'ʹevery* dumpling,'ʹ!which!may!not!be!permissible.!!! (46)! ! !!!NP! ! ! !!!!subete=no!!!!!100=ko=no!!!!!!!!gyooza! But!this!line!of!conjecture!is!untenable.!Consider!the!following!example!in!(47).! As! the! interpretation! indicates,! prenominal! modifiers! are! interpreted! in! a! compositional!manner:!subeteCno!'ʹ∀=Gen'ʹ!quantifies!over*linguistics*books,!not!over* books,!much!in!line!with!the!structure!in!(45):!! (47)! Taro=wa![subete=no!gengogaku=no!hon]=o! sute=ta.! !Taro=TOP!!!∀=GEN!linguistics=GEN!book=ACC!throw!away=PAST! ! !'ʹTaro!threw!away!all!of!the!linguistics!books'ʹ!! ! !(It!is!not!the!case!that!all!the!books!under!consideration!are!linguistics!books)! What!is!wrong!with!(45)!then?!Here!I!would!like!to!capitalize!on!the!fact!that! the!properties!of!the!prenominal!subete!summarized!in!(44)!are!shared!by!every! in!English.!Take!(48)!from!Borer!(2005:!113).!In!this!example,!every!quantifies!not! over! individuals! (i.e.,! boys)! but! over! sets/groups! of! boys:! there! are! several! groups!of!three!boys!and!the!sharing!of!a!pizza!took!place!within!each!group.!!! (48)! Every!three!boys!shared!a!pizza.! ! ! There!is!another,!syntactic!point!to!be!noted!about!this!example.!Although!every! requires!a!singular!noun!(e.g.,!*every*boys),!there!does!not!seem!to!be!one!here.! Kayne! (2007)! proposes! that! examples! like! (48)! in! fact! contain! an! abstract! singular!noun!(what!he!calls!NUMBER),!as!shown!in!(49),!and!that!this!silent! noun!meets!the!requirement!of!every.!! (49)! Every!three!NUMBERsing!(of)!boys!shared!a!pizza!!! ! My!proposal!below!exploits!Kayne'ʹs!idea:!!! (50)! a.!Prenominal!subete!'ʹ∀'ʹ!must!combine!with!a!singular!nominal.! !b.!No!such!restriction!applies!to!the!postnominal!subete.!! The!idea!is!that!the!prenominal!subete!and!the!postnominal!subete!have!different! lexical!specifications.! The!former! is! similar!to! every!in! English!in! requiring! a! singular! noun! whereas! the! postnominal! subete! does! not! have! such! a! requirement! (perhaps! it! requires! a! plural! noun,! like! all! in! English).! The! ! ©!Iberia:!An!International!Journal!of!Theoretical!Linguistics!vol!4.2,!2012,!40=77! ! ! http://revistas.ojs.es/index.php/iberia!! ISSN!1989=8525! 63! Masao!Ochi! structure!in!(45)!is!illegitimate!because!of!the!feature/number!incompatibility:! while!the!prenominal!subete!needs!a!singular!noun!(phrase),!100CkoCno*gyooza! 'ʹ100=CL=no!dumplings'ʹ!would!count!as![+!plural],!due!to!the!inherent!meaning! of!the! numeral! 100.!The! proposal! in! (50b)! is!based! on! the!grammaticality! of! (14b):!the!postnominal!subete!has!no!problem!in!combining!with!a!noun!phrase! that!contains!a!prenominal!numeral!classifier.! A!piece!of!supporting!evidence!for!the!hypothesis!in!(50)!comes!from!the! interaction!of!subete!and!the!plural!marker!=tachi.!Taking!the!examples!in!(51)! first,!(51a)!contains![N=tachi].!(51b)!and!(51c)!contain!the!prenominal!subete!‘∀’! and! the! postnominal! subete! ‘∀’,! respectively.! All! of! these! examples! are! fine.! When!subete!and!=tachi!modify!the!same!nominal,!however,!a!curious!contrast! emerges.! (52b),! which! has! the! postnominal! subete,! is! fine,! whereas! (52a)! is! associated! with! some! degree! of! degradation! for! all! the! speakers! I! consulted! with.!!! (51)! a.! Kono!mura=wa!dansei=tachi=ga!70=sai!ijyoo!da.! !this!village=TOP!male=TACHI=NOM!70=years!old!over!be! ! ‘In!this!village,!the!males!are!over!70!years!old.’! ! b.! Kono!mura=wa!subete=no!dansei=ga!70=sai!ijyoo!da.! !this!village=TOP!∀=GEN!male=NOM!70=years!old!over!be! ! ‘In!this!village,!every!male!is!over!70!years!old.’! ! c.! Kono!mura=wa!dansei!subete=ga!70=sai! ! ijyoo!da.! !this!village=TOP!male!∀=NOM!70=years!old!over!be! ! ‘In!this!village,!every!male!is!over!70!years!old.’! (52)! a.! ?*Kono!mura=wa!subete=no!dansei=tachi=ga!70=sai!ijyoo!da.! !this!village=TOP!∀=no!male=TACHI=NOM!70=years!old!over!be! ! ‘In!this!village,!every!male!is!over!70!years!old.’! ! b.! Kono!mura=wa!dansei=tachi!subete=ga!70=sai!ijyoo!da.! !this!village=TOP!male=TACHI!∀=NOM!70=years!old!over!be! ! ‘In!this!village,!every!male!is!over!70!years!old.’! This! fact! immediately! follows! from! (50).! (52a)! is! degraded! because! of! the! number! incompatibility:! the! prenominal! subete! needs! to! combine! with! a! singular!noun!(phrase),!making!it!incompatible!with![N=tachi].18!!! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! !!!!!!!! 18!A!comment!may!be!in!order!here!regarding!the!alleged!incompatibility!of!the! prenominal!subete!and!=tachi,!because!a!casual!Internet!search!in!fact!finds!a!number!of! counterexamples.! However,! they! are! apparently! intended! as! group! denoting! expressions!(e.g.,!subeteCno*danseiCtachi*ni*sasageru*uta!‘a!song!dedicated!to!all!the!men’).! The!examples!in!(51)!and!(52)!avoid!this!complication!by!using!the!predicate!70Csai*ijyoo* da!'ʹbe!over!70!years!old'ʹ,!thereby!forcing!the!distributive!reading.!!! ! ©!Iberia:!An!International!Journal!of!Theoretical!Linguistics!vol!4.2,!2012,!40=77! ! ! http://revistas.ojs.es/index.php/iberia!! ISSN!1989=8525! 64! Universal!Numeric!Quantifiers!in!Japanese! Turning! now! to! the! observation! in! (44b),! I! propose! that! the! marginal! reading!in!question!comes!from!an!entirely!different!structure,!in!which!subete= no!'ʹ∀=GEN'ʹ!modifies!not!gyooza!'ʹdumpling'ʹ!but!a!hidden!noun!with!the!meaning! of!'ʹgroup'ʹ!or!'ʹset'ʹ.! (53)! ! !!!!NP! !!!!!!! ! !!! !!!!!∀=no!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!NP! !!!!!!! !!!!!!! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!NP=NO!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!NP! ! ! !! !! 100=CL=no!dumpling!!!!!!!!!N! ! ! ! !!!!GROUPsing/SETsing! ! ! (CAPITAL:!unpronounced)! Given!the!discussion!so!far,!I!assume!that!this!abstract/silent!noun!is!singular! (analogous! to! Kayne'ʹs! NUMBER! discussed! earlier).! No! feature/number! incompatibility!arises!in!this!structure!because!subete!and!100Cko!'ʹ100=CL'ʹ!modify! different! nouns:! the! latter! modifies! gyooza! 'ʹdumpling'ʹ! whereas! the! former! modifies! the! (singular)! silent! noun.! In! fact,! this! silent! noun! can! be! overtly! realized:!(54)!below!has!the!same!meaning!as!the!one!reported!in!(44b).! (54)! subete=no!hyaku=ko=no!gyooza=no!setto! !∀=GEN!100=CL=GEN!dumpling=GEN!set! !'ʹevery!set!of!100!dumplings'ʹ! I!believe!that!the!analysis!explored!here!is!theoretically!significant!in!at! least! two! respects.! First,! it! shows! that! although! Japanese! does! not! have! obligatory!morphological!markings!for!the!singular!vs!plural!distinction,!it!is! nevertheless!sensitive!to!such!a!distinction!on!an!abstract!level.!Second,!a!non= uniform!treatment!of!the!prenominal!vs.!postnominal!NC!advocated!by!Huang! and! Ochi! can! be,! and! should! be,! extended! to! other! quantifiers,! in! particular! subete.!!! To! summarize! this! section,! I! first! reviewed! Huang! and! Ochi’s! non= uniform!analysis!of!NCs!(and!other!adnominal!quantifiers):!the!prenominal!NC! is!an!NP=adjunct!(as!in!Saito!et!al'ʹs!(2008)!analysis)!while!the!postnominal!NC! functions! as! a! head! selecting! an! NP=complement! (as! in! Watanabe'ʹs! (2006)! analysis).!I!provided!a!potential!support!for!the!NP=movement!to!the!edge!of! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! ! ! ©!Iberia:!An!International!Journal!of!Theoretical!Linguistics!vol!4.2,!2012,!40=77! ! ! http://revistas.ojs.es/index.php/iberia!! ISSN!1989=8525! 71! Masao!Ochi! On!the!basis!of!these!arguments,!I!would!like!to!identify!the!pattern!in!(63a)! (=15b))! (and! the! one! in! (63b),! to! the! extent! that! it! is! acceptable)! as! the! pre= stranding! structure! of! the! floating/stranded! UNQ.! See! (41)! for! the! relevant! structure.! The!above!conclusion!is!in!line!with!Cirillo’s!characterization!of!the!UNQ! in!Romance!and!Germanic.!As!discussed!by!Cirillo,!a!noun!phrase!hosting!a! universal!quantifier!and!a!numeral!in!its!extended!domain!does!not!necessarily! count!as!the!UNQ.!Consider!again!the!Dutch!example!in!(2a),!repeated!below!as! (66a).! Notice! that! the! word! order! within! the! subject! is! ∀ +numeral+de+noun* (phrase).!In!particular,!de! ‘the’!occurs!following!the!numeral.! Along!with!this! word!order,!Dutch!allows!another!word!order!shown!in!(67a),!in!which!de!‘the’! appears!between!a!universal!quantifier!and!a!numeral.!The!two!cases!in!(66a)! and!(67a)!differ!in!terms!of!their!floating!variants,!shown!in!(66b)!and!(67b),! respectively.!! (66)! a.!Alle!drie!de!studenten!hebben!het!boek!gelezen.! !all!three!the!students!have!!the!book!read! !b.!De!studenten!hebben!alle!drie!het! !boek!gelezen.! !the!students!have!all!three!the! !book!read!! (67)! a.!Al!de!drie!studenten!hebben!het!boek!gelezen.! !∀!the!three!students!have!!the!book!read! !b.!De!drie!studenten!hebben!allen!het!boek!gelezen.! !the!three!students!have!!∀!the!book!read! Following!Cirillo,!I!assume!that!(66a)!is!an!example!of!the!UNQ!construction! while!(67a)!belongs!to!a!more!familiar!construction!where!a!universal!quantifier! selects!the!definite!DP!which!contains!a!numeral,!e.g.,!all*(of)*the*three*students.! Notice!that!only!the!universal!quantifier!is!stranded!in!(67b).!I!suggest!that!the! Japanese! example! in! (63c)! corresponds! to! (67a)! in! Dutch.! (68)! is! a! floating/stranded!version!of!(63c),!corresponding!to!the!Dutch!example!in!(67b):! (68)! taro=wa!tsukue=ni!aru!gyooza!hyakuBkoBo! (kinoo)!subete!tabe=ta.! !Taro=TOP!table=DAT!be! !dumpling!100=CL=ACC!yesterday!∀!eat=PAST! ! ‘(lit.)!Taro!ate!all!of!the!100!dumplings!on!the!table!(yesterday).’! ! ©!Iberia:!An!International!Journal!of!Theoretical!Linguistics!vol!4.2,!2012,!40=77! ! ! http://revistas.ojs.es/index.php/iberia!! ISSN!1989=8525! 72! Universal!Numeric!Quantifiers!in!Japanese! The!adnominal!UNQ!construction!in!Dutch!(66a)!has!a!definite!article!following! the!numeral.!Although!Japanese!does!not!manifest!an!overt!definite!determiner,! one!can!assume!that!this!property!holds!in!cases!like!(63a).23!! Now!one!important!theoretical!consequence!of!the!whole!discussion!may! be!addressed.!Consider!again!(65).!The!fact!that!=no!cannot!be!present!in!the! floating! UNQ! construction! militates! against! analyzing! the! floating! UNQ! in! terms!of!the!Doetjes/Fitzpatrick!analysis!introduced!at!the!outset!of!this!paper.! The! following! example,! which! contains! adnominal! (i.e.,! non=floating)! UNQs! helps!highlight!this!important!point:! (69)! a.!taro=wa!toshokan=ni!aru!hon!hyakuBsatsu(Bno)!subete=o! yonda.! !Taro=Top!library=Dat!be!book!100=CL(=Gen)!∀=Acc!read! !b.!jiro=mo!hyakuBsatsu(Bno)!subete=o!yonda.! !Jiro=also!100=CL(=Gen)!∀=Acc! ! read! !(Lit.)!'ʹTaro!read!all!of!the!100!books!that!were!in!the!library.!Jiro!also!read!all.'ʹ! (69b)!shows!that!the!NP!part!of!the!adnominal!UNQ!can!be!phonologically!null,! whether!or!not!the!genitive!marker!=no!is!present!between!the!postnominal!NC! and!the!universal!quantifier!subete.!I!assume!that!the!NP=slot!is!occupied!by!pro! in!such!cases:24! (70)! jiro=mo![∀P![CLP![NP!pro!]!hyakuBsatsu(Bno)]!subete]=o!yonda! (65)!may!now!be!considered!in!this!light.!If!the!Doetjes/Fitzpatrick!type!analysis! were!indeed!available!for!the!floating!UNQ!in!Japanese,!the!presence!or!absence! of!=no!should!make!no!difference,!since!the!floating!UNQ!is!a!nominal!element! containing! pro! under! the! Doetjes/Fitzpatrick! analysis.! What! would! be! wrong! with!the!following!structure?! (71)! *Taro=wa!tsukue=ni!aru!gyooza=o! sono!toki! ! Taro=TOP!table=DAT!be!dumpling=ACC!that!time! ! ! ! [∀P![CLP![NP!pro]!hyaku=ko=no]! subete]! tabe=ta.!! ! ! 100=CL=GEN!∀!eat=PAST! Of!course,!in!order!for!this!argument!to!go!through,!the!stranding!(i.e.,!sub= extraction)!approach!would!have!to!be!able!to!explain!why!the!presence!of!=no! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! !!!!!!!! 23!Due! to! the! lack! of! an! overt! definite! article,! this! example! may! in! fact! be! ambiguous!between!the!UNQ!construction!(‘all!100!of!the!dumplings’)!and!the!more! familiar!structure!(‘all!of!the!100!dumplings’).! 24!Alternatively,!this!could!be!a!case!of!'ʹargument!ellipsis'ʹ!(see!Oku,!1998!and! Saito,!2007).!Nothing!hinges!on!the!choice!between!the!two.!! ! ©!Iberia:!An!International!Journal!of!Theoretical!Linguistics!vol!4.2,!2012,!40=77! ! ! http://revistas.ojs.es/index.php/iberia!! ISSN!1989=8525! 73! Masao!Ochi! in!the!postnominal!domain!blocks!extraction!in!examples!like!(65).!To!make!the! issue!clear,!compare!the!two!structures!in!(72).!Why!is!it!that!NP=extraction!out! of!the!nominal!domain!is!possible!in!the!configuration!shown!in!(72a),!but!not! in!(72b)?! (72)! a.!!!!!!!!!∀P!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! ! b.! ! !!!!!!!!!!∀P! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !! ! ! ! !!!!!!!!!!!!!! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!CLP!!!∀! ! ! ! ! !!!PP!!!!!∀! ! ! !!!!!!! !!!!!!!! !!!!!!!!!!#! !!!!!!!CL'ʹ!!!!!!!!!!!!!CLP!!!!!!!!!!P!! ! ! !!!!!!! ! ! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!NP!CL! ! ! ! !!!#! CL'ʹ!!!!!no! ! ! ! ! !!!!!! !! !!!!!!!!!!! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!NP!!!!!!!!!!CL ! I!tentatively!assume!that!=no!is!a!postposition,!as!indicated!in!(72b),!although!the! following! argument! would! not! be! affected! if! =no! is! analyzed! as! an! overt! manifestation!of!the!genitive!Case.!What!is!crucial!here!is!that!CLP!in!(72b)!is! assigned! Case,! either! oblique! (if! =no! is! a! postposition)! or! genitive.! Crucially,! CLP! is! assigned! Case! precisely! because! it! is! an! 'ʹextended! projection'ʹ! of! NP.! Now!suppose!that!the!NP=movement!involved!in!deriving!the!stranded!NC!(as! well!as!the!postnominal!NC)!is!driven!for!Case!reasons!(as!Huang!and!Ochi! speculate).! It! then! follows! that! NP! has! no! reason! to! move! out! in! the! configuration!in!(72b):!its!Case!property!is!satisfied!'ʹin=situ'ʹ,!with!its!extended! projection! (CLP)! receiving! Case! from! =no.! According! to! familiar! economy! reasoning,!this!movement!cannot!therefore!take!place.!The!stranding!approach! therefore!has!a!clear!way!to!predict!the!ungrammaticality!of!(65)!in!the!presence! of! =no! in! the! postnominal! field.! Together! with! Cirillo'ʹs! example! in! (4b),! the! evidence!presented!here!leads!to!the!conclusion!that!the!floating!UNQ!should! be!analyzed!in!terms!of!stranding.25! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! !!!!!!!! 25!As!a!reviewer!notes,!the!discussion!in!this!section!does!not!immediately!lead! to!the!conclusion!that!the!floating!UNQ!should!be!uniformly!analyzed!as!stranding! across! languages,! since! the! evidence! presented! here! rests! on! a! specific! property! of! Japanese! (i.e.,! the! distribution! of! =no).! While! this! point! is! well! made,! I! think! that! a! unified!view! of! this! construction!is! the! strongest! option,! unless! empirical! evidence! ! ©!Iberia:!An!International!Journal!of!Theoretical!Linguistics!vol!4.2,!2012,!40=77! ! ! http://revistas.ojs.es/index.php/iberia!! ISSN!1989=8525! 74! Universal!Numeric!Quantifiers!in!Japanese! 6.!!Conclusion! ! I!have!argued!in!this!paper!that!Japanese!has!the!adnominal!and!floating! UNQ!construction!in!the!sense!of!Cirillo!(2010).!Building!on!Huang!and!Ochi'ʹs! analysis! of! the! adnominal! numeral! classifier! and! the! adnominal! universal! quantifier,!I!argued!that!the!floating!UNQ!is!transformationally!related!to!the! postnominal!NC+∀!form!(see!(63a)),!and!that!even!the!Doetjes/Fitzpatrick!type! analysis! cannot! adequately! handle! some! Japanese! data! without! additional! assumptions.!Note!that!my!goal!in!this!paper!has!been!fairly!modest.!I!did!not! in!any!way!mean!to!claim!that!all!the!instances!of!floating!classifiers/quantifiers! involve!stranding.!Rather,!my!claim!is!that!there!is!a!subspecies!of!the!floating! quantifier! construction,! i.e.! the! floating! UNQ! construction,! which! must! be! understood!in!terms!of!stranding.! Let!me!end!this!paper!with!one!final!word!about!the!internal!structure!of! the!UNQ.!As!shown!in!(41),!I!have!argued!that!a!universal!quantifier!acts!as!the! head! of! the! entire! nominal! expression.! This! proposal! is! actually! a! departure! from!Cirillo’s!original!analysis!that!a!universal!quantifier!and!a!numeral!form!a! complex! head! which! is! base=generated! as! such.! However,! as! shown! in! (73)! below,!the!three!components!of!the!UNQ!(i.e.,!NP,!NC!and!∀)!could!be!split!off! from!each!other!(although!such!examples!sound!somewhat!degraded),!which!is! an!indication!that!we!are!dealing!with!a!series!of!phrasal!elements.!! (73)! ?gyooza=o!!kinoo!hyakuBko!taro=ga! !subete!tabe=ta!(koto)! !dumpling=ACC!yesterday!100=CL!Taro=NOM!∀!eat=PAST!fact! ! ‘(the!fact!that)!Taro!ate!all!of!the!five!dumplings!yesterday’! In!fact,!Corver!(2010)!presents!interesting!evidence!to!show!that!the!∀+Numeral! part! of! the! UNQ! construction! in! Germanic/Romance! is! phrasal.! A! unified! analysis!of!the!UNQ!construction!therefore!seems!feasible.!! ! ! ! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! dictates!otherwise.!Further!investigations!should!be!able!to!shed!more!light!on! this! issue.! ! ©!Iberia:!An!International!Journal!of!Theoretical!Linguistics!vol!4.2,!2012,!40=77! ! ! http://revistas.ojs.es/index.php/iberia!! ISSN!1989=8525! 75! Masao!Ochi! REFERENCES! Bale,!Alan!&!Hrayr!Khanjian.!2008.!Armenian!classifiers!and!number!marking,! poster!presented!at!SALT*XVIII.! Bobaljik,!Jonathan.!2004.!Floating!quantifiers:!Handle!with!care.!In!Lisa!Cheng! &! Rint! Sybesma! (eds.),* The* Second* Glot* International* StateCofCtheCArticle* Book.!107=148.!Mouton!de!Gruyter.! Borer,!Hagit.!2005.!In*Name*Only.!Oxford:!Oxford!University!Press.! Bošković,! Željko.! 2004.! Be! careful! where! you! float! your! quantifiers.! 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