Exploring Plants with Flowers: From Therapeutic Nutritional Benefits to Innovative Sustainable Uses
Abstract
Flowers have played a significant role in society, focusing on their aesthetic value rather than their food potential. This study’s goal was to look into flowering plants for everything from health benefits to other possible applications. This review presents detailed information on 119 species of flowers with agri-food and health relevance. Data were collected on their family, species, common name, commonly used plant part, bioremediation applications, main chemical compounds, medicinal and gastronomic uses, and concentration of bioactive compounds such as carotenoids and phenolic compounds. In this respect, 87% of the floral species studied contain some toxic compounds, sometimes making them inedible, but specific molecules from these species have been used in medicine. Seventy-six percent can be consumed in low doses by infusion. In addition, 97% of the species studied are reported to have medicinal uses (32% immune system), and 63% could be used in the bioremediation of contaminated environments. Significantly, more than 50% of the species were only analysed for total concentrations of carotenoids and phenolic compounds, indicating a significant gap in identifying specific molecules of these bioactive compounds. These potential sources of bioactive compounds could transform the health and nutraceutical industries, offering innovative approaches to combat oxidative stress and promote optimal well-being.
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Citation: Coyago-Cruz, E.; Moya, M.; Méndez, G.; Villacís, M.; Rojas-Silva, P.; Corell, M.; Mapelli-Brahm, P.; Vicario, I.M.; Meléndez-Martínez, A.J. Exploring Plants with Flowers: From Therapeutic Nutritional Benefits to Innovative Sustainable Uses. Foods 2023,12, 4066. https://doi.org/ 10.3390/foods12224066 Academic Editors: Lai Kuan Lee and Ying-Jun Zhang Received: 20 September 2023 Revised: 31 October 2023 Accepted: 6 November 2023 Published: 8 November 2023 Copyright: © 2023 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ 4.0/). foods Review Exploring Plants with Flowers: From Therapeutic Nutritional Benefits to Innovative Sustainable Uses Elena Coyago-Cruz 1,* , Melany Moya 2, Gabriela Méndez 1, Michael Villacís1, Patricio Rojas-Silva 3, Mireia Corell 4,5 , Paula Mapelli-Brahm 6, Isabel M. Vicario 6and Antonio J. Meléndez-Martínez 6 1Carrera de Ingeniería en Biotecnología de los Recursos Naturales, Universidad Politécnica Salesiana, Sede Quito, Campus El Girón, Av. 12 de Octubre N2422 y Wilson, Quito 170143, Ecuador 2Facultad de Ciencias Médicas, Carrera de Obstetricia, Universidad Central del Ecuador, Iquique, Luis Sodiro N14-121, Quito 170146, Ecuador 3 Instituto de Microbiología, Colegio de Ciencias Biológicas y Ambientales COCIBA, Universidad San Francisco de Quito USFQ, Quito 170901, Ecuador 4Departamento de Ciencias Agroforestales, Escuela Técnica Superior de Ingeniería Agronómica, Universidad de Sevilla, Carretera de Utrera Km 1, 41013 Sevilla, Spain 5Unidad Asociada al CSIC de Uso Sostenible del Suelo y el Agua en la Agricultura (US-IRNAS), Crta. de Utrera Km 1, 41013 Sevilla, Spain 6Food Colour and Quality Laboratory, Facultad de Farmacia, Universidad de Sevilla, 41012 Sevilla, Spain; [email protected] (A.J.M.-M.) *Correspondence: [email protected]; Tel.: +593-995129321 Abstract: Flowers have played a significant role in society, focusing on their aesthetic value rather than their food potential. This study’s goal was to look into flowering plants for everything from health benefits to other possible applications. This review presents detailed information on 119 species of flowers with agri-food and health relevance. Data were collected on their family, species, common name, commonly used plant part, bioremediation applications, main chemical compounds, medicinal and gastronomic uses, and concentration of bioactive compounds such as carotenoids and phenolic compounds. In this respect, 87% of the floral species studied contain some toxic compounds, sometimes making them inedible, but specific molecules from these species have been used in medicine. Seventy-six percent can be consumed in low doses by infusion. In addition, 97% of the species studied are reported to have medicinal uses (32% immune system), and 63% could be used in the bioremediation of contaminated environments. Significantly, more than 50% of the species were only analysed for total concentrations of carotenoids and phenolic compounds, indicating a significant gap in identifying specific molecules of these bioactive compounds. These potential sources of bioactive compounds could transform the health and nutraceutical industries, offering innovative approaches to combat oxidative stress and promote optimal well-being. Keywords: carotenoids; edible flowers; flavonoids; functional foods; nutraceuticals; phenolic compounds; natural dyes 1. Introduction Since time immemorial, flowers have played a fundamental role in society. They are appreciated for their beauty and used for ornamental purposes in various spaces, whether in pots, gardens, landscaping, or as cut flower arrangements in containers. Grown specifically for their striking appearance, distinctive foliage, and delicate fragrance, ornamental plants add charm and distinction to any environment. Their presence goes beyond mere aesthetics, as throughout history, flowers have been symbols of emotion, used in celebrations, expressions of love, condolences, and religious rituals, and providing benefits for emotional well-being and mental health [1]. In recent years, the market for edible flowers has experienced remarkable growth. This phenomenon can be attributed to several reasons, including the increasing availability Foods 2023,12, 4066. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods12224066 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/foods
Foods 2023,12, 4066 2 of 67 of information on their nutritional value and bioactive potential [ 2 , 3 ]. In addition, there has been a growing interest in the potential health benefits of specific secondary metabolites and other compounds commonly found in flowers, such as carotenoids, phenolic compounds, vitamins C and E, saponins, or phytosterols [ 4 ]. Carotenoids and phenolic compounds are responsible for the different colours of flowers [ 5 , 6 ] stand out for their health properties and versatility in agri-food and health applications [7–10]. Flowers are used in gastronomy for their pigments (such as carotenoids, flavonoids, and betalains), which improve the appearance of dishes [ 11 ], and for their characteristic flavours and odours, which make them an alternative food source [ 12 ]. Some societies, such as Asian, Greek, Ancient Roman, French, and Italian, have a long-standing tradition of eating flowers [ 3 ]. However, for a flower to be edible, it must not contain dangerous levels of toxic compounds that could affect the health of those who consume it [ 13 , 14 ]. On the other hand, the consumption of parts of plants is typical in traditional medicine, mainly in medicinal infusions or decoctions [ 15 , 16 ]. Flowers are recognised as alternative food sources to improve health and contribute to food security [ 4 ]. As sustainability is a global priority, especially in food production, which is considered the most significant human pressure on the Earth [ 17 ], using cultivated flowers for gastronomic purposes can be aligned with a responsible approach towards the environment and general well-being. This review aimed to collect relevant information on ornamental plant flowers with potential health promotion as botanicals, foods, or other uses, following sustainability principles and the circular economy. Plants from fifty families are covered, including Asteraceae, Lamiaceae, Fabaceae, and Malvaceae, as well as plants with edible flowers from the families Asteraceae, Apiaceae, Brassicaceae, Oleacaceae, Malvaceae, and Ranunculaceae. Therefore, Table 1contains a compilation of common plants characterised by their flowers, with detailed information on the family, common name, place of origin, part of the commonly used plant, uses in bioremediation, main chemical compounds, medicinal uses, gastronomic uses, and concentration of carotenoids and phenolic compounds, together with the technique used for each flower species. In addition, data on carotenoids and phenolic compounds in different flower species are presented in Tables 2and 3, respectively. This review aims to provide a comprehensive overview of flower possibilities and benefits in other areas, highlighting their potential in harmony with nature and general well-being.
Foods 2023,12, 4066 3 of 67 Table 1. Description, relevant synonymous, phytoremediation uses, toxic compounds, medicinal, and gastronomic uses of flowers. Family [18] Species [18] Common Name Place of Origin Most Used Part/Flower Image Phytoremediation Uses Main Chemical Groups Medicinal Use Gastronomic Uses Acanthaceae Aphelandra squarrosa Nees Aphelandra, Kuda Belang, zebra plant, saffron spike [19,20] Central and South America [19,20]Root, leaf [21] Foods 2023, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 of 80 Table 1. Description, relevant synonymous, phytoremediation uses, toxic compounds, medicinal, and gastronomic uses of flowers. Family [18] Species [18] Common Name Place of Origin Most Used Part/Flower Image Phytoremediation Uses Main Chemical Groups Medicinal Use Gastronomic Uses Acanthaceae A phelandra squarrosa Nees Aphelandra, Kuda Belang, zebra plant, saffron spike [19,20] Central and South America [19,20] Root, leaf [21] na Alkaloids (aphelandrine, spermin), phytoanticipins (2- b enzoxazolinone (BOA), 2-hydroxy-1,4- b enzoxazine-3-one (HBOA)), glucosides (cyclic hydroxamic acids and their corresponding glucosides) [21–24] Note: It presents allelopathic activity [25] Activity: antibacterial and antifungal [20,21] Non-edible Acanthaceae J usticia aurea Schltdl. J usticia, Yellow J acobinia, Brazilian plume [26,27] Central America [26] Leaf [27,28] na na Treatment: coughs, epilepsy, anxiety, and malaria [26–28] Leaf: juice [27] Alstroemeri aceae A lstroemeria aurea Graham Amancay, Peruvian Lily, Lily of the Incas, Parrot Lily, and jingle bell [29,30] Andean forests [30,31] Flower, leaf, stem [29,30] na Glucosides (tuliposide A), tulipalin A, phenols (6-hydroxy pelargonidin glycoside)s [32] Treatment: gynaecological and obstetric [31] Toxicity: All parts can cause skin allergies [29,32] Non-edible [29] Amaranthac eae Celosia argentea L. Lion hand, velvet, cockscomb, plumón, pluma, plumero rosa, cresta de gallo, celosia [33–35] Asia [34], unknown origin [35] Flower, seed, leaf [36,37] Soil decontamination [38] Alkaloids, saponins, tannins, phenols (anthocyanin), glycoproteins [33,35– 37,39] Treatment: stop bleeding, liver heat, diseases of the blood, therapeutic eye diseases, and infections of the urinary tract [33,35,37]. Leaf: vegetables [36] Flower: vegetables, na Alkaloids (aphelandrine, spermin), phytoanticipins (2-benzoxazolinone (BOA), 2-hydroxy-1,4-benzoxazine-3- one (HBOA)), glucosides (cyclic hydroxamic acids and their corresponding glucosides) [21–24] Note: It presents allelopathic activity [25] Activity: antibacterial and antifungal [20,21]Non-edible Acanthaceae Justicia aurea Schltdl. Justicia, Yellow Jacobinia, Brazilian plume [26,27] Central America [26]Leaf [27,28] Foods 2023, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 of 80 Table 1. Description, relevant synonymous, phytoremediation uses, toxic compounds, medicinal, and gastronomic uses of flowers. Family [18] Species [18] Common Name Place of Origin Most Used Part/Flower Image Phytoremediation Uses Main Chemical Groups Medicinal Use Gastronomic Uses Acanthaceae A phelandra squarrosa Nees Aphelandra, Kuda Belang, zebra plant, saffron spike [19,20] Central and South America [19,20] Root, leaf [21] na Alkaloids (aphelandrine, spermin), phytoanticipins (2- b enzoxazolinone (BOA), 2-hydroxy-1,4- b enzoxazine-3-one (HBOA)), glucosides (cyclic hydroxamic acids and their corresponding glucosides) [21–24] Note: It presents allelopathic activity [25] Activity: antibacterial and antifungal [20,21] Non-edible Acanthaceae J usticia aurea Schltdl. J usticia, Yellow J acobinia, Brazilian plume [26,27] Central America [26] Leaf [27,28] na na Treatment: coughs, epilepsy, anxiety, and malaria [26–28] Leaf: juice [27] Alstroemeri aceae A lstroemeria aurea Graham Amancay, Peruvian Lily, Lily of the Incas, Parrot Lily, and jingle bell [29,30] Andean forests [30,31] Flower, leaf, stem [29,30] na Glucosides (tuliposide A), tulipalin A, phenols (6-hydroxy pelargonidin glycoside)s [32] Treatment: gynaecological and obstetric [31] Toxicity: All parts can cause skin allergies [29,32] Non-edible [29] Amaranthac eae Celosia argentea L. Lion hand, velvet, cockscomb, plumón, pluma, plumero rosa, cresta de gallo, celosia [33–35] Asia [34], unknown origin [35] Flower, seed, leaf [36,37] Soil decontamination [38] Alkaloids, saponins, tannins, phenols (anthocyanin), glycoproteins [33,35– 37,39] Treatment: stop bleeding, liver heat, diseases of the blood, therapeutic eye diseases, and infections of the urinary tract [33,35,37]. Leaf: vegetables [36] Flower: vegetables, na na Treatment: coughs, epilepsy, anxiety, and malaria [26–28]Leaf: juice [27] Alstroemeriaceae Alstroemeria aurea Graham Amancay, Peruvian Lily, Lily of the Incas, Parrot Lily, and jingle bell [29,30] Andean forests [30,31]Flower, leaf, stem [29,30] Foods 2023, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 of 80 Table 1. Description, relevant synonymous, phytoremediation uses, toxic compounds, medicinal, and gastronomic uses of flowers. Family [18] Species [18] Common Name Place of Origin Most Used Part/Flower Image Phytoremediation Uses Main Chemical Groups Medicinal Use Gastronomic Uses Acanthaceae A phelandra squarrosa Nees Aphelandra, Kuda Belang, zebra plant, saffron spike [19,20] Central and South America [19,20] Root, leaf [21] na Alkaloids (aphelandrine, spermin), phytoanticipins (2- b enzoxazolinone (BOA), 2-hydroxy-1,4- b enzoxazine-3-one (HBOA)), glucosides (cyclic hydroxamic acids and their corresponding glucosides) [21–24] Note: It presents allelopathic activity [25] Activity: antibacterial and antifungal [20,21] Non-edible Acanthaceae J usticia aurea Schltdl. J usticia, Yellow J acobinia, Brazilian plume [26,27] Central America [26] Leaf [27,28] na na Treatment: coughs, epilepsy, anxiety, and malaria [26–28] Leaf: juice [27] Alstroemeri aceae A lstroemeria aurea Graham Amancay, Peruvian Lily, Lily of the Incas, Parrot Lily, and jingle bell [29,30] Andean forests [30,31] Flower, leaf, stem [29,30] na Glucosides (tuliposide A), tulipalin A, phenols (6-hydroxy pelargonidin glycoside)s [32] Treatment: gynaecological and obstetric [31] Toxicity: All parts can cause skin allergies [29,32] Non-edible [29] Amaranthac eae Celosia argentea L. Lion hand, velvet, cockscomb, plumón, pluma, plumero rosa, cresta de gallo, celosia [33–35] Asia [34], unknown origin [35] Flower, seed, leaf [36,37] Soil decontamination [38] Alkaloids, saponins, tannins, phenols (anthocyanin), glycoproteins [33,35– 37,39] Treatment: stop bleeding, liver heat, diseases of the blood, therapeutic eye diseases, and infections of the urinary tract [33,35,37]. Leaf: vegetables [36] Flower: vegetables, na Glucosides (tuliposide A), tulipalin A, phenols (6-hydroxy pelargonidin glycoside)s [32] Treatment: gynaecological and obstetric [31] Toxicity: All parts can cause skin allergies [29,32] Non-edible [29] Amaranthaceae Celosia argentea L. Lion hand, velvet, cockscomb, plumón, pluma, plumero rosa, cresta de gallo, celosia [33–35] Asia [34], unknown origin [35] Flower, seed, leaf [36,37] Foods 2023, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 of 80 Table 1. Description, relevant synonymous, phytoremediation uses, toxic compounds, medicinal, and gastronomic uses of flowers. Family [18] Species [18] Common Name Place of Origin Most Used Part/Flower Image Phytoremediation Uses Main Chemical Groups Medicinal Use Gastronomic Uses Acanthaceae A phelandra squarrosa Nees Aphelandra, Kuda Belang, zebra plant, saffron spike [19,20] Central and South America [19,20] Root, leaf [21] na Alkaloids (aphelandrine, spermin), phytoanticipins (2- b enzoxazolinone (BOA), 2-hydroxy-1,4- b enzoxazine-3-one (HBOA)), glucosides (cyclic hydroxamic acids and their corresponding glucosides) [21–24] Note: It presents allelopathic activity [25] Activity: antibacterial and antifungal [20,21] Non-edible Acanthaceae J usticia aurea Schltdl. J usticia, Yellow J acobinia, Brazilian plume [26,27] Central America [26] Leaf [27,28] na na Treatment: coughs, epilepsy, anxiety, and malaria [26–28] Leaf: juice [27] Alstroemeri aceae A lstroemeria aurea Graham Amancay, Peruvian Lily, Lily of the Incas, Parrot Lily, and jingle bell [29,30] Andean forests [30,31] Flower, leaf, stem [29,30] na Glucosides (tuliposide A), tulipalin A, phenols (6-hydroxy pelargonidin glycoside)s [32] Treatment: gynaecological and obstetric [31] Toxicity: All parts can cause skin allergies [29,32] Non-edible [29] Amaranthac eae Celosia argentea L. Lion hand, velvet, cockscomb, plumón, pluma, plumero rosa, cresta de gallo, celosia [33–35] Asia [34], unknown origin [35] Flower, seed, leaf [36,37] Soil decontamination [38] Alkaloids, saponins, tannins, phenols (anthocyanin), glycoproteins [33,35– 37,39] Treatment: stop bleeding, liver heat, diseases of the blood, therapeutic eye diseases, and infections of the urinary tract [33,35,37]. Leaf: vegetables [36] Flower: vegetables, Soil decontamination [38] Alkaloids, saponins, tannins, phenols (anthocyanin), glycoproteins [33,35–37,39] Treatment: stop bleeding, liver heat, diseases of the blood, therapeutic eye diseases, and infections of the urinary tract [33,35,37]. Activity: antitumor, antiviral, hepatoprotective, immune-modulatory, antidiarrheal, anti-diabetic, anti-infective, anti-helminthic, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, antinociceptive [33,35–37] Leaf: vegetables [36] Flower: vegetables, additive food [36,39] Seed: flour [33] Amaryllidaceae Allium schoenoprasum L. Wild chives, scallions, garlic chives, brown garlic, leaf onions, kucai [40] Central Asia [41]Leaf, root, flower [40,42] Foods 2023, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 4 of 80 Activity: antitumor, antiviral, hepatoprotective, immunemodulatory, antidiarrheal, antidiabetic, anti-infective, antihelminthic, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, antinociceptive [33,35–37] additive food [36,39] Seed: flour [33] Amaryllidac eae A llium schoenoprasu m L. Wild chives, scallions, garlic chives, brown garlic, leaf onions, kucai [40] Central Asia [41] Leaf, root, flower [40,42] Soil decontamination (Pb, Cd, Zn, and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons) [43] Phenols, terpenes (volatile and essential oils), sulphurcompounds [41,42,44,45] Low toxicity (Daily doses:60 g FW and 120 mg essential oil [41] Treatment: stop bleeding, lower b lood pressure, and prevent infections of the urinary tract [40,44] Activity: antithrombotic, antitumor, hepatoprotective, immune-modulatory, antidiarrheal, anti-diabetic, antiinfective, antioxidant, antiinflammatory, antimicrobial (antifungal, antibacterial, antiviral, antiprotozoal, anthelmintic) [40,41,44] Leaf: vegetables, condiment [41,44]. All parts are edible [40] Amaryllidac eae A gapanthus africanus (L.) Hoffmanns African Lily, Nile Lily, African agapanthus, love flower [46] South Africa [46] Leaf, root, flower [47] Water decontamination (TSS, COD, BOD, TP) [48] Alkaloids (galantamine, tazatine), terpene (essential oil), tannins, phenolics (flavonoid)s, lipids (lecithin), proteins (polypeptides), saponins [46,49,50] Treatment: heart diseases, hypertension, pregnancy and labour, cancer, and haemorrhoids [47,49–51] Whole plant: infusion [50,51] Amaryllidac eae Clivia miniata (Lindl.) Bosse Bush lily, orange lily, umayime [52,53] South Africa [54]. Whole plant [52,53,55] Soil decontamination (Pb and carbon). Alkaloids (galantamine), esters (3a-4-dihydro- lactone), benzopyran Treatment: fever, relieve pain, facilitate childbirth, and as a snake bite remedy [52,54] Non-edible [56] Soil decontamination (Pb, Cd, Zn, and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons) [43] Phenols, terpenes (volatile and essential oils), sulphur-compounds [41,42,44,45] Low toxicity (Daily doses: 60 g FW and 120 mg essential oil [41] Treatment: stop bleeding, lower blood pressure, and prevent infections of the urinary tract [40,44] Activity: antithrombotic, antitumor, hepatoprotective, immune-modulatory, antidiarrheal, anti-diabetic, anti-infective, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial (antifungal, antibacterial, antiviral, antiprotozoal, anthelmintic) [40,41,44] Leaf: vegetables, condiment [41,44]. All parts are edible [40]
Foods 2023,12, 4066 4 of 67 Table 1. Cont. Family [18] Species [18] Common Name Place of Origin Most Used Part/Flower Image Phytoremediation Uses Main Chemical Groups Medicinal Use Gastronomic Uses Amaryllidaceae Agapanthus africanus (L.) Hoffmanns African Lily, Nile Lily, African agapanthus, love flower [46]South Africa [46]Leaf, root, flower [47] Foods 2023, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 4 of 80 Activity: antitumor, antiviral, hepatoprotective, immunemodulatory, antidiarrheal, antidiabetic, anti-infective, antihelminthic, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, antinociceptive [33,35–37] additive food [36,39] Seed: flour [33] Amaryllidac eae A llium schoenoprasu m L. Wild chives, scallions, garlic chives, brown garlic, leaf onions, kucai [40] Central Asia [41] Leaf, root, flower [40,42] Soil decontamination (Pb, Cd, Zn, and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons) [43] Phenols, terpenes (volatile and essential oils), sulphurcompounds [41,42,44,45] Low toxicity (Daily doses:60 g FW and 120 mg essential oil [41] Treatment: stop bleeding, lower b lood pressure, and prevent infections of the urinary tract [40,44] Activity: antithrombotic, antitumor, hepatoprotective, immune-modulatory, antidiarrheal, anti-diabetic, antiinfective, antioxidant, antiinflammatory, antimicrobial (antifungal, antibacterial, antiviral, antiprotozoal, anthelmintic) [40,41,44] Leaf: vegetables, condiment [41,44]. All parts are edible [40] Amaryllidac eae A gapanthus africanus (L.) Hoffmanns African Lily, Nile Lily, African agapanthus, love flower [46] South Africa [46] Leaf, root, flower [47] Water decontamination (TSS, COD, BOD, TP) [48] Alkaloids (galantamine, tazatine), terpene (essential oil), tannins, phenolics (flavonoid)s, lipids (lecithin), proteins (polypeptides), saponins [46,49,50] Treatment: heart diseases, hypertension, pregnancy and labour, cancer, and haemorrhoids [47,49–51] Whole plant: infusion [50,51] Amaryllidac eae Clivia miniata (Lindl.) Bosse Bush lily, orange lily, umayime [52,53] South Africa [54]. Whole plant [52,53,55] Soil decontamination (Pb and carbon). Alkaloids (galantamine), esters (3a-4-dihydro- lactone), benzopyran Treatment: fever, relieve pain, facilitate childbirth, and as a snake bite remedy [52,54] Non-edible [56] Water decontamination (TSS, COD, BOD, TP) [48] Alkaloids (galantamine, tazatine), terpene (essential oil), tannins, phenolics (flavonoid)s, lipids (lecithin), proteins (polypeptides), saponins [46,49,50] Treatment: heart diseases, hypertension, pregnancy and labour, cancer, and haemorrhoids [47,49–51] Whole plant: infusion [50,51] Amaryllidaceae Clivia miniata (Lindl.) Bosse Clivia miniata var. citrina S. Watson Bush lily, orange lily, umayime [52,53]South Africa [54]. Whole plant [52,53,55] Foods 2023, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 4 of 80 Activity: antitumor, antiviral, hepatoprotective, immunemodulatory, antidiarrheal, antidiabetic, anti-infective, antihelminthic, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, antinociceptive [33,35–37] additive food [36,39] Seed: flour [33] Amaryllidac eae A llium schoenoprasu m L. Wild chives, scallions, garlic chives, brown garlic, leaf onions, kucai [40] Central Asia [41] Leaf, root, flower [40,42] Soil decontamination (Pb, Cd, Zn, and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons) [43] Phenols, terpenes (volatile and essential oils), sulphurcompounds [41,42,44,45] Low toxicity (Daily doses:60 g FW and 120 mg essential oil [41] Treatment: stop bleeding, lower b lood pressure, and prevent infections of the urinary tract [40,44] Activity: antithrombotic, antitumor, hepatoprotective, immune-modulatory, antidiarrheal, anti-diabetic, antiinfective, antioxidant, antiinflammatory, antimicrobial (antifungal, antibacterial, antiviral, antiprotozoal, anthelmintic) [40,41,44] Leaf: vegetables, condiment [41,44]. All parts are edible [40] Amaryllidac eae A gapanthus africanus (L.) Hoffmanns African Lily, Nile Lily, African agapanthus, love flower [46] South Africa [46] Leaf, root, flower [47] Water decontamination (TSS, COD, BOD, TP) [48] Alkaloids (galantamine, tazatine), terpene (essential oil), tannins, phenolics (flavonoid)s, lipids (lecithin), proteins (polypeptides), saponins [46,49,50] Treatment: heart diseases, hypertension, pregnancy and labour, cancer, and haemorrhoids [47,49–51] Whole plant: infusion [50,51] Amaryllidac eae Clivia miniata (Lindl.) Bosse Bush lily, orange lily, umayime [52,53] South Africa [54]. Whole plant [52,53,55] Soil decontamination (Pb and carbon). Alkaloids (galantamine), esters (3a-4-dihydro- lactone), benzopyran Treatment: fever, relieve pain, facilitate childbirth, and as a snake bite remedy [52,54] Non-edible [56] Soil decontamination (Pb and carbon). Alkaloids (galantamine), esters (3a-4-dihydro-lactone), benzopyran ((3,4-g) indole ring system), triazines (atrazine) [52,54–56] Treatment: fever, relieve pain, facilitate childbirth, and as a snake bite remedy [52,54] Activity: antimicrobial, antiviral, uterotonic, antitumor, cytotoxic activities [52,54,56] Toxicity: All plants present high toxicity (alkaloids) [55]. Non-edible [56] Apiaceae Coriandrum sativum L. Cilantro, Chinese parsley, European coriander, cilantrillo [57] Mediterranean regions [57]Whole plant [58,59] Foods 2023, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 5 of 80 Clivia miniata var. citrina S. Watson ((3,4-g) indole ring system), triazines (atrazine) [52,54–56] Activity: antimicrobial, antiviral, uterotonic, antitumor, cytotoxic activities [52,54,56] Toxicity: All plants present high toxicity (alkaloids) [55]. Apiaceae Coriandrum sativum L. Cilantro, Chinese parsley, European coriander, cilantrillo [57] Mediterranea n regions [57] Whole plant [58,59] Soil decontamination (Pb, Cr and As). Water decontamination (Zn (II) ions from aqueous medium) [60,61] Sugars, alkaloids, phenolics, resins, tannins, anthraquinones, sterols, and terpenes (essential oils) [42,57– 59] Activity: antimicrobial, antioxidant, anti-diabetic, anxiolytic, cardioprotective, antiepileptic, anthelmintic, antiulcer, anti-carcinogenic, diuretic, antidepressant, antimutagenic, antiinflammatory, antilipidemic, antihypertensive, neuroprotective, diuretic [57– 59,62] This presents cytoprotective effects in gastric epithelial cells. LD50 oil = 4.1 g/Kg [57] Arial part: several culinary uses [57,58] Apocynacea e Catharanthus roseus (L.) G. Don Cape vinca, chavelita, teresita, vinca rosea, Isabelita, nayon-tara [27,63] Madagascar [53] Leaf, root [27] Soil decontamination (Cr, Pb, Ni and oilcontaminated soil) [64,65] Hallucinogen (Ibogaine), alkaloids(ascartharath ine, lochnenine, vindoline, vindolinenine, vincristine, vinblastine, reserpine, tetrahydroal-stronine, yohimbine, serpentine) [53,63,66] Note: the leaves have cytotoxicity [66] Treatment: leukaemia, a popular remedy for diabetes, headache, wasp stings, sore throat, eye irritation, low blood pressure, insomnia, Hodgkin’s disease, hypertension, neuroblastoma, malaria, rhabdomyosarcoma, Wilms tumour, vascular dementia, Alzheimer’s, dermatitis, acne [27,53,63,67] Activity: antifungal [68] Leaf: juice [27] Soil decontamination (Pb, Cr and As). Water decontamination (Zn (II) ions from aqueous medium) [60,61] Sugars, alkaloids, phenolics, resins, tannins, anthraquinones, sterols, and terpenes (essential oils) [42,57–59] Activity: antimicrobial, antioxidant, anti-diabetic, anxiolytic, cardioprotective, antiepileptic, anthelmintic, antiulcer, anti-carcinogenic, diuretic, antidepressant, antimutagenic, anti-inflammatory, antilipidemic, antihypertensive, neuroprotective, diuretic [57–59,62] This presents cytoprotective effects in gastric epithelial cells. LD50 oil = 4.1 g/Kg [57] Arial part: several culinary uses [57,58] Apocynaceae Catharanthus roseus (L.) G. Don Cape vinca, chavelita, teresita, vinca rosea, Isabelita, nayon-tara [27,63] Madagascar [53] Leaf, root [27] Foods 2023, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 5 of 80 Clivia miniata var. citrina S. Watson ((3,4-g) indole ring system), triazines (atrazine) [52,54–56] Activity: antimicrobial, antiviral, uterotonic, antitumor, cytotoxic activities [52,54,56] Toxicity: All plants present high toxicity (alkaloids) [55]. Apiaceae Coriandrum sativum L. Cilantro, Chinese parsley, European coriander, cilantrillo [57] Mediterranea n regions [57] Whole plant [58,59] Soil decontamination (Pb, Cr and As). Water decontamination (Zn (II) ions from aqueous medium) [60,61] Sugars, alkaloids, phenolics, resins, tannins, anthraquinones, sterols, and terpenes (essential oils) [42,57– 59] Activity: antimicrobial, antioxidant, anti-diabetic, anxiolytic, cardioprotective, antiepileptic, anthelmintic, antiulcer, anti-carcinogenic, diuretic, antidepressant, antimutagenic, antiinflammatory, antilipidemic, antihypertensive, neuroprotective, diuretic [57– 59,62] This presents cytoprotective effects in gastric epithelial cells. LD50 oil = 4.1 g/Kg [57] Arial part: several culinary uses [57,58] Apocynacea e Catharanthus roseus (L.) G. Don Cape vinca, chavelita, teresita, vinca rosea, Isabelita, nayon-tara [27,63] Madagascar [53] Leaf, root [27] Soil decontamination (Cr, Pb, Ni and oilcontaminated soil) [64,65] Hallucinogen (Ibogaine), alkaloids(ascartharath ine, lochnenine, vindoline, vindolinenine, vincristine, vinblastine, reserpine, tetrahydroal-stronine, yohimbine, serpentine) [53,63,66] Note: the leaves have cytotoxicity [66] Treatment: leukaemia, a popular remedy for diabetes, headache, wasp stings, sore throat, eye irritation, low blood pressure, insomnia, Hodgkin’s disease, hypertension, neuroblastoma, malaria, rhabdomyosarcoma, Wilms tumour, vascular dementia, Alzheimer’s, dermatitis, acne [27,53,63,67] Activity: antifungal [68] Leaf: juice [27] Soil decontamination (Cr, Pb, Ni and oil-contaminated soil) [64,65] Hallucinogen (Ibogaine), alkaloids(ascartharathine, lochnenine, vindoline, vindolinenine, vincristine, vinblastine, reserpine, tetrahydroal-stronine, yohimbine, serpentine) [53,63,66] Note: the leaves have cytotoxicity [66] Treatment: leukaemia, a popular remedy for diabetes, headache, wasp stings, sore throat, eye irritation, low blood pressure, insomnia, Hodgkin’s disease, hypertension, neuroblastoma, malaria, rhabdomyosarcoma, Wilms tumour, vascular dementia, Alzheimer’s, dermatitis, acne [27,53,63,67] Activity: antifungal [68] Leaf: juice [27]
Foods 2023,12, 4066 5 of 67 Table 1. Cont. Family [18] Species [18] Common Name Place of Origin Most Used Part/Flower Image Phytoremediation Uses Main Chemical Groups Medicinal Use Gastronomic Uses Apocynaceae Nerium oleander L. Adelfa, flower laurel, laurel rose, trinitaria [69]Mediterranean regions [69]Leaf, flower, root, stem [69] Foods 2023, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 of 80 Apocynacea e Nerium oleander L. Adelfa, flower laurel, laurel rose, trinitaria [69] Mediterranea n regions [69] Leaf, flower, root, stem [69] Soil decontamination (Ni and Cr) [70] Alkaloids, tannins, steroids, terpenoids, flavonoids, saponins, and cardiac glycosides (nerifolin, peruvosid, vetoxin, thevethin A, thevethin B, ruvosid oleandrin, folinerin, adynerin, and digitoxigenin) [69,71,72] Note: Hazardous compounds (cardioactive steroids or cardiac glycosides) [55] Treatment: cardiac affections, diabetes, rheumatic pain, epilepsy, asthma, leprosy, nervous regulation, painful menstrual periods, malaria, indigestion, ringworm, venous diseases, skin problems, warts, and chemotherapeutic agents [69,71,73] Activity: antifungal, cytotoxic, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, analgesic, cardioprotective, neuroprotective, hepatoprotective [73] Toxicity: All plant causes abortions and skin irritant [29,55] Non-edible [29] Apocynacea e Trachelosper mum j asminoides (Lind.) Len. Star jazmín, fake j asmíne, milk j asmine, Chinese j asmine Asia Leaf, flower, stem [74,75] na Lignans, alkaloids, triterpenoids, and phenolics [75,76] Treatment: relieving rheumatic, arthritic pain, fever, gonarthritis, b ackache, and pharyngitis [76]. Activity: anti-inflammatory, analgesic, antitumor, antioxidant, and antimicrobial [76] Arial part: infusion [76] Araceae A glaonema commutatum Schott Aglaonema, cafeto ornamental [34] Southeast Asia [34] Leaf, fruit [77] Used as a vertical greenery system (VGS) to contribute to improving air quality [78] Alkaloids (calcium oxalate crystals, polyhydroxy alkaloids), proteins (latex), terpenes (carotenoids) [77] Treatment: Buruli ulcer (chronic and debilitating infection of the skin) and reduced swellings [79] Non-edible. Toxic if consumed [34]. Leaf: infusion [79] Araceae A nthurium andraeanum Linden ex André Anthurium, capotillo, flower of love, flamenco flower America [80] Leaf, flower Water decontamination (COD, P, coliforms) [48] Alkaloids (calcium oxalate crystals), glycosides (cyanogenic na na Soil decontamination (Ni and Cr) [70] Alkaloids, tannins, steroids, terpenoids, flavonoids, saponins, and cardiac glycosides (nerifolin, peruvosid, vetoxin, thevethin A, thevethin B, ruvosid oleandrin, folinerin, adynerin, and digitoxigenin) [69,71,72] Note: Hazardous compounds (cardioactive steroids or cardiac glycosides) [55] Treatment: cardiac affections, diabetes, rheumatic pain, epilepsy, asthma, leprosy, nervous regulation, painful menstrual periods, malaria, indigestion, ringworm, venous diseases, skin problems, warts, and chemotherapeutic agents [69,71,73] Activity: antifungal, cytotoxic, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, analgesic, cardioprotective, neuroprotective, hepatoprotective [73] Toxicity: All plant causes abortions and skin irritant [29,55] Non-edible [29] Apocynaceae Trachelospermum jasminoides (Lind.) Len. Star jazmín, fake jasmíne, milk jasmine, Chinese jasmine Asia Leaf, flower, stem [74,75] Foods 2023, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 of 80 Apocynacea e Nerium oleander L. Adelfa, flower laurel, laurel rose, trinitaria [69] Mediterranea n regions [69] Leaf, flower, root, stem [69] Soil decontamination (Ni and Cr) [70] Alkaloids, tannins, steroids, terpenoids, flavonoids, saponins, and cardiac glycosides (nerifolin, peruvosid, vetoxin, thevethin A, thevethin B, ruvosid oleandrin, folinerin, adynerin, and digitoxigenin) [69,71,72] Note: Hazardous compounds (cardioactive steroids or cardiac glycosides) [55] Treatment: cardiac affections, diabetes, rheumatic pain, epilepsy, asthma, leprosy, nervous regulation, painful menstrual periods, malaria, indigestion, ringworm, venous diseases, skin problems, warts, and chemotherapeutic agents [69,71,73] Activity: antifungal, cytotoxic, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, analgesic, cardioprotective, neuroprotective, hepatoprotective [73] Toxicity: All plant causes abortions and skin irritant [29,55] Non-edible [29] Apocynacea e Trachelosper mum j asminoides (Lind.) Len. Star jazmín, fake j asmíne, milk j asmine, Chinese j asmine Asia Leaf, flower, stem [74,75] na Lignans, alkaloids, triterpenoids, and phenolics [75,76] Treatment: relieving rheumatic, arthritic pain, fever, gonarthritis, b ackache, and pharyngitis [76]. Activity: anti-inflammatory, analgesic, antitumor, antioxidant, and antimicrobial [76] Arial part: infusion [76] Araceae A glaonema commutatum Schott Aglaonema, cafeto ornamental [34] Southeast Asia [34] Leaf, fruit [77] Used as a vertical greenery system (VGS) to contribute to improving air quality [78] Alkaloids (calcium oxalate crystals, polyhydroxy alkaloids), proteins (latex), terpenes (carotenoids) [77] Treatment: Buruli ulcer (chronic and debilitating infection of the skin) and reduced swellings [79] Non-edible. Toxic if consumed [34]. Leaf: infusion [79] Araceae A nthurium andraeanum Linden ex André Anthurium, capotillo, flower of love, flamenco flower America [80] Leaf, flower Water decontamination (COD, P, coliforms) [48] Alkaloids (calcium oxalate crystals), glycosides (cyanogenic na na na Lignans, alkaloids, triterpenoids, and phenolics [75,76] Treatment: relieving rheumatic, arthritic pain, fever, gonarthritis, backache, and pharyngitis [76]. Activity: anti-inflammatory, analgesic, antitumor, antioxidant, and antimicrobial [76] Arial part: infusion [76] Araceae Aglaonema commutatum Schott Aglaonema, cafeto ornamental [34]Southeast Asia [34]Leaf, fruit [77] Foods 2023, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 of 80 Apocynacea e Nerium oleander L. Adelfa, flower laurel, laurel rose, trinitaria [69] Mediterranea n regions [69] Leaf, flower, root, stem [69] Soil decontamination (Ni and Cr) [70] Alkaloids, tannins, steroids, terpenoids, flavonoids, saponins, and cardiac glycosides (nerifolin, peruvosid, vetoxin, thevethin A, thevethin B, ruvosid oleandrin, folinerin, adynerin, and digitoxigenin) [69,71,72] Note: Hazardous compounds (cardioactive steroids or cardiac glycosides) [55] Treatment: cardiac affections, diabetes, rheumatic pain, epilepsy, asthma, leprosy, nervous regulation, painful menstrual periods, malaria, indigestion, ringworm, venous diseases, skin problems, warts, and chemotherapeutic agents [69,71,73] Activity: antifungal, cytotoxic, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, analgesic, cardioprotective, neuroprotective, hepatoprotective [73] Toxicity: All plant causes abortions and skin irritant [29,55] Non-edible [29] Apocynacea e Trachelosper mum j asminoides (Lind.) Len. Star jazmín, fake j asmíne, milk j asmine, Chinese j asmine Asia Leaf, flower, stem [74,75] na Lignans, alkaloids, triterpenoids, and phenolics [75,76] Treatment: relieving rheumatic, arthritic pain, fever, gonarthritis, b ackache, and pharyngitis [76]. Activity: anti-inflammatory, analgesic, antitumor, antioxidant, and antimicrobial [76] Arial part: infusion [76] Araceae A glaonema commutatum Schott Aglaonema, cafeto ornamental [34] Southeast Asia [34] Leaf, fruit [77] Used as a vertical greenery system (VGS) to contribute to improving air quality [78] Alkaloids (calcium oxalate crystals, polyhydroxy alkaloids), proteins (latex), terpenes (carotenoids) [77] Treatment: Buruli ulcer (chronic and debilitating infection of the skin) and reduced swellings [79] Non-edible. Toxic if consumed [34]. Leaf: infusion [79] Araceae A nthurium andraeanum Linden ex André Anthurium, capotillo, flower of love, flamenco flower America [80] Leaf, flower Water decontamination (COD, P, coliforms) [48] Alkaloids (calcium oxalate crystals), glycosides (cyanogenic na na Used as a vertical greenery system (VGS) to contribute to improving air quality [78] Alkaloids (calcium oxalate crystals, polyhydroxy alkaloids), proteins (latex), terpenes (carotenoids) [77] Treatment: Buruli ulcer (chronic and debilitating infection of the skin) and reduced swellings [79] Non-edible. Toxic if consumed [34]. Leaf: infusion [79] Araceae Anthurium andraeanum Linden ex André Anthurium, capotillo, flower of love, flamenco flower America [80] Leaf, flower Foods 2023, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 of 80 Apocynacea e Nerium oleander L. Adelfa, flower laurel, laurel rose, trinitaria [69] Mediterranea n regions [69] Leaf, flower, root, stem [69] Soil decontamination (Ni and Cr) [70] Alkaloids, tannins, steroids, terpenoids, flavonoids, saponins, and cardiac glycosides (nerifolin, peruvosid, vetoxin, thevethin A, thevethin B, ruvosid oleandrin, folinerin, adynerin, and digitoxigenin) [69,71,72] Note: Hazardous compounds (cardioactive steroids or cardiac glycosides) [55] Treatment: cardiac affections, diabetes, rheumatic pain, epilepsy, asthma, leprosy, nervous regulation, painful menstrual periods, malaria, indigestion, ringworm, venous diseases, skin problems, warts, and chemotherapeutic agents [69,71,73] Activity: antifungal, cytotoxic, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, analgesic, cardioprotective, neuroprotective, hepatoprotective [73] Toxicity: All plant causes abortions and skin irritant [29,55] Non-edible [29] Apocynacea e Trachelosper mum j asminoides (Lind.) Len. Star jazmín, fake j asmíne, milk j asmine, Chinese j asmine Asia Leaf, flower, stem [74,75] na Lignans, alkaloids, triterpenoids, and phenolics [75,76] Treatment: relieving rheumatic, arthritic pain, fever, gonarthritis, b ackache, and pharyngitis [76]. Activity: anti-inflammatory, analgesic, antitumor, antioxidant, and antimicrobial [76] Arial part: infusion [76] Araceae A glaonema commutatum Schott Aglaonema, cafeto ornamental [34] Southeast Asia [34] Leaf, fruit [77] Used as a vertical greenery system (VGS) to contribute to improving air quality [78] Alkaloids (calcium oxalate crystals, polyhydroxy alkaloids), proteins (latex), terpenes (carotenoids) [77] Treatment: Buruli ulcer (chronic and debilitating infection of the skin) and reduced swellings [79] Non-edible. Toxic if consumed [34]. Leaf: infusion [79] Araceae A nthurium andraeanum Linden ex André Anthurium, capotillo, flower of love, flamenco flower America [80] Leaf, flower Water decontamination (COD, P, coliforms) [48] Alkaloids (calcium oxalate crystals), glycosides (cyanogenic na na Water decontamination (COD, P, coliforms) [48] Alkaloids (calcium oxalate crystals), glycosides (cyanogenic glycosides), and phenolics [80,81] na na Araceae Spathiphyllum montanum (R. A. Baker) Grayum Spath, peace liliescuina de moisés, guisnay [20,82,83] Tropical America [20,82,83]Leaf [84] Foods 2023, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 7 of 80 glycosides), and phenolics [80,81] Araceae Spathiphyllu m montanum (R. A. Baker) Grayum Spath, peace liliescuina de moisés, guisnay [20,82,83] Tropical America [20,82,83] Leaf [84] Air decontamination with toxins [83] Phenols (flavonoids) [84] Activity: antioxidant, antiinflammatory, antimicrobial, anti-carcinogenic [20,84] na Asparagace ae Chlorophytu m comosum (Thunb.) J acques Tape, malamadre, clorofito, lasso of love, spider plant, ribbon plant [85] Africa [86] Leaf, flower, stem [85] Soil decontamination (Al, Pb, Cd salt, trichloroethylene, toluene, formaldehyde, particulate matter, and benzene) [86– 88] Air decontamination (PM) [89] Saponin (gitogenin, ecogenin, tigogenin), glycosides and alkaloids [85,86] Treatment: bronchitis, cough, fracture, and burns [85] Activity: antimicrobial, anticarcinogenic, hepatoprotective, antitumour properties, and cytotoxicity against cancerous cell lines [85,86] Arial part: infusion [90] Asteraceae Bidens andicola Kunth Ñachac, mìshico, quello-ttica, quico, chiri chiri, zumila [20,91–93] South America [20,94] Whole plant [93,94] na Alkaloids, phenolics (flavonoids), saponins, tannins, cardiotonics , steroids, terpenoids (sesquiterpene lactones), and chalcones (chalcone ester glycosides) [91,94–96] Treatment: excessive vaginal fluid, postpartum, diarrhoea, cholera, stomachache, nervous afflictions, skin problems, asthma, eye inflammation, and renal affections [92,94,96] Activity: uterine antihaemorrhagic, antirheumatic, anti-inflammatory, antiallergenic, antibacterial, antidiabetic, antimalarial, antiviral, antihypertensive, antioxidant, antimicrobial activity, and antispasmodic properties [20,94] Leaf: salad Whole plant: infusion [93] Air decontamination with toxins [83]Phenols (flavonoids) [84]Activity: antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, anti-carcinogenic [20,84]na Asparagaceae Chlorophytum comosum (Thunb.) Jacques Tape, malamadre, clorofito, lasso of love, spider plant, ribbon plant [85] Africa [86]Leaf, flower, stem [85] Foods 2023, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 7 of 80 glycosides), and phenolics [80,81] Araceae Spathiphyllu m montanum (R. A. Baker) Grayum Spath, peace liliescuina de moisés, guisnay [20,82,83] Tropical America [20,82,83] Leaf [84] Air decontamination with toxins [83] Phenols (flavonoids) [84] Activity: antioxidant, antiinflammatory, antimicrobial, anti-carcinogenic [20,84] na Asparagace ae Chlorophytu m comosum (Thunb.) J acques Tape, malamadre, clorofito, lasso of love, spider plant, ribbon plant [85] Africa [86] Leaf, flower, stem [85] Soil decontamination (Al, Pb, Cd salt, trichloroethylene, toluene, formaldehyde, particulate matter, and benzene) [86– 88] Air decontamination (PM) [89] Saponin (gitogenin, ecogenin, tigogenin), glycosides and alkaloids [85,86] Treatment: bronchitis, cough, fracture, and burns [85] Activity: antimicrobial, anticarcinogenic, hepatoprotective, antitumour properties, and cytotoxicity against cancerous cell lines [85,86] Arial part: infusion [90] Asteraceae Bidens andicola Kunth Ñachac, mìshico, quello-ttica, quico, chiri chiri, zumila [20,91–93] South America [20,94] Whole plant [93,94] na Alkaloids, phenolics (flavonoids), saponins, tannins, cardiotonics , steroids, terpenoids (sesquiterpene lactones), and chalcones (chalcone ester glycosides) [91,94–96] Treatment: excessive vaginal fluid, postpartum, diarrhoea, cholera, stomachache, nervous afflictions, skin problems, asthma, eye inflammation, and renal affections [92,94,96] Activity: uterine antihaemorrhagic, antirheumatic, anti-inflammatory, antiallergenic, antibacterial, antidiabetic, antimalarial, antiviral, antihypertensive, antioxidant, antimicrobial activity, and antispasmodic properties [20,94] Leaf: salad Whole plant: infusion [93] Soil decontamination (Al, Pb, Cd salt, trichloroethylene, toluene, formaldehyde, particulate matter, and benzene) [86–88] Air decontamination (PM) [89] Saponin (gitogenin, ecogenin, tigogenin), glycosides and alkaloids [85,86] Treatment: bronchitis, cough, fracture, and burns [85] Activity: antimicrobial, anti-carcinogenic, hepatoprotective, antitumour properties, and cytotoxicity against cancerous cell lines [85,86] Arial part: infusion [90]
Foods 2023,12, 4066 6 of 67 Table 1. Cont. Family [18] Species [18] Common Name Place of Origin Most Used Part/Flower Image Phytoremediation Uses Main Chemical Groups Medicinal Use Gastronomic Uses Asteraceae Bidens andicola Kunth Ñachac, mìshico, quello-ttica, quico, chiri chiri, zumila [20,91–93] South America [20,94]Whole plant [93,94] Foods 2023, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 7 of 80 glycosides), and phenolics [80,81] Araceae Spathiphyllu m montanum (R. A. Baker) Grayum Spath, peace liliescuina de moisés, guisnay [20,82,83] Tropical America [20,82,83] Leaf [84] Air decontamination with toxins [83] Phenols (flavonoids) [84] Activity: antioxidant, antiinflammatory, antimicrobial, anti-carcinogenic [20,84] na Asparagace ae Chlorophytu m comosum (Thunb.) J acques Tape, malamadre, clorofito, lasso of love, spider plant, ribbon plant [85] Africa [86] Leaf, flower, stem [85] Soil decontamination (Al, Pb, Cd salt, trichloroethylene, toluene, formaldehyde, particulate matter, and benzene) [86– 88] Air decontamination (PM) [89] Saponin (gitogenin, ecogenin, tigogenin), glycosides and alkaloids [85,86] Treatment: bronchitis, cough, fracture, and burns [85] Activity: antimicrobial, anticarcinogenic, hepatoprotective, antitumour properties, and cytotoxicity against cancerous cell lines [85,86] Arial part: infusion [90] Asteraceae Bidens andicola Kunth Ñachac, mìshico, quello-ttica, quico, chiri chiri, zumila [20,91–93] South America [20,94] Whole plant [93,94] na Alkaloids, phenolics (flavonoids), saponins, tannins, cardiotonics , steroids, terpenoids (sesquiterpene lactones), and chalcones (chalcone ester glycosides) [91,94–96] Treatment: excessive vaginal fluid, postpartum, diarrhoea, cholera, stomachache, nervous afflictions, skin problems, asthma, eye inflammation, and renal affections [92,94,96] Activity: uterine antihaemorrhagic, antirheumatic, anti-inflammatory, antiallergenic, antibacterial, antidiabetic, antimalarial, antiviral, antihypertensive, antioxidant, antimicrobial activity, and antispasmodic properties [20,94] Leaf: salad Whole plant: infusion [93] na Alkaloids, phenolics (flavonoids), saponins, tannins, cardiotonics, steroids, terpenoids (sesquiterpene lactones), and chalcones (chalcone ester glycosides) [91,94–96] Treatment: excessive vaginal fluid, postpartum, diarrhoea, cholera, stomachache, nervous afflictions, skin problems, asthma, eye inflammation, and renal affections [92,94,96] Activity: uterine antihaemorrhagic, antirheumatic, anti-inflammatory, anti-allergenic, antibacterial, antidiabetic, antimalarial, antiviral, antihypertensive, antioxidant, antimicrobial activity, and antispasmodic properties [20,94] Toxicity: It presents a moderate toxic effect [91] Leaf: salad Whole plant: infusion [93] Asteraceae Calendula officinalis L. Calendula, African marigold, Common marigold, Zergul, Garden Marigold, Marigold, Pot Marigold [97,98] Southern Europe [99]Flower [99] Foods 2023, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 of 80 Toxicity: It presents a moderate toxic effect [91] Asteraceae Calendula officinalis L. Calendula, African marigold, Common marigold, Zergul, Garden Marigold, Marigold, Pot Marigold [97,98] Southern Europe [99] Flower [99] Soil decontamination (Cd, Pb) [100] Saponins, sterols, terpenes (carotenoids, volatiles oils), tannins, resins, triterpenoids, phenols, coumarins, and quinones [42,72,97,101,102] Treatment: used as emollient, vulnerary, moisturising, analgesic, cramps, ulcers, j aundice, and haemorrhoids [99,101] Activity: antioxidant, antiinflammatory, antibacterial, antifungal, antiviral, antipyretic, antiseptic, antispasmodic, astringent, bitter, candidacies, cardiotonic, carminative, cholagogue, dermagenic, diaphoretic, diuretic, haemostatic, immunostimulant, lymphatic, uterotonic, and as a vasodilator [97–99,102,103] Toxicity: The leaves can cause phytodermatitis and cytotoxicity activity [55] It has a slightly bitter and spicy flavour. Flower: infusion [99] Asteraceae Centaurea seridis L. Bracera marine, thorny broom Mediterranea n region [104] na na Glucosides, sesquiterpenoids [104,105] Activity: anti-diabetic [104] na Asteraceae Cichorium intybus L. Brussels chicory, coffee chicory, root chicory, cikoria, nigana, cicoria, juju, radicheta [106–108] Western Asia, Europe, and North Africa [106,107] Whole plant [107] Soil decontamination with DDT (Dichlorodiphenyltri chloroethane) [88] Sesquiterpenes lactones (lactucin, lactopicrin), aesculetin, Cichorium), coumarin (scopoletin, 6-7- dihydro coumarin, umbelliferone glycosides, terpenes Treatment: cardiovascular, digestive, and skin protection [107] Activity: antioxidant, hypolipidemic, anti-carcinogenic, anti-allergenic, anti-testicular, antidiabetic, diuretic, antiinflammatory, analgesic, sedative, immunological, Leaf: salad, infusion Roots: flour [107] Soil decontamination (Cd, Pb) [100] Saponins, sterols, terpenes (carotenoids, volatiles oils), tannins, resins, triterpenoids, phenols, coumarins, and quinones [42,72,97,101,102] Treatment: used as emollient, vulnerary, moisturising, analgesic, cramps, ulcers, jaundice, and haemorrhoids [99,101] Activity: antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, antibacterial, antifungal, antiviral, antipyretic, antiseptic, antispasmodic, astringent, bitter, candidacies, cardiotonic, carminative, cholagogue, dermagenic, diaphoretic, diuretic, haemostatic, immunostimulant, lymphatic, uterotonic, and as a vasodilator [97–99,102,103] Toxicity: The leaves can cause phytodermatitis and cytotoxicity activity [55] It has a slightly bitter and spicy flavour. Flower: infusion [99] Asteraceae Centaurea seridis L. Bracera marine, thorny broom Mediterranean region [104]na Foods 2023, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 of 80 Toxicity: It presents a moderate toxic effect [91] Asteraceae Calendula officinalis L. Calendula, African marigold, Common marigold, Zergul, Garden Marigold, Marigold, Pot Marigold [97,98] Southern Europe [99] Flower [99] Soil decontamination (Cd, Pb) [100] Saponins, sterols, terpenes (carotenoids, volatiles oils), tannins, resins, triterpenoids, phenols, coumarins, and quinones [42,72,97,101,102] Treatment: used as emollient, vulnerary, moisturising, analgesic, cramps, ulcers, j aundice, and haemorrhoids [99,101] Activity: antioxidant, antiinflammatory, antibacterial, antifungal, antiviral, antipyretic, antiseptic, antispasmodic, astringent, bitter, candidacies, cardiotonic, carminative, cholagogue, dermagenic, diaphoretic, diuretic, haemostatic, immunostimulant, lymphatic, uterotonic, and as a vasodilator [97–99,102,103] Toxicity: The leaves can cause phytodermatitis and cytotoxicity activity [55] It has a slightly bitter and spicy flavour. Flower: infusion [99] Asteraceae Centaurea seridis L. Bracera marine, thorny broom Mediterranea n region [104] na na Glucosides, sesquiterpenoids [104,105] Activity: anti-diabetic [104] na Asteraceae Cichorium intybus L. Brussels chicory, coffee chicory, root chicory, cikoria, nigana, cicoria, juju, radicheta [106–108] Western Asia, Europe, and North Africa [106,107] Whole plant [107] Soil decontamination with DDT (Dichlorodiphenyltri chloroethane) [88] Sesquiterpenes lactones (lactucin, lactopicrin), aesculetin, Cichorium), coumarin (scopoletin, 6-7- dihydro coumarin, umbelliferone glycosides, terpenes Treatment: cardiovascular, digestive, and skin protection [107] Activity: antioxidant, hypolipidemic, anti-carcinogenic, anti-allergenic, anti-testicular, antidiabetic, diuretic, antiinflammatory, analgesic, sedative, immunological, Leaf: salad, infusion Roots: flour [107] na Glucosides, sesquiterpenoids [104,105]Activity: anti-diabetic [104] na Asteraceae Cichorium intybus L. Brussels chicory, coffee chicory, root chicory, cikoria, nigana, cicoria, juju, radicheta [106–108] Western Asia, Europe, and North Africa [106,107] Whole plant [107] Foods 2023, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 of 80 Toxicity: It presents a moderate toxic effect [91] Asteraceae Calendula officinalis L. Calendula, African marigold, Common marigold, Zergul, Garden Marigold, Marigold, Pot Marigold [97,98] Southern Europe [99] Flower [99] Soil decontamination (Cd, Pb) [100] Saponins, sterols, terpenes (carotenoids, volatiles oils), tannins, resins, triterpenoids, phenols, coumarins, and quinones [42,72,97,101,102] Treatment: used as emollient, vulnerary, moisturising, analgesic, cramps, ulcers, j aundice, and haemorrhoids [99,101] Activity: antioxidant, antiinflammatory, antibacterial, antifungal, antiviral, antipyretic, antiseptic, antispasmodic, astringent, bitter, candidacies, cardiotonic, carminative, cholagogue, dermagenic, diaphoretic, diuretic, haemostatic, immunostimulant, lymphatic, uterotonic, and as a vasodilator [97–99,102,103] Toxicity: The leaves can cause phytodermatitis and cytotoxicity activity [55] It has a slightly bitter and spicy flavour. Flower: infusion [99] Asteraceae Centaurea seridis L. Bracera marine, thorny broom Mediterranea n region [104] na na Glucosides, sesquiterpenoids [104,105] Activity: anti-diabetic [104] na Asteraceae Cichorium intybus L. Brussels chicory, coffee chicory, root chicory, cikoria, nigana, cicoria, juju, radicheta [106–108] Western Asia, Europe, and North Africa [106,107] Whole plant [107] Soil decontamination with DDT (Dichlorodiphenyltri chloroethane) [88] Sesquiterpenes lactones (lactucin, lactopicrin), aesculetin, Cichorium), coumarin (scopoletin, 6-7- dihydro coumarin, umbelliferone glycosides, terpenes Treatment: cardiovascular, digestive, and skin protection [107] Activity: antioxidant, hypolipidemic, anti-carcinogenic, anti-allergenic, anti-testicular, antidiabetic, diuretic, antiinflammatory, analgesic, sedative, immunological, Leaf: salad, infusion Roots: flour [107] Soil decontamination with DDT (Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane) [88] Sesquiterpenes lactones (lactucin, lactopicrin), aesculetin, Cichorium), coumarin (scopoletin, 6-7-dihydro coumarin, umbelliferone glycosides, terpenes (oils essential), phenolics [106,107,109] Treatment: cardiovascular, digestive, and skin protection [107] Activity: antioxidant, hypolipidemic, anti-carcinogenic, anti-allergenic, anti-testicular, antidiabetic, diuretic, anti-inflammatory, analgesic, sedative, immunological, antimicrobial, antiprotozoal, hepatoprotective, neuroprotective, and gastroprotective [106,107] Leaf: salad, infusion Roots: flour [107]
Foods 2023,12, 4066 7 of 67 Table 1. Cont. Family [18] Species [18] Common Name Place of Origin Most Used Part/Flower Image Phytoremediation Uses Main Chemical Groups Medicinal Use Gastronomic Uses Asteraceae Chrysanthemum morifolium Ramat Chrysanthema Asia [3] Flower [3] Foods 2023, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 9 of 80 (oils essential), phenolics [106,107,109] antimicrobial, antiprotozoal, hepatoprotective, neuroprotective, and gastroprotective [106,107] Asteraceae Chrysanthem um morifolium Ramat Chrysanthema Asia [3] Flower [3] Soil decontamination with Pb Pyrethroids (pyrethrins, deltamethrin), terpenes (sesquiterpene lactones), and phenolics (chrysanthemin) [3,110] Treatment: used in the detoxification of blood, regulation of pressure, calming nerves, hypertension, angina, digestive system, muscularskeletal system, respiratory system, arteriosclerosis, hypertension [3,111,112] Activity: antioxidant, antiinflammatory, anti-carcinogenic [111] Toxicity: the flowers present phytodermatitis [55] Flower: infusion, food supplement [3,111,113] Asteraceae Coreopsis g randiflora Hogg ex Sweet Coreopsis America [114] Flower [115] Soil disturbance [116] Phenolics [117] Activity: antioxidant, antiinflammatory, antimicrobial, antimalarial, antileishmanial, and anti-Alzheimer [117] Flower: food additive Asteraceae Cota tinctoria (L.) J. Gay Golden marguerite, yellow chamomile [118] Mediterranea n region Whole plant [118] Soil decontamination with B [119] Terpenes (volatile oils), triterpenes, tannins, and phenolics [118,120,121] Treatment: gastrointestinal disorders, stomach, haemorrhoids, antispasmodics, stimulating menstrual flow, hepatic insufficiency, and j aundice [118] Activity: antimicrobial, antiinflammatory, antibacterial, antispasmodic, and sedative [118,120] Flower: meat and dairy colouring [118] Soil decontamination with Pb Pyrethroids (pyrethrins, deltamethrin), terpenes (sesquiterpene lactones), and phenolics (chrysanthemin) [3,110] Treatment: used in the detoxification of blood, regulation of pressure, calming nerves, hypertension, angina, digestive system, muscular-skeletal system, respiratory system, arteriosclerosis, hypertension [3,111,112] Activity: antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, anti-carcinogenic [111] Toxicity: the flowers present phytodermatitis [55] Flower: infusion, food supplement [3,111,113] Asteraceae Coreopsis grandiflora Hogg ex Sweet Coreopsis America [114] Flower [115] Foods 2023, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 9 of 80 (oils essential), phenolics [106,107,109] antimicrobial, antiprotozoal, hepatoprotective, neuroprotective, and gastroprotective [106,107] Asteraceae Chrysanthem um morifolium Ramat Chrysanthema Asia [3] Flower [3] Soil decontamination with Pb Pyrethroids (pyrethrins, deltamethrin), terpenes (sesquiterpene lactones), and phenolics (chrysanthemin) [3,110] Treatment: used in the detoxification of blood, regulation of pressure, calming nerves, hypertension, angina, digestive system, muscularskeletal system, respiratory system, arteriosclerosis, hypertension [3,111,112] Activity: antioxidant, antiinflammatory, anti-carcinogenic [111] Toxicity: the flowers present phytodermatitis [55] Flower: infusion, food supplement [3,111,113] Asteraceae Coreopsis g randiflora Hogg ex Sweet Coreopsis America [114] Flower [115] Soil disturbance [116] Phenolics [117] Activity: antioxidant, antiinflammatory, antimicrobial, antimalarial, antileishmanial, and anti-Alzheimer [117] Flower: food additive Asteraceae Cota tinctoria (L.) J. Gay Golden marguerite, yellow chamomile [118] Mediterranea n region Whole plant [118] Soil decontamination with B [119] Terpenes (volatile oils), triterpenes, tannins, and phenolics [118,120,121] Treatment: gastrointestinal disorders, stomach, haemorrhoids, antispasmodics, stimulating menstrual flow, hepatic insufficiency, and j aundice [118] Activity: antimicrobial, antiinflammatory, antibacterial, antispasmodic, and sedative [118,120] Flower: meat and dairy colouring [118] Soil disturbance [116] Phenolics [117] Activity: antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, antimalarial, antileishmanial, and anti-Alzheimer [117] Flower: food additive Asteraceae Cota tinctoria (L.) J. Gay Golden marguerite, yellow chamomile [118]Mediterranean region Whole plant [118] Foods 2023, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 9 of 80 (oils essential), phenolics [106,107,109] antimicrobial, antiprotozoal, hepatoprotective, neuroprotective, and gastroprotective [106,107] Asteraceae Chrysanthem um morifolium Ramat Chrysanthema Asia [3] Flower [3] Soil decontamination with Pb Pyrethroids (pyrethrins, deltamethrin), terpenes (sesquiterpene lactones), and phenolics (chrysanthemin) [3,110] Treatment: used in the detoxification of blood, regulation of pressure, calming nerves, hypertension, angina, digestive system, muscularskeletal system, respiratory system, arteriosclerosis, hypertension [3,111,112] Activity: antioxidant, antiinflammatory, anti-carcinogenic [111] Toxicity: the flowers present phytodermatitis [55] Flower: infusion, food supplement [3,111,113] Asteraceae Coreopsis g randiflora Hogg ex Sweet Coreopsis America [114] Flower [115] Soil disturbance [116] Phenolics [117] Activity: antioxidant, antiinflammatory, antimicrobial, antimalarial, antileishmanial, and anti-Alzheimer [117] Flower: food additive Asteraceae Cota tinctoria (L.) J. Gay Golden marguerite, yellow chamomile [118] Mediterranea n region Whole plant [118] Soil decontamination with B [119] Terpenes (volatile oils), triterpenes, tannins, and phenolics [118,120,121] Treatment: gastrointestinal disorders, stomach, haemorrhoids, antispasmodics, stimulating menstrual flow, hepatic insufficiency, and j aundice [118] Activity: antimicrobial, antiinflammatory, antibacterial, antispasmodic, and sedative [118,120] Flower: meat and dairy colouring [118] Soil decontamination with B [119] Terpenes (volatile oils), triterpenes, tannins, and phenolics [118,120,121] Treatment: gastrointestinal disorders, stomach, haemorrhoids, antispasmodics, stimulating menstrual flow, hepatic insufficiency, and jaundice [118] Activity: antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, antibacterial, antispasmodic, and sedative [118,120] Flower: meat and dairy colouring [118] Asteraceae Dahlia coccinea Cav. Dahlia, mirasol, mountain dahlia, wild dahlia, sunflower [122]Mexico [122,123]Flower, root [122] Foods 2023, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 10 of 80 Asteraceae Dahlia coccinea Cav. Dahlia, mirasol, mountain dahlia, wild dahlia, sunflower [122] Mexico [122,123] Flower, root [122] Soil decontamination with oil [64] Terpenes (essential oils), polysaccharides (inulin), and acetylene compounds [122] Activity: antioxidant, antiinflammatory, anti-carcinogenic, anti-obesity, and gastroprotective [122,124] Flower: salad, dessert, garnish Root: soup [122] Asteraceae Dahlia p innata Cav. Dahlia, heron flower [20] Mexico It was declared the national flower of Mexico [20,125] Flower, root [122] Soil decontamination oil [64] Terpenes (essential oils), proteins (insulin), monosaccharides (fructose), acids (phytin, polyacetylenes, b enzoic acid) [126] Note: Root exudates are nematode toxic Activity: antimicrobial [20] Flower: salad dessert, garnish Root: soup [122] Asteraceae Gaillardia × g randiflora Hort. Ex Van Houtte Gallant, flower b lanket, gold b utton, bloodsucker, topasa dre na Flower na Alkaloids (oxalates) Note: It presents an inhibitory effect on the pathogenic fungi [127] na Non-edible [127] Asteraceae Tagetes erecta L. Carnation of the moor, flower of the dead, carnation Chinese, damask, flower crest, French marigold [125,126] Mexico The traditional day of the Dead flower in Mexico [127] Flower [127] Water decontamination (textile dye blue 160), HgCl, SnCl 2 [128]. Soil decontamination with Cd (hyperaccumulator) and oil [64,129] Organic acids, terpenes (essential oil), alkaloids, and phenolics [125,130,131] Note: Essential oil is cytogenotoxic. It can b e harmful in large amounts [132] Treatment: therapies and aromatherapies, digestive ailments (colic, parasites, discomfort, and diarrhoea), liver diseases, antiseptic, diuretic, depurative [125,127,133] Activity: antioxidant, anticarcinogenic, anti-inflammatory, disinfectant, healing, and antifungal [125,127,131] Toxicity: the leaves present phytodermatitis [55,127] Flower: infusion, salad, fried. It is a natural colouring and has a b itter taste [12,113] Soil decontamination with oil [64] Terpenes (essential oils), polysaccharides (inulin), and acetylene compounds [122] Activity: antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, anti-carcinogenic, anti-obesity, and gastroprotective [122,124] Flower: salad, dessert, garnish Root: soup [122] Asteraceae Dahlia pinnata Cav. Dahlia, heron flower [20] Mexico It was declared the national flower of Mexico [20,125] Flower, root [122] Foods 2023, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 10 of 80 Asteraceae Dahlia coccinea Cav. Dahlia, mirasol, mountain dahlia, wild dahlia, sunflower [122] Mexico [122,123] Flower, root [122] Soil decontamination with oil [64] Terpenes (essential oils), polysaccharides (inulin), and acetylene compounds [122] Activity: antioxidant, antiinflammatory, anti-carcinogenic, anti-obesity, and gastroprotective [122,124] Flower: salad, dessert, garnish Root: soup [122] Asteraceae Dahlia p innata Cav. Dahlia, heron flower [20] Mexico It was declared the national flower of Mexico [20,125] Flower, root [122] Soil decontamination oil [64] Terpenes (essential oils), proteins (insulin), monosaccharides (fructose), acids (phytin, polyacetylenes, b enzoic acid) [126] Note: Root exudates are nematode toxic Activity: antimicrobial [20] Flower: salad dessert, garnish Root: soup [122] Asteraceae Gaillardia × g randiflora Hort. Ex Van Houtte Gallant, flower b lanket, gold b utton, bloodsucker, topasa dre na Flower na Alkaloids (oxalates) Note: It presents an inhibitory effect on the pathogenic fungi [127] na Non-edible [127] Asteraceae Tagetes erecta L. Carnation of the moor, flower of the dead, carnation Chinese, damask, flower crest, French marigold [125,126] Mexico The traditional day of the Dead flower in Mexico [127] Flower [127] Water decontamination (textile dye blue 160), HgCl, SnCl 2 [128]. Soil decontamination with Cd (hyperaccumulator) and oil [64,129] Organic acids, terpenes (essential oil), alkaloids, and phenolics [125,130,131] Note: Essential oil is cytogenotoxic. It can b e harmful in large amounts [132] Treatment: therapies and aromatherapies, digestive ailments (colic, parasites, discomfort, and diarrhoea), liver diseases, antiseptic, diuretic, depurative [125,127,133] Activity: antioxidant, anticarcinogenic, anti-inflammatory, disinfectant, healing, and antifungal [125,127,131] Toxicity: the leaves present phytodermatitis [55,127] Flower: infusion, salad, fried. It is a natural colouring and has a b itter taste [12,113] Soil decontamination oil [64] Terpenes (essential oils), proteins (insulin), monosaccharides (fructose), acids (phytin, polyacetylenes, benzoic acid) [126] Note: Root exudates are nematode toxic Activity: antimicrobial [20]Flower: salad dessert, garnish Root: soup [122] Asteraceae Gaillardia × grandiflora Hort. Ex Van Houtte Gallant, flower blanket, gold button, bloodsucker, topasa dre na Flower Foods 2023, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 10 of 80 Asteraceae Dahlia coccinea Cav. Dahlia, mirasol, mountain dahlia, wild dahlia, sunflower [122] Mexico [122,123] Flower, root [122] Soil decontamination with oil [64] Terpenes (essential oils), polysaccharides (inulin), and acetylene compounds [122] Activity: antioxidant, antiinflammatory, anti-carcinogenic, anti-obesity, and gastroprotective [122,124] Flower: salad, dessert, garnish Root: soup [122] Asteraceae Dahlia p innata Cav. Dahlia, heron flower [20] Mexico It was declared the national flower of Mexico [20,125] Flower, root [122] Soil decontamination oil [64] Terpenes (essential oils), proteins (insulin), monosaccharides (fructose), acids (phytin, polyacetylenes, b enzoic acid) [126] Note: Root exudates are nematode toxic Activity: antimicrobial [20] Flower: salad dessert, garnish Root: soup [122] Asteraceae Gaillardia × g randiflora Hort. Ex Van Houtte Gallant, flower b lanket, gold b utton, bloodsucker, topasa dre na Flower na Alkaloids (oxalates) Note: It presents an inhibitory effect on the pathogenic fungi [127] na Non-edible [127] Asteraceae Tagetes erecta L. Carnation of the moor, flower of the dead, carnation Chinese, damask, flower crest, French marigold [125,126] Mexico The traditional day of the Dead flower in Mexico [127] Flower [127] Water decontamination (textile dye blue 160), HgCl, SnCl 2 [128]. Soil decontamination with Cd (hyperaccumulator) and oil [64,129] Organic acids, terpenes (essential oil), alkaloids, and phenolics [125,130,131] Note: Essential oil is cytogenotoxic. It can b e harmful in large amounts [132] Treatment: therapies and aromatherapies, digestive ailments (colic, parasites, discomfort, and diarrhoea), liver diseases, antiseptic, diuretic, depurative [125,127,133] Activity: antioxidant, anticarcinogenic, anti-inflammatory, disinfectant, healing, and antifungal [125,127,131] Toxicity: the leaves present phytodermatitis [55,127] Flower: infusion, salad, fried. It is a natural colouring and has a b itter taste [12,113] na Alkaloids (oxalates) Note: It presents an inhibitory effect on the pathogenic fungi [127] na Non-edible [127]
Foods 2023,12, 4066 8 of 67 Table 1. Cont. Family [18] Species [18] Common Name Place of Origin Most Used Part/Flower Image Phytoremediation Uses Main Chemical Groups Medicinal Use Gastronomic Uses Asteraceae Tagetes erecta L. Carnation of the moor, flower of the dead, carnation Chinese, damask, flower crest, French marigold [125,126] Mexico The traditional day of the Dead flower in Mexico [127] Flower [127] Foods 2023, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 10 of 80 Asteraceae Dahlia coccinea Cav. Dahlia, mirasol, mountain dahlia, wild dahlia, sunflower [122] Mexico [122,123] Flower, root [122] Soil decontamination with oil [64] Terpenes (essential oils), polysaccharides (inulin), and acetylene compounds [122] Activity: antioxidant, antiinflammatory, anti-carcinogenic, anti-obesity, and gastroprotective [122,124] Flower: salad, dessert, garnish Root: soup [122] Asteraceae Dahlia p innata Cav. Dahlia, heron flower [20] Mexico It was declared the national flower of Mexico [20,125] Flower, root [122] Soil decontamination oil [64] Terpenes (essential oils), proteins (insulin), monosaccharides (fructose), acids (phytin, polyacetylenes, b enzoic acid) [126] Note: Root exudates are nematode toxic Activity: antimicrobial [20] Flower: salad dessert, garnish Root: soup [122] Asteraceae Gaillardia × g randiflora Hort. Ex Van Houtte Gallant, flower b lanket, gold b utton, bloodsucker, topasa dre na Flower na Alkaloids (oxalates) Note: It presents an inhibitory effect on the pathogenic fungi [127] na Non-edible [127] Asteraceae Tagetes erecta L. Carnation of the moor, flower of the dead, carnation Chinese, damask, flower crest, French marigold [125,126] Mexico The traditional day of the Dead flower in Mexico [127] Flower [127] Water decontamination (textile dye blue 160), HgCl, SnCl 2 [128]. Soil decontamination with Cd (hyperaccumulator) and oil [64,129] Organic acids, terpenes (essential oil), alkaloids, and phenolics [125,130,131] Note: Essential oil is cytogenotoxic. It can b e harmful in large amounts [132] Treatment: therapies and aromatherapies, digestive ailments (colic, parasites, discomfort, and diarrhoea), liver diseases, antiseptic, diuretic, depurative [125,127,133] Activity: antioxidant, anticarcinogenic, anti-inflammatory, disinfectant, healing, and antifungal [125,127,131] Toxicity: the leaves present phytodermatitis [55,127] Flower: infusion, salad, fried. It is a natural colouring and has a b itter taste [12,113] Water decontamination (textile dye blue 160), HgCl, SnCl2[128]. Soil decontamination with Cd (hyperaccumulator) and oil [64,129] Organic acids, terpenes (essential oil), alkaloids, and phenolics [125,130,131] Note: Essential oil is cytogenotoxic. It can be harmful in large amounts [132] Treatment: therapies and aromatherapies, digestive ailments (colic, parasites, discomfort, and diarrhoea), liver diseases, antiseptic, diuretic, depurative [125,127,133] Activity: antioxidant, anti-carcinogenic, anti-inflammatory, disinfectant, healing, and antifungal [125,127,131] Toxicity: the leaves present phytodermatitis [55,127] Flower: infusion, salad, fried. It is a natural colouring and has a bitter taste [12,113] Asteraceae Taraxacum campylodes G. E. Haglund Dandelion, bitter chicory, diente de león [31,91,92] Europe and Asia [120]Whole plant [113,134] Foods 2023, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 11 of 80 Asteraceae Taraxacum campylodes G. E. Haglund Dandelion, bitter chicory, diente de león [31,91,92] Europe and Asia [171 Whole plant [113,134] Soil decontamination (Cu, Zn, Mn, Ni, Cr, Fe, and Pb) [135,136] Alkaloids (phytosterol, taraxacin, oxalates), phenolic (taraxastero, stigmasterol, chicoric acid, caffeic acid, acopoletin) [137–140] Treatment: depuratives help the liver, kidney, stomachache, gall b ladder, diuretic effect, constipation, clean skin impurities, acne, and hives [92,134,137,139] Activity: hepatoprotective, antirheumatic, spasmolytic, diuretic, anti-inflammatory, anticarcinogenic, antirheumatic, antiallergenic, anticoagulant, and anti-carcinogenic [31,137]. Toxicity: the leaves present phytodermatitis [55] Leaf: salad, cooked Root: coffee Flower: with olive oil, cakes, fries, and wine Whole plant: infusion [113,137] Asteraceae Zinnia elegans L. Guadalajara, mystical rose, paper flower, field chinita Mexico and Central America [141] Leaf, flower Soil decontamination (Pb and Cr) [65] Phenols (flavonoids), glycosides, tannins, and saponins [141] Treatment: malaria and stomach pain Activity: hepatoprotective, antiparasitic, antifungal, antibacterial, and antioxidant [141] Flower: salad, infusion Balsaminace ae Impatiens walleriana Hook. f. House joy, bear ears, b alsam, miramelindo Africa and Asia Leaf, stem, flower Soil decontamination with Cd (hyperaccumulator) [129] Naphthoquinones, phenols (flavonoids), saponins (triterpenoid saponins), alkaloids (phytosterols, proteins, and terpenes (essential oils) [129,142] Treatment: abdominal pain, ulcers, amenorrhea [129] Flower: infusion, salad, garrison It has a sweet flavour. Begoniaceae Begonia cucullata Willd. Begonia, sugar flower [126] Brazil [126] Flower [143] Soil decontamination with oil [64] Phenolics, terpenes [144] Activity: antispasmodic, astringent, ophthalmic, poultice, and stomachic activity [143] na Soil decontamination (Cu, Zn, Mn, Ni, Cr, Fe, and Pb) [135,136] Alkaloids (phytosterol, taraxacin, oxalates), phenolic (taraxastero, stigmasterol, chicoric acid, caffeic acid, acopoletin) [137–140] Treatment: depuratives help the liver, kidney, stomachache, gall bladder, diuretic effect, constipation, clean skin impurities, acne, and hives [92,134,137,139] Activity: hepatoprotective, antirheumatic, spasmolytic, diuretic, anti-inflammatory, anti-carcinogenic, antirheumatic, anti-allergenic, anticoagulant, and anti-carcinogenic [31,137]. Toxicity: the leaves present phytodermatitis [55] Leaf: salad, cooked Root: coffee Flower: with olive oil, cakes, fries, and wine Whole plant: infusion [113,137] Asteraceae Zinnia elegans L. Guadalajara, mystical rose, paper flower, field chinita Mexico and Central America [141]Leaf, flower Foods 2023, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 11 of 80 Asteraceae Taraxacum campylodes G. E. Haglund Dandelion, bitter chicory, diente de león [31,91,92] Europe and Asia [171 Whole plant [113,134] Soil decontamination (Cu, Zn, Mn, Ni, Cr, Fe, and Pb) [135,136] Alkaloids (phytosterol, taraxacin, oxalates), phenolic (taraxastero, stigmasterol, chicoric acid, caffeic acid, acopoletin) [137–140] Treatment: depuratives help the liver, kidney, stomachache, gall b ladder, diuretic effect, constipation, clean skin impurities, acne, and hives [92,134,137,139] Activity: hepatoprotective, antirheumatic, spasmolytic, diuretic, anti-inflammatory, anticarcinogenic, antirheumatic, antiallergenic, anticoagulant, and anti-carcinogenic [31,137]. Toxicity: the leaves present phytodermatitis [55] Leaf: salad, cooked Root: coffee Flower: with olive oil, cakes, fries, and wine Whole plant: infusion [113,137] Asteraceae Zinnia elegans L. Guadalajara, mystical rose, paper flower, field chinita Mexico and Central America [141] Leaf, flower Soil decontamination (Pb and Cr) [65] Phenols (flavonoids), glycosides, tannins, and saponins [141] Treatment: malaria and stomach pain Activity: hepatoprotective, antiparasitic, antifungal, antibacterial, and antioxidant [141] Flower: salad, infusion Balsaminace ae Impatiens walleriana Hook. f. House joy, bear ears, b alsam, miramelindo Africa and Asia Leaf, stem, flower Soil decontamination with Cd (hyperaccumulator) [129] Naphthoquinones, phenols (flavonoids), saponins (triterpenoid saponins), alkaloids (phytosterols, proteins, and terpenes (essential oils) [129,142] Treatment: abdominal pain, ulcers, amenorrhea [129] Flower: infusion, salad, garrison It has a sweet flavour. Begoniaceae Begonia cucullata Willd. Begonia, sugar flower [126] Brazil [126] Flower [143] Soil decontamination with oil [64] Phenolics, terpenes [144] Activity: antispasmodic, astringent, ophthalmic, poultice, and stomachic activity [143] na Soil decontamination (Pb and Cr) [65] Phenols (flavonoids), glycosides, tannins, and saponins [141] Treatment: malaria and stomach pain Activity: hepatoprotective, antiparasitic, antifungal, antibacterial, and antioxidant [141] Flower: salad, infusion Balsaminaceae Impatiens walleriana Hook. f. House joy, bear ears, balsam, miramelindo Africa and Asia Leaf, stem, flower Foods 2023, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 11 of 80 Asteraceae Taraxacum campylodes G. E. Haglund Dandelion, bitter chicory, diente de león [31,91,92] Europe and Asia [171 Whole plant [113,134] Soil decontamination (Cu, Zn, Mn, Ni, Cr, Fe, and Pb) [135,136] Alkaloids (phytosterol, taraxacin, oxalates), phenolic (taraxastero, stigmasterol, chicoric acid, caffeic acid, acopoletin) [137–140] Treatment: depuratives help the liver, kidney, stomachache, gall b ladder, diuretic effect, constipation, clean skin impurities, acne, and hives [92,134,137,139] Activity: hepatoprotective, antirheumatic, spasmolytic, diuretic, anti-inflammatory, anticarcinogenic, antirheumatic, antiallergenic, anticoagulant, and anti-carcinogenic [31,137]. Toxicity: the leaves present phytodermatitis [55] Leaf: salad, cooked Root: coffee Flower: with olive oil, cakes, fries, and wine Whole plant: infusion [113,137] Asteraceae Zinnia elegans L. Guadalajara, mystical rose, paper flower, field chinita Mexico and Central America [141] Leaf, flower Soil decontamination (Pb and Cr) [65] Phenols (flavonoids), glycosides, tannins, and saponins [141] Treatment: malaria and stomach pain Activity: hepatoprotective, antiparasitic, antifungal, antibacterial, and antioxidant [141] Flower: salad, infusion Balsaminace ae Impatiens walleriana Hook. f. House joy, bear ears, b alsam, miramelindo Africa and Asia Leaf, stem, flower Soil decontamination with Cd (hyperaccumulator) [129] Naphthoquinones, phenols (flavonoids), saponins (triterpenoid saponins), alkaloids (phytosterols, proteins, and terpenes (essential oils) [129,142] Treatment: abdominal pain, ulcers, amenorrhea [129] Flower: infusion, salad, garrison It has a sweet flavour. Begoniaceae Begonia cucullata Willd. Begonia, sugar flower [126] Brazil [126] Flower [143] Soil decontamination with oil [64] Phenolics, terpenes [144] Activity: antispasmodic, astringent, ophthalmic, poultice, and stomachic activity [143] na Soil decontamination with Cd (hyperaccumulator) [129] Naphthoquinones, phenols (flavonoids), saponins (triterpenoid saponins), alkaloids (phytosterols, proteins, and terpenes (essential oils) [129,142] Treatment: abdominal pain, ulcers, amenorrhea [129] Flower: infusion, salad, garrison It has a sweet flavour. Begoniaceae Begonia cucullata Willd. Begonia, sugar flower [126]Brazil [126] Flower [143] Foods 2023, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 11 of 80 Asteraceae Taraxacum campylodes G. E. Haglund Dandelion, bitter chicory, diente de león [31,91,92] Europe and Asia [171 Whole plant [113,134] Soil decontamination (Cu, Zn, Mn, Ni, Cr, Fe, and Pb) [135,136] Alkaloids (phytosterol, taraxacin, oxalates), phenolic (taraxastero, stigmasterol, chicoric acid, caffeic acid, acopoletin) [137–140] Treatment: depuratives help the liver, kidney, stomachache, gall b ladder, diuretic effect, constipation, clean skin impurities, acne, and hives [92,134,137,139] Activity: hepatoprotective, antirheumatic, spasmolytic, diuretic, anti-inflammatory, anticarcinogenic, antirheumatic, antiallergenic, anticoagulant, and anti-carcinogenic [31,137]. Toxicity: the leaves present phytodermatitis [55] Leaf: salad, cooked Root: coffee Flower: with olive oil, cakes, fries, and wine Whole plant: infusion [113,137] Asteraceae Zinnia elegans L. Guadalajara, mystical rose, paper flower, field chinita Mexico and Central America [141] Leaf, flower Soil decontamination (Pb and Cr) [65] Phenols (flavonoids), glycosides, tannins, and saponins [141] Treatment: malaria and stomach pain Activity: hepatoprotective, antiparasitic, antifungal, antibacterial, and antioxidant [141] Flower: salad, infusion Balsaminace ae Impatiens walleriana Hook. f. House joy, bear ears, b alsam, miramelindo Africa and Asia Leaf, stem, flower Soil decontamination with Cd (hyperaccumulator) [129] Naphthoquinones, phenols (flavonoids), saponins (triterpenoid saponins), alkaloids (phytosterols, proteins, and terpenes (essential oils) [129,142] Treatment: abdominal pain, ulcers, amenorrhea [129] Flower: infusion, salad, garrison It has a sweet flavour. Begoniaceae Begonia cucullata Willd. Begonia, sugar flower [126] Brazil [126] Flower [143] Soil decontamination with oil [64] Phenolics, terpenes [144] Activity: antispasmodic, astringent, ophthalmic, poultice, and stomachic activity [143] na Soil decontamination with oil [64]Phenolics, terpenes [144]Activity: antispasmodic, astringent, ophthalmic, poultice, and stomachic activity [143]na Begoniaceae Begonia × tuberhybrida Voss Begonia [12,126] Andes [126] Flower [12] Foods 2023, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 12 of 80 Begoniaceae Begonia × tuberhybrida Voss Begonia [12,126] Andes [126] Flower [12] na Alkaloids (oxalic acid, tetracyclic triterpene), phenolics [113,144] Activity: antispasmodic, astringent, ophthalmic, poultice, and stomachic [12,143] Petals are edible. This flower has a lemon flavour [12,113,143] Bignoniacea e Tecoma capensis (Thunb.) Lindl. Cape Honeysuckle, tecoma [145,146] South Africa [147] Leaf, flower, root [148] na na It is an invasive species [147] Treatment: pneumonia, enteritis, diarrhoea, fragrance, tonic, eliminating placenta retained in childbirth, snakebite, sleeplessness, induced sleep [148–150] Activity: antimicrobial, antifungal, antipyretic, antioxidant [149] Arial part: infusion [148] Bignoniacea e Tecoma stans (L.) Juss. ex Kunth Yellow bell, tronadora, huiztontli, huiztonxochitl [151] Mexico [147,151] Leaf, flower [152] Soil and water decontamination (FeCl 3 , CaCO 3 ) [128] Alkaloids (tecomine, tecostamine), phenolics, steroids, and tannins [151,153] Treatment: arterial hypotension, hypoglycaemia, and urinary disorder [151,152] Activity: antidiabetic, antimicrobial, and antioxidant [149,152] Non-edible Boraginacea e Heliotropium arborescens L. Vanilla of garden, heliotrope, grass of the mule, violoncello, cherry pie, heliotrope [154,155] Peru Leaf, stem, flower [155] na Esters (heliotropin, b enzyl acetate), alkaloids (heliotrine, oxalates), phenols (vanillin, cynoglossin, caffeic acid), b enzaldehydes (benzaldehyde, panisaldehyde), lithospermic acid [139,154,155] Treatment: headache, sun stoke, sinus cancer, mucus relief, diuretic, uterine displacement, fever, migraine, high blood pressure, diarrhoea, breast cancer, kidney infection, pressure in the stomach and sternum, uterine displacement, and dysmenorrhea [139,155] Arial part: infusion na Alkaloids (oxalic acid, tetracyclic triterpene), phenolics [113,144] Activity: antispasmodic, astringent, ophthalmic, poultice, and stomachic [12,143] Petals are edible. This flower has a lemon flavour [12,113,143]
Foods 2023,12, 4066 9 of 67 Table 1. Cont. Family [18] Species [18] Common Name Place of Origin Most Used Part/Flower Image Phytoremediation Uses Main Chemical Groups Medicinal Use Gastronomic Uses Bignoniaceae Tecoma capensis (Thunb.) Lindl. Cape Honeysuckle, tecoma [145,146]South Africa [147]Leaf, flower, root [148] Foods 2023, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 12 of 80 Begoniaceae Begonia × tuberhybrida Voss Begonia [12,126] Andes [126] Flower [12] na Alkaloids (oxalic acid, tetracyclic triterpene), phenolics [113,144] Activity: antispasmodic, astringent, ophthalmic, poultice, and stomachic [12,143] Petals are edible. This flower has a lemon flavour [12,113,143] Bignoniacea e Tecoma capensis (Thunb.) Lindl. Cape Honeysuckle, tecoma [145,146] South Africa [147] Leaf, flower, root [148] na na It is an invasive species [147] Treatment: pneumonia, enteritis, diarrhoea, fragrance, tonic, eliminating placenta retained in childbirth, snakebite, sleeplessness, induced sleep [148–150] Activity: antimicrobial, antifungal, antipyretic, antioxidant [149] Arial part: infusion [148] Bignoniacea e Tecoma stans (L.) Juss. ex Kunth Yellow bell, tronadora, huiztontli, huiztonxochitl [151] Mexico [147,151] Leaf, flower [152] Soil and water decontamination (FeCl 3 , CaCO 3 ) [128] Alkaloids (tecomine, tecostamine), phenolics, steroids, and tannins [151,153] Treatment: arterial hypotension, hypoglycaemia, and urinary disorder [151,152] Activity: antidiabetic, antimicrobial, and antioxidant [149,152] Non-edible Boraginacea e Heliotropium arborescens L. Vanilla of garden, heliotrope, grass of the mule, violoncello, cherry pie, heliotrope [154,155] Peru Leaf, stem, flower [155] na Esters (heliotropin, b enzyl acetate), alkaloids (heliotrine, oxalates), phenols (vanillin, cynoglossin, caffeic acid), b enzaldehydes (benzaldehyde, panisaldehyde), lithospermic acid [139,154,155] Treatment: headache, sun stoke, sinus cancer, mucus relief, diuretic, uterine displacement, fever, migraine, high blood pressure, diarrhoea, breast cancer, kidney infection, pressure in the stomach and sternum, uterine displacement, and dysmenorrhea [139,155] Arial part: infusion na na It is an invasive species [147] Treatment: pneumonia, enteritis, diarrhoea, fragrance, tonic, eliminating placenta retained in childbirth, snakebite, sleeplessness, induced sleep [148–150] Activity: antimicrobial, antifungal, antipyretic, antioxidant [149] Arial part: infusion [148] Bignoniaceae Tecoma stans (L.) Juss. ex Kunth Yellow bell, tronadora, huiztontli, huiztonxochitl [151]Mexico [147,151]Leaf, flower [152] Foods 2023, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 12 of 80 Begoniaceae Begonia × tuberhybrida Voss Begonia [12,126] Andes [126] Flower [12] na Alkaloids (oxalic acid, tetracyclic triterpene), phenolics [113,144] Activity: antispasmodic, astringent, ophthalmic, poultice, and stomachic [12,143] Petals are edible. This flower has a lemon flavour [12,113,143] Bignoniacea e Tecoma capensis (Thunb.) Lindl. Cape Honeysuckle, tecoma [145,146] South Africa [147] Leaf, flower, root [148] na na It is an invasive species [147] Treatment: pneumonia, enteritis, diarrhoea, fragrance, tonic, eliminating placenta retained in childbirth, snakebite, sleeplessness, induced sleep [148–150] Activity: antimicrobial, antifungal, antipyretic, antioxidant [149] Arial part: infusion [148] Bignoniacea e Tecoma stans (L.) Juss. ex Kunth Yellow bell, tronadora, huiztontli, huiztonxochitl [151] Mexico [147,151] Leaf, flower [152] Soil and water decontamination (FeCl 3 , CaCO 3 ) [128] Alkaloids (tecomine, tecostamine), phenolics, steroids, and tannins [151,153] Treatment: arterial hypotension, hypoglycaemia, and urinary disorder [151,152] Activity: antidiabetic, antimicrobial, and antioxidant [149,152] Non-edible Boraginacea e Heliotropium arborescens L. Vanilla of garden, heliotrope, grass of the mule, violoncello, cherry pie, heliotrope [154,155] Peru Leaf, stem, flower [155] na Esters (heliotropin, b enzyl acetate), alkaloids (heliotrine, oxalates), phenols (vanillin, cynoglossin, caffeic acid), b enzaldehydes (benzaldehyde, panisaldehyde), lithospermic acid [139,154,155] Treatment: headache, sun stoke, sinus cancer, mucus relief, diuretic, uterine displacement, fever, migraine, high blood pressure, diarrhoea, breast cancer, kidney infection, pressure in the stomach and sternum, uterine displacement, and dysmenorrhea [139,155] Arial part: infusion Soil and water decontamination (FeCl3, CaCO3) [128] Alkaloids (tecomine, tecostamine), phenolics, steroids, and tannins [151,153] Treatment: arterial hypotension, hypoglycaemia, and urinary disorder [151,152] Activity: antidiabetic, antimicrobial, and antioxidant [149,152] Non-edible Boraginaceae Heliotropium arborescens L. Vanilla of garden, heliotrope, grass of the mule, violoncello, cherry pie, heliotrope [154,155] Peru Leaf, stem, flower [155] Foods 2023, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 12 of 80 Begoniaceae Begonia × tuberhybrida Voss Begonia [12,126] Andes [126] Flower [12] na Alkaloids (oxalic acid, tetracyclic triterpene), phenolics [113,144] Activity: antispasmodic, astringent, ophthalmic, poultice, and stomachic [12,143] Petals are edible. This flower has a lemon flavour [12,113,143] Bignoniacea e Tecoma capensis (Thunb.) Lindl. Cape Honeysuckle, tecoma [145,146] South Africa [147] Leaf, flower, root [148] na na It is an invasive species [147] Treatment: pneumonia, enteritis, diarrhoea, fragrance, tonic, eliminating placenta retained in childbirth, snakebite, sleeplessness, induced sleep [148–150] Activity: antimicrobial, antifungal, antipyretic, antioxidant [149] Arial part: infusion [148] Bignoniacea e Tecoma stans (L.) Juss. ex Kunth Yellow bell, tronadora, huiztontli, huiztonxochitl [151] Mexico [147,151] Leaf, flower [152] Soil and water decontamination (FeCl 3 , CaCO 3 ) [128] Alkaloids (tecomine, tecostamine), phenolics, steroids, and tannins [151,153] Treatment: arterial hypotension, hypoglycaemia, and urinary disorder [151,152] Activity: antidiabetic, antimicrobial, and antioxidant [149,152] Non-edible Boraginacea e Heliotropium arborescens L. Vanilla of garden, heliotrope, grass of the mule, violoncello, cherry pie, heliotrope [154,155] Peru Leaf, stem, flower [155] na Esters (heliotropin, b enzyl acetate), alkaloids (heliotrine, oxalates), phenols (vanillin, cynoglossin, caffeic acid), b enzaldehydes (benzaldehyde, panisaldehyde), lithospermic acid [139,154,155] Treatment: headache, sun stoke, sinus cancer, mucus relief, diuretic, uterine displacement, fever, migraine, high blood pressure, diarrhoea, breast cancer, kidney infection, pressure in the stomach and sternum, uterine displacement, and dysmenorrhea [139,155] Arial part: infusion na Esters (heliotropin, benzyl acetate), alkaloids (heliotrine, oxalates), phenols (vanillin, cynoglossin, caffeic acid), benzaldehydes (benzaldehyde, p-anisaldehyde), lithospermic acid [139,154,155] Treatment: headache, sun stoke, sinus cancer, mucus relief, diuretic, uterine displacement, fever, migraine, high blood pressure, diarrhoea, breast cancer, kidney infection, pressure in the stomach and sternum, uterine displacement, and dysmenorrhea [139,155] Arial part: infusion Brassicaceae Alyssum montanum L. Spanish, garlic herb, rabies herb, rage herb Europe [156] Flower Foods 2023, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 13 of 80 Brassicaceae A lyssum montanum L. Spanish, garlic herb, rabies herb, rage herb Europe [156] Flower Soil decontamination (Cd, Ni, Pb, and Cu) [157,158] Glucosinolates (goitrogenic glycosides) na Non-edible Brassicaceae Diplotaxis tenuifolia (L.) DC. Rucola, yellow flower, rustic [159,160] Mediterranea n region [160] Leaf Soil decontamination with Pb [161]. Glucosinolates Note: It presents allelopathic properties (S- glucopyranosyl thiohydroximate) [162–164] Treatment: digestive, diabetes, cardiovascular disorders, and cancer [159] Activity: antitumor [159] Leaf: salad It is used in the food industry (IV gamma [159,160] Brassicaceae M atthiola incana (L.) R. Br. Alehí, Jasmine ashtray, White viola [134] South Europe Flower [134] na Isoprenoids (tocopherols), proteins (hormones), and anti-pathogens [165] Treatment: traditional medicine, stomachache, colic, and diarrhoea for frighten [134,165] Arial part: infusion, garnish, salad, desserts [134] Cannabacea e Cannabis sativa L. Marijuana, marihuana, hashish, hachís, hemp [53] Asia [53] Whole plant [47,166] Soil decontamination (Cu, Cd, As, Ti, Cr, and Ni) [167]. Phenols (tannins), cannabinoids, terpenophenols (tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), cannabidiol (CDB)), and alkaloids [168,169] Treatment: developmental disorder, hypertension, asthma, diabetes, heart conditions, blood pressure, epilepsy, and glaucoma [47,53,170] Activity: analgesic, antiemetic, anti-carcinogenic, antispasmodics [53] Note: the leaves are mutagenic without metabolic activation [66] Arial part: infusion. It is a source of fibre, food, oil, and medicine [169,171] Cannaceae Canna indica L. Achira, achira roja, achera, sago, spark, Indian cane, papantla [20,34,172] South America [20,34,173] Root, flowers Water decontamination (Cu, Zn, fertilisers, carbamazepine, and insecticides) [48] Alkaloids, phenols (tannins) [42,173,174] Treatment: peptic ulcer, diarrhoea, and ulcerative colitis Activity: antibacterial, anthelmintic, antiviral, antiinflammatory, hepatoprotective, antidiarrheal, anti-carcinogenic, Root: starch Leaf: food cover [174] Soil decontamination (Cd, Ni, Pb, and Cu) [157,158] Glucosinolates (goitrogenic glycosides) na Non-edible Brassicaceae Diplotaxis tenuifolia (L.) DC. Rucola, yellow flower, rustic [159,160]Mediterranean region [160]Leaf Foods 2023, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 13 of 80 Brassicaceae A lyssum montanum L. Spanish, garlic herb, rabies herb, rage herb Europe [156] Flower Soil decontamination (Cd, Ni, Pb, and Cu) [157,158] Glucosinolates (goitrogenic glycosides) na Non-edible Brassicaceae Diplotaxis tenuifolia (L.) DC. Rucola, yellow flower, rustic [159,160] Mediterranea n region [160] Leaf Soil decontamination with Pb [161]. Glucosinolates Note: It presents allelopathic properties (S- glucopyranosyl thiohydroximate) [162–164] Treatment: digestive, diabetes, cardiovascular disorders, and cancer [159] Activity: antitumor [159] Leaf: salad It is used in the food industry (IV gamma [159,160] Brassicaceae M atthiola incana (L.) R. Br. Alehí, Jasmine ashtray, White viola [134] South Europe Flower [134] na Isoprenoids (tocopherols), proteins (hormones), and anti-pathogens [165] Treatment: traditional medicine, stomachache, colic, and diarrhoea for frighten [134,165] Arial part: infusion, garnish, salad, desserts [134] Cannabacea e Cannabis sativa L. Marijuana, marihuana, hashish, hachís, hemp [53] Asia [53] Whole plant [47,166] Soil decontamination (Cu, Cd, As, Ti, Cr, and Ni) [167]. Phenols (tannins), cannabinoids, terpenophenols (tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), cannabidiol (CDB)), and alkaloids [168,169] Treatment: developmental disorder, hypertension, asthma, diabetes, heart conditions, blood pressure, epilepsy, and glaucoma [47,53,170] Activity: analgesic, antiemetic, anti-carcinogenic, antispasmodics [53] Note: the leaves are mutagenic without metabolic activation [66] Arial part: infusion. It is a source of fibre, food, oil, and medicine [169,171] Cannaceae Canna indica L. Achira, achira roja, achera, sago, spark, Indian cane, papantla [20,34,172] South America [20,34,173] Root, flowers Water decontamination (Cu, Zn, fertilisers, carbamazepine, and insecticides) [48] Alkaloids, phenols (tannins) [42,173,174] Treatment: peptic ulcer, diarrhoea, and ulcerative colitis Activity: antibacterial, anthelmintic, antiviral, antiinflammatory, hepatoprotective, antidiarrheal, anti-carcinogenic, Root: starch Leaf: food cover [174] Soil decontamination with Pb [161]. Glucosinolates Note: It presents allelopathic properties (S-glucopyranosyl thiohydroximate) [162–164] Treatment: digestive, diabetes, cardiovascular disorders, and cancer [159] Activity: antitumor [159] Leaf: salad It is used in the food industry (IV gamma) [159,160] Brassicaceae Matthiola incana (L.) R. Br. Alehí, Jasmine ashtray, White viola [134]South Europe Flower [134] Foods 2023, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 13 of 80 Brassicaceae A lyssum montanum L. Spanish, garlic herb, rabies herb, rage herb Europe [156] Flower Soil decontamination (Cd, Ni, Pb, and Cu) [157,158] Glucosinolates (goitrogenic glycosides) na Non-edible Brassicaceae Diplotaxis tenuifolia (L.) DC. Rucola, yellow flower, rustic [159,160] Mediterranea n region [160] Leaf Soil decontamination with Pb [161]. Glucosinolates Note: It presents allelopathic properties (S- glucopyranosyl thiohydroximate) [162–164] Treatment: digestive, diabetes, cardiovascular disorders, and cancer [159] Activity: antitumor [159] Leaf: salad It is used in the food industry (IV gamma [159,160] Brassicaceae M atthiola incana (L.) R. Br. Alehí, Jasmine ashtray, White viola [134] South Europe Flower [134] na Isoprenoids (tocopherols), proteins (hormones), and anti-pathogens [165] Treatment: traditional medicine, stomachache, colic, and diarrhoea for frighten [134,165] Arial part: infusion, garnish, salad, desserts [134] Cannabacea e Cannabis sativa L. Marijuana, marihuana, hashish, hachís, hemp [53] Asia [53] Whole plant [47,166] Soil decontamination (Cu, Cd, As, Ti, Cr, and Ni) [167]. Phenols (tannins), cannabinoids, terpenophenols (tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), cannabidiol (CDB)), and alkaloids [168,169] Treatment: developmental disorder, hypertension, asthma, diabetes, heart conditions, blood pressure, epilepsy, and glaucoma [47,53,170] Activity: analgesic, antiemetic, anti-carcinogenic, antispasmodics [53] Note: the leaves are mutagenic without metabolic activation [66] Arial part: infusion. It is a source of fibre, food, oil, and medicine [169,171] Cannaceae Canna indica L. Achira, achira roja, achera, sago, spark, Indian cane, papantla [20,34,172] South America [20,34,173] Root, flowers Water decontamination (Cu, Zn, fertilisers, carbamazepine, and insecticides) [48] Alkaloids, phenols (tannins) [42,173,174] Treatment: peptic ulcer, diarrhoea, and ulcerative colitis Activity: antibacterial, anthelmintic, antiviral, antiinflammatory, hepatoprotective, antidiarrheal, anti-carcinogenic, Root: starch Leaf: food cover [174] na Isoprenoids (tocopherols), proteins (hormones), and anti-pathogens [165] Treatment: traditional medicine, stomachache, colic, and diarrhoea for frighten [134,165] Arial part: infusion, garnish, salad, desserts [134] Cannabaceae Cannabis sativa L. Marijuana, marihuana, hashish, hachís, hemp [53]Asia [53]Whole plant [47,166] Foods 2023, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 13 of 80 Brassicaceae A lyssum montanum L. Spanish, garlic herb, rabies herb, rage herb Europe [156] Flower Soil decontamination (Cd, Ni, Pb, and Cu) [157,158] Glucosinolates (goitrogenic glycosides) na Non-edible Brassicaceae Diplotaxis tenuifolia (L.) DC. Rucola, yellow flower, rustic [159,160] Mediterranea n region [160] Leaf Soil decontamination with Pb [161]. Glucosinolates Note: It presents allelopathic properties (S- glucopyranosyl thiohydroximate) [162–164] Treatment: digestive, diabetes, cardiovascular disorders, and cancer [159] Activity: antitumor [159] Leaf: salad It is used in the food industry (IV gamma [159,160] Brassicaceae M atthiola incana (L.) R. Br. Alehí, Jasmine ashtray, White viola [134] South Europe Flower [134] na Isoprenoids (tocopherols), proteins (hormones), and anti-pathogens [165] Treatment: traditional medicine, stomachache, colic, and diarrhoea for frighten [134,165] Arial part: infusion, garnish, salad, desserts [134] Cannabacea e Cannabis sativa L. Marijuana, marihuana, hashish, hachís, hemp [53] Asia [53] Whole plant [47,166] Soil decontamination (Cu, Cd, As, Ti, Cr, and Ni) [167]. Phenols (tannins), cannabinoids, terpenophenols (tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), cannabidiol (CDB)), and alkaloids [168,169] Treatment: developmental disorder, hypertension, asthma, diabetes, heart conditions, blood pressure, epilepsy, and glaucoma [47,53,170] Activity: analgesic, antiemetic, anti-carcinogenic, antispasmodics [53] Note: the leaves are mutagenic without metabolic activation [66] Arial part: infusion. It is a source of fibre, food, oil, and medicine [169,171] Cannaceae Canna indica L. Achira, achira roja, achera, sago, spark, Indian cane, papantla [20,34,172] South America [20,34,173] Root, flowers Water decontamination (Cu, Zn, fertilisers, carbamazepine, and insecticides) [48] Alkaloids, phenols (tannins) [42,173,174] Treatment: peptic ulcer, diarrhoea, and ulcerative colitis Activity: antibacterial, anthelmintic, antiviral, antiinflammatory, hepatoprotective, antidiarrheal, anti-carcinogenic, Root: starch Leaf: food cover [174] Soil decontamination (Cu, Cd, As, Ti, Cr, and Ni) [167]. Phenols (tannins), cannabinoids, terpenophenols (tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), cannabidiol (CDB)), and alkaloids [168,169] Treatment: developmental disorder, hypertension, asthma, diabetes, heart conditions, blood pressure, epilepsy, and glaucoma [47,53,170] Activity: analgesic, antiemetic, anti-carcinogenic, antispasmodics [53] Note: the leaves are mutagenic without metabolic activation [66] Arial part: infusion. It is a source of fibre, food, oil, and medicine [169,171]
Foods 2023,12, 4066 16 of 67 Table 1. Cont. Family [18] Species [18] Common Name Place of Origin Most Used Part/Flower Image Phytoremediation Uses Main Chemical Groups Medicinal Use Gastronomic Uses Lythraceae Punica granatum L. Pomegranate, Granada, Dalim gach [27] Asia and Mediterranean Europe [273]Fruit, leaf [27] Foods 2023, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 23 of 80 (flavonoids), saponins [271] Note: It presents cytotoxic activity. LC50 = 60 µg/mL and LC90 = 100 60 µg/mL [272] inflammatory, anti-gout, antidiarrheal, anti-obesity, and antifibrotic [271] Lythraceae Punica g ranatum L. Pomegranate, Granada, Dalim gach [27] Asia and Mediterranea n Europe [273] Fruit, leaf [27] Soil decontamination [274] Phenols (catechins), alkaloids, [273,275] Treatment: bronchitis, tuberculosis, diarrhoea, and protecting the kidney [27,249,276] Activity: anti-carcinogenic, antimicrobial, antihypertensive, anti-diabetic, anti-HSV-1, diuretic, antioxidant [67,273,276] Fruit: widely used in the food industry [276] Flower: infusion Leaf: fried [27] Magnoliacea e M agnolia g randiflora L. Magnolia [126,277] South-eastern United States [126,277] Flower Soil decontamination (Cu, Cr, Zn, Ni, Cd, Hg) [226] Phenols (flavonoids), terpenes (sesquiterpenes, essential oils) [277] Treatment: flatulent dyspepsia, cough, asthma, digestive problems, and emotional distress [277] Activity: antifungal, antimelanogenic, antioxidant and antimicrobial [277] Flower: infusion Malvaceae Ceiba speciosa (A.St.-Hil.) Ravenna Chorisia, Bottle tree; Drunken tree South America Flower na Phenols (flavonoids), alkaloids, coumarins, terpenes (sesquiterpenes, sesquiterpene lactones, triterpenes), steroids, lignans, cyclopropenium fatty acids, and oxidised naphthalenes [278,279] Treatment: fever, diabetes, headache, diarrhoea, parasitic infections, rheumatism, and peptic ulcer Activity: anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, hepatoprotective, cytotoxic, antioxidant, hypoglycaemic, and antipyretic [279] It is used for a variety of ailments. Seed: culinary and industrial Soil decontamination [274]Phenols (catechins), alkaloids, [273,275] Treatment: bronchitis, tuberculosis, diarrhoea, and protecting the kidney [27,249,276] Activity: anti-carcinogenic, antimicrobial, antihypertensive, anti-diabetic, anti-HSV-1, diuretic, antioxidant [67,273,276] Fruit: widely used in the food industry [276] Flower: infusion Leaf: fried [27] Magnoliaceae Magnolia grandiflora L. Magnolia [126,277]South-eastern United States [126,277]Flower Foods 2023, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 23 of 80 (flavonoids), saponins [271] Note: It presents cytotoxic activity. LC50 = 60 µg/mL and LC90 = 100 60 µg/mL [272] inflammatory, anti-gout, antidiarrheal, anti-obesity, and antifibrotic [271] Lythraceae Punica g ranatum L. Pomegranate, Granada, Dalim gach [27] Asia and Mediterranea n Europe [273] Fruit, leaf [27] Soil decontamination [274] Phenols (catechins), alkaloids, [273,275] Treatment: bronchitis, tuberculosis, diarrhoea, and protecting the kidney [27,249,276] Activity: anti-carcinogenic, antimicrobial, antihypertensive, anti-diabetic, anti-HSV-1, diuretic, antioxidant [67,273,276] Fruit: widely used in the food industry [276] Flower: infusion Leaf: fried [27] Magnoliacea e M agnolia g randiflora L. Magnolia [126,277] South-eastern United States [126,277] Flower Soil decontamination (Cu, Cr, Zn, Ni, Cd, Hg) [226] Phenols (flavonoids), terpenes (sesquiterpenes, essential oils) [277] Treatment: flatulent dyspepsia, cough, asthma, digestive problems, and emotional distress [277] Activity: antifungal, antimelanogenic, antioxidant and antimicrobial [277] Flower: infusion Malvaceae Ceiba speciosa (A.St.-Hil.) Ravenna Chorisia, Bottle tree; Drunken tree South America Flower na Phenols (flavonoids), alkaloids, coumarins, terpenes (sesquiterpenes, sesquiterpene lactones, triterpenes), steroids, lignans, cyclopropenium fatty acids, and oxidised naphthalenes [278,279] Treatment: fever, diabetes, headache, diarrhoea, parasitic infections, rheumatism, and peptic ulcer Activity: anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, hepatoprotective, cytotoxic, antioxidant, hypoglycaemic, and antipyretic [279] It is used for a variety of ailments. Seed: culinary and industrial Soil decontamination (Cu, Cr, Zn, Ni, Cd, Hg) [226] Phenols (flavonoids), terpenes (sesquiterpenes, essential oils) [277] Treatment: flatulent dyspepsia, cough, asthma, digestive problems, and emotional distress [277] Activity: antifungal, anti-melanogenic, antioxidant and antimicrobial [277] Flower: infusion Malvaceae Ceiba speciosa (A.St.-Hil.) Ravenna Chorisia, Bottle tree; Drunken tree South America Flower Foods 2023, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 23 of 80 (flavonoids), saponins [271] Note: It presents cytotoxic activity. LC50 = 60 µg/mL and LC90 = 100 60 µg/mL [272] inflammatory, anti-gout, antidiarrheal, anti-obesity, and antifibrotic [271] Lythraceae Punica g ranatum L. Pomegranate, Granada, Dalim gach [27] Asia and Mediterranea n Europe [273] Fruit, leaf [27] Soil decontamination [274] Phenols (catechins), alkaloids, [273,275] Treatment: bronchitis, tuberculosis, diarrhoea, and protecting the kidney [27,249,276] Activity: anti-carcinogenic, antimicrobial, antihypertensive, anti-diabetic, anti-HSV-1, diuretic, antioxidant [67,273,276] Fruit: widely used in the food industry [276] Flower: infusion Leaf: fried [27] Magnoliacea e M agnolia g randiflora L. Magnolia [126,277] South-eastern United States [126,277] Flower Soil decontamination (Cu, Cr, Zn, Ni, Cd, Hg) [226] Phenols (flavonoids), terpenes (sesquiterpenes, essential oils) [277] Treatment: flatulent dyspepsia, cough, asthma, digestive problems, and emotional distress [277] Activity: antifungal, antimelanogenic, antioxidant and antimicrobial [277] Flower: infusion Malvaceae Ceiba speciosa (A.St.-Hil.) Ravenna Chorisia, Bottle tree; Drunken tree South America Flower na Phenols (flavonoids), alkaloids, coumarins, terpenes (sesquiterpenes, sesquiterpene lactones, triterpenes), steroids, lignans, cyclopropenium fatty acids, and oxidised naphthalenes [278,279] Treatment: fever, diabetes, headache, diarrhoea, parasitic infections, rheumatism, and peptic ulcer Activity: anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, hepatoprotective, cytotoxic, antioxidant, hypoglycaemic, and antipyretic [279] It is used for a variety of ailments. Seed: culinary and industrial na Phenols (flavonoids), alkaloids, coumarins, terpenes (sesquiterpenes, sesquiterpene lactones, triterpenes), steroids, lignans, cyclopropenium fatty acids, and oxidised naphthalenes [278,279] Treatment: fever, diabetes, headache, diarrhoea, parasitic infections, rheumatism, and peptic ulcer Activity: anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, hepatoprotective, cytotoxic, antioxidant, hypoglycaemic, and antipyretic [279] It is used for a variety of ailments. Seed: culinary and industrial Malvaceae Gossypium arboreum L. Cotton, cotonera, coto, algodónAsia Leaf, root, seed, flower Foods 2023, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 24 of 80 Malvaceae Gossypium arboreum L. Cotton, cotonera, coto, algodón Asia Leaf, root, seed, flower Soil decontamination with oil [64] Phenols (gossypetin 8-o-rhamnoside, gossypetin 8-o- glucoside) and terpenes (gossypol). Treatment: healing of wounds, ulcers, bruises, respiratory, and skin diseases Non-edible Malvaceae Hibiscus rosa-sinensis L. Chinese rose, cayenne, pop, hibiscus, papo, San J oaquín, carnation, Laal joba [27] Eastern Asia National flower of Malaysia, Dominican Republic, Puerto Rico, Hawaii, Barranquilla, and Barrancaberm eja (Colombia) Flower, root, leaf [27] Water decontamination with zinc ions [280] Ketones (chloroacetophenone), phenolics (tannins), steroids, proteins (mucilage) [42,72,281] Treatment: hypertension, inflammations, dysentery, and respiratory tract [27] Activity: antispasmodic, analgesic, astringent, laxative, antioxidant, antimicrobial, antidiabetic, cardioprotective, and anti-anxiety [281–283] Toxicity: the leaves can cause phytodermatitis [55] Flower: salad, cooked, infusion Root: salad Leaf: juice [27] Malvaceae Hibiscus sabdariffa L. Rose of Jamaica, rose of Abyssinia, hibiscus red sorrel, rosella, tart of guinea, alleluia, susur, flor de J amaica [53,284] West Africa [285] Leaf, flower [285] Soil decontamination (Mn and As) [286] Phenols (protocatechuic acid) [42,284,285] Treatment: folk remedy for abscesses, bilious conditions, cancer, cough, dysuria, cardiovascular problems, and scurvy [249,284,287] Activity: antioxidant, antiseptic, astringent, diuretic, emollient, purgative, and sedative [53,285,287] It is a resource for food and medicine. Flower: food colouring, b everages, j ams [285,287,288] Malvaceae Hibiscus syriacus L. Altea, Syria rose, wasp, hibiscus [34] Asia It is the national flower of Korea. Origin Leaf, flower, root na Terpenes (essential oils, pentacyclic triterpene esters), lignans, coumarins, and phenolics [289] Activity: antioxidant, dermatological, antiproliferative, anti-carcinogenic, antimicrobial, antiviral, antiinflammatory, anti-tyrosinase [289,290] Flower and leaf: salad, cooked, infusion Soil decontamination with oil [64] Phenols (gossypetin 8-o-rhamnoside, gossypetin 8-o-glucoside) and terpenes (gossypol). Treatment: healing of wounds, ulcers, bruises, respiratory, and skin diseases Non-edible Malvaceae Hibiscus rosa-sinensis L. Chinese rose, cayenne, pop, hibiscus, papo, San Joaquín, carnation, Laal joba [27] Eastern Asia National flower of Malaysia, Dominican Republic, Puerto Rico, Hawaii, Barranquilla, and Barrancabermeja (Colombia) Flower, root, leaf [27] Foods 2023, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 24 of 80 Malvaceae Gossypium arboreum L. Cotton, cotonera, coto, algodón Asia Leaf, root, seed, flower Soil decontamination with oil [64] Phenols (gossypetin 8-o-rhamnoside, gossypetin 8-o- glucoside) and terpenes (gossypol). Treatment: healing of wounds, ulcers, bruises, respiratory, and skin diseases Non-edible Malvaceae Hibiscus rosa-sinensis L. Chinese rose, cayenne, pop, hibiscus, papo, San J oaquín, carnation, Laal joba [27] Eastern Asia National flower of Malaysia, Dominican Republic, Puerto Rico, Hawaii, Barranquilla, and Barrancaberm eja (Colombia) Flower, root, leaf [27] Water decontamination with zinc ions [280] Ketones (chloroacetophenone), phenolics (tannins), steroids, proteins (mucilage) [42,72,281] Treatment: hypertension, inflammations, dysentery, and respiratory tract [27] Activity: antispasmodic, analgesic, astringent, laxative, antioxidant, antimicrobial, antidiabetic, cardioprotective, and anti-anxiety [281–283] Toxicity: the leaves can cause phytodermatitis [55] Flower: salad, cooked, infusion Root: salad Leaf: juice [27] Malvaceae Hibiscus sabdariffa L. Rose of Jamaica, rose of Abyssinia, hibiscus red sorrel, rosella, tart of guinea, alleluia, susur, flor de J amaica [53,284] West Africa [285] Leaf, flower [285] Soil decontamination (Mn and As) [286] Phenols (protocatechuic acid) [42,284,285] Treatment: folk remedy for abscesses, bilious conditions, cancer, cough, dysuria, cardiovascular problems, and scurvy [249,284,287] Activity: antioxidant, antiseptic, astringent, diuretic, emollient, purgative, and sedative [53,285,287] It is a resource for food and medicine. Flower: food colouring, b everages, j ams [285,287,288] Malvaceae Hibiscus syriacus L. Altea, Syria rose, wasp, hibiscus [34] Asia It is the national flower of Korea. Origin Leaf, flower, root na Terpenes (essential oils, pentacyclic triterpene esters), lignans, coumarins, and phenolics [289] Activity: antioxidant, dermatological, antiproliferative, anti-carcinogenic, antimicrobial, antiviral, antiinflammatory, anti-tyrosinase [289,290] Flower and leaf: salad, cooked, infusion Water decontamination with zinc ions [280] Ketones (chloroacetophenone), phenolics (tannins), steroids, proteins (mucilage) [42,72,281] Treatment: hypertension, inflammations, dysentery, and respiratory tract [27] Activity: antispasmodic, analgesic, astringent, laxative, antioxidant, antimicrobial, anti-diabetic, cardioprotective, and anti-anxiety [281–283] Toxicity: the leaves can cause phytodermatitis [55] Flower: salad, cooked, infusion Root: salad Leaf: juice [27] Malvaceae Hibiscus sabdariffa L. Rose of Jamaica, rose of Abyssinia, hibiscus red sorrel, rosella, tart of guinea, alleluia, susur, flor de Jamaica [53,284] West Africa [285]Leaf, flower [285] Foods 2023, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 24 of 80 Malvaceae Gossypium arboreum L. Cotton, cotonera, coto, algodón Asia Leaf, root, seed, flower Soil decontamination with oil [64] Phenols (gossypetin 8-o-rhamnoside, gossypetin 8-o- glucoside) and terpenes (gossypol). Treatment: healing of wounds, ulcers, bruises, respiratory, and skin diseases Non-edible Malvaceae Hibiscus rosa-sinensis L. Chinese rose, cayenne, pop, hibiscus, papo, San J oaquín, carnation, Laal joba [27] Eastern Asia National flower of Malaysia, Dominican Republic, Puerto Rico, Hawaii, Barranquilla, and Barrancaberm eja (Colombia) Flower, root, leaf [27] Water decontamination with zinc ions [280] Ketones (chloroacetophenone), phenolics (tannins), steroids, proteins (mucilage) [42,72,281] Treatment: hypertension, inflammations, dysentery, and respiratory tract [27] Activity: antispasmodic, analgesic, astringent, laxative, antioxidant, antimicrobial, antidiabetic, cardioprotective, and anti-anxiety [281–283] Toxicity: the leaves can cause phytodermatitis [55] Flower: salad, cooked, infusion Root: salad Leaf: juice [27] Malvaceae Hibiscus sabdariffa L. Rose of Jamaica, rose of Abyssinia, hibiscus red sorrel, rosella, tart of guinea, alleluia, susur, flor de J amaica [53,284] West Africa [285] Leaf, flower [285] Soil decontamination (Mn and As) [286] Phenols (protocatechuic acid) [42,284,285] Treatment: folk remedy for abscesses, bilious conditions, cancer, cough, dysuria, cardiovascular problems, and scurvy [249,284,287] Activity: antioxidant, antiseptic, astringent, diuretic, emollient, purgative, and sedative [53,285,287] It is a resource for food and medicine. Flower: food colouring, b everages, j ams [285,287,288] Malvaceae Hibiscus syriacus L. Altea, Syria rose, wasp, hibiscus [34] Asia It is the national flower of Korea. Origin Leaf, flower, root na Terpenes (essential oils, pentacyclic triterpene esters), lignans, coumarins, and phenolics [289] Activity: antioxidant, dermatological, antiproliferative, anti-carcinogenic, antimicrobial, antiviral, antiinflammatory, anti-tyrosinase [289,290] Flower and leaf: salad, cooked, infusion Soil decontamination (Mn and As) [286] Phenols (protocatechuic acid) [42,284,285] Treatment: folk remedy for abscesses, bilious conditions, cancer, cough, dysuria, cardiovascular problems, and scurvy [249,284,287] Activity: antioxidant, antiseptic, astringent, diuretic, emollient, purgative, and sedative [53,285,287] It is a resource for food and medicine. Flower: food colouring, beverages, jams [285,287,288]
Foods 2023,12, 4066 17 of 67 Table 1. Cont. Family [18] Species [18] Common Name Place of Origin Most Used Part/Flower Image Phytoremediation Uses Main Chemical Groups Medicinal Use Gastronomic Uses Malvaceae Hibiscus syriacus L. Altea, Syria rose, wasp, hibiscus [34] Asia It is the national flower of Korea. Origin unknown [34,289] Leaf, flower, root Foods 2023, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 24 of 80 Malvaceae Gossypium arboreum L. Cotton, cotonera, coto, algodón Asia Leaf, root, seed, flower Soil decontamination with oil [64] Phenols (gossypetin 8-o-rhamnoside, gossypetin 8-o- glucoside) and terpenes (gossypol). Treatment: healing of wounds, ulcers, bruises, respiratory, and skin diseases Non-edible Malvaceae Hibiscus rosa-sinensis L. Chinese rose, cayenne, pop, hibiscus, papo, San J oaquín, carnation, Laal joba [27] Eastern Asia National flower of Malaysia, Dominican Republic, Puerto Rico, Hawaii, Barranquilla, and Barrancaberm eja (Colombia) Flower, root, leaf [27] Water decontamination with zinc ions [280] Ketones (chloroacetophenone), phenolics (tannins), steroids, proteins (mucilage) [42,72,281] Treatment: hypertension, inflammations, dysentery, and respiratory tract [27] Activity: antispasmodic, analgesic, astringent, laxative, antioxidant, antimicrobial, antidiabetic, cardioprotective, and anti-anxiety [281–283] Toxicity: the leaves can cause phytodermatitis [55] Flower: salad, cooked, infusion Root: salad Leaf: juice [27] Malvaceae Hibiscus sabdariffa L. Rose of Jamaica, rose of Abyssinia, hibiscus red sorrel, rosella, tart of guinea, alleluia, susur, flor de J amaica [53,284] West Africa [285] Leaf, flower [285] Soil decontamination (Mn and As) [286] Phenols (protocatechuic acid) [42,284,285] Treatment: folk remedy for abscesses, bilious conditions, cancer, cough, dysuria, cardiovascular problems, and scurvy [249,284,287] Activity: antioxidant, antiseptic, astringent, diuretic, emollient, purgative, and sedative [53,285,287] It is a resource for food and medicine. Flower: food colouring, b everages, j ams [285,287,288] Malvaceae Hibiscus syriacus L. Altea, Syria rose, wasp, hibiscus [34] Asia It is the national flower of Korea. Origin Leaf, flower, root na Terpenes (essential oils, pentacyclic triterpene esters), lignans, coumarins, and phenolics [289] Activity: antioxidant, dermatological, antiproliferative, anti-carcinogenic, antimicrobial, antiviral, antiinflammatory, anti-tyrosinase [289,290] Flower and leaf: salad, cooked, infusion na Terpenes (essential oils, pentacyclic triterpene esters), lignans, coumarins, and phenolics [289] Activity: antioxidant, dermatological, anti-proliferative, anti-carcinogenic, antimicrobial, antiviral, anti-inflammatory, anti-tyrosinase [289,290] Flower and leaf: salad, cooked, infusion Malvaceae Malvaviscus arboreus Cav Marshmallow, false hibiscus, azocopacle, manzanita [291] South and Central America, Southeastern United States [292] Flower [292] Foods 2023, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 25 of 80 unknown [34,289] Malvaceae M alvaviscus arboreus Cav Marshmallow, false hibiscus, azocopacle, manzanita [291] South and Central America, Southeastern United States [292] Flower [292] na Phenolics, sterols, fatty acids [292] Treatment: dysentery, stomach pain, ulcers, and coughs [292,293] Activity: antioxidant, antimicrobial, thrombolytic, antiinflammatory, cytotoxic, hepatoprotective [292] Arial part: infusion, salads [292] Nyctaginace ae Bougainvillea spectabilis Willd. Bougainvillea, b ogambilya, b ongabilya, great b ougainvillea [294] South America [20,294] Leaf, stem [294] Soil decontamination (Cu, Zn) [295] Phenols (flavonoids, tannins), saponins, sterols, triterpenes, and alkaloids [294,296] Treatment: stomach, hepatitis, cough [294] Activity: analgesic, anti-diabetic, anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, astringents, diuretics , antifertility [20,283,294,297] Flower: infusion, salad, fried [294] Nyctaginace ae M irabilis j alapa L. Don Diego at night, dompedros, parakeet, wonder of Peru, carnation [20] South America [20,126] Leaf, root, flower [298,299] Soil decontamination (total petroleum hydrocarbons) [64] Triterpenes, proteins, phenolics, alkaloids, and steroids [298,299] Treatment: anthrax Activity: antitumor, virus inhibitor, anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, antioxidant, and antidiarrheal [20,299,300] Flower: food colouring Leaf: cooked, infusion Root: infusion Seed: infusion Oleaceae J asminum sambac (L.) Aiton Diamela, Arabian J asmine, Jasmine diamela, Jasmine paper, mostia, Lily j asmine [301] India National flower of the Philippines. It is one of the three important flowers in Indonesia [301] Leaf, flower, root [227,301] Soil decontamination with Pb [302] Alkaloids, phenols (flavonoids, tannins), terpenoids (essential oils), coumarins, glycosides (cardiac glycosides), steroids, saponins, and phytosterols [303] Treatment: cough, reducing sputum, cancer, uterine bleeding, ulceration, leprosy, skin diseases, and wound healing [227,301] Activity: antioxidant, antiinflammatory, anti-carcinogenic, anti-obesity, and neuroprotective [301] Flower: infusion, salad [227] na Phenolics, sterols, fatty acids [292] Treatment: dysentery, stomach pain, ulcers, and coughs [292,293] Activity: antioxidant, antimicrobial, thrombolytic, anti-inflammatory, cytotoxic, hepatoprotective [292] Arial part: infusion, salads [292] Nyctaginaceae Bougainvillea spectabilis Willd. Bougainvillea, bogambilya, bongabilya, great bougainvillea [294] South America [20,294]Leaf, stem [294] Foods 2023, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 25 of 80 unknown [34,289] Malvaceae M alvaviscus arboreus Cav Marshmallow, false hibiscus, azocopacle, manzanita [291] South and Central America, Southeastern United States [292] Flower [292] na Phenolics, sterols, fatty acids [292] Treatment: dysentery, stomach pain, ulcers, and coughs [292,293] Activity: antioxidant, antimicrobial, thrombolytic, antiinflammatory, cytotoxic, hepatoprotective [292] Arial part: infusion, salads [292] Nyctaginace ae Bougainvillea spectabilis Willd. Bougainvillea, b ogambilya, b ongabilya, great b ougainvillea [294] South America [20,294] Leaf, stem [294] Soil decontamination (Cu, Zn) [295] Phenols (flavonoids, tannins), saponins, sterols, triterpenes, and alkaloids [294,296] Treatment: stomach, hepatitis, cough [294] Activity: analgesic, anti-diabetic, anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, astringents, diuretics , antifertility [20,283,294,297] Flower: infusion, salad, fried [294] Nyctaginace ae M irabilis j alapa L. Don Diego at night, dompedros, parakeet, wonder of Peru, carnation [20] South America [20,126] Leaf, root, flower [298,299] Soil decontamination (total petroleum hydrocarbons) [64] Triterpenes, proteins, phenolics, alkaloids, and steroids [298,299] Treatment: anthrax Activity: antitumor, virus inhibitor, anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, antioxidant, and antidiarrheal [20,299,300] Flower: food colouring Leaf: cooked, infusion Root: infusion Seed: infusion Oleaceae J asminum sambac (L.) Aiton Diamela, Arabian J asmine, Jasmine diamela, Jasmine paper, mostia, Lily j asmine [301] India National flower of the Philippines. It is one of the three important flowers in Indonesia [301] Leaf, flower, root [227,301] Soil decontamination with Pb [302] Alkaloids, phenols (flavonoids, tannins), terpenoids (essential oils), coumarins, glycosides (cardiac glycosides), steroids, saponins, and phytosterols [303] Treatment: cough, reducing sputum, cancer, uterine bleeding, ulceration, leprosy, skin diseases, and wound healing [227,301] Activity: antioxidant, antiinflammatory, anti-carcinogenic, anti-obesity, and neuroprotective [301] Flower: infusion, salad [227] Soil decontamination (Cu, Zn) [295] Phenols (flavonoids, tannins), saponins, sterols, triterpenes, and alkaloids [294,296] Treatment: stomach, hepatitis, cough [294] Activity: analgesic, anti-diabetic, anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, astringents, diuretics, antifertility [20,283,294,297] Flower: infusion, salad, fried [294] Nyctaginaceae Mirabilis jalapa L. Don Diego at night, dompedros, parakeet, wonder of Peru, carnation [20] South America [20,126] Leaf, root, flower [298,299] Foods 2023, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 25 of 80 unknown [34,289] Malvaceae M alvaviscus arboreus Cav Marshmallow, false hibiscus, azocopacle, manzanita [291] South and Central America, Southeastern United States [292] Flower [292] na Phenolics, sterols, fatty acids [292] Treatment: dysentery, stomach pain, ulcers, and coughs [292,293] Activity: antioxidant, antimicrobial, thrombolytic, antiinflammatory, cytotoxic, hepatoprotective [292] Arial part: infusion, salads [292] Nyctaginace ae Bougainvillea spectabilis Willd. Bougainvillea, b ogambilya, b ongabilya, great b ougainvillea [294] South America [20,294] Leaf, stem [294] Soil decontamination (Cu, Zn) [295] Phenols (flavonoids, tannins), saponins, sterols, triterpenes, and alkaloids [294,296] Treatment: stomach, hepatitis, cough [294] Activity: analgesic, anti-diabetic, anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, astringents, diuretics , antifertility [20,283,294,297] Flower: infusion, salad, fried [294] Nyctaginace ae M irabilis j alapa L. Don Diego at night, dompedros, parakeet, wonder of Peru, carnation [20] South America [20,126] Leaf, root, flower [298,299] Soil decontamination (total petroleum hydrocarbons) [64] Triterpenes, proteins, phenolics, alkaloids, and steroids [298,299] Treatment: anthrax Activity: antitumor, virus inhibitor, anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, antioxidant, and antidiarrheal [20,299,300] Flower: food colouring Leaf: cooked, infusion Root: infusion Seed: infusion Oleaceae J asminum sambac (L.) Aiton Diamela, Arabian J asmine, Jasmine diamela, Jasmine paper, mostia, Lily j asmine [301] India National flower of the Philippines. It is one of the three important flowers in Indonesia [301] Leaf, flower, root [227,301] Soil decontamination with Pb [302] Alkaloids, phenols (flavonoids, tannins), terpenoids (essential oils), coumarins, glycosides (cardiac glycosides), steroids, saponins, and phytosterols [303] Treatment: cough, reducing sputum, cancer, uterine bleeding, ulceration, leprosy, skin diseases, and wound healing [227,301] Activity: antioxidant, antiinflammatory, anti-carcinogenic, anti-obesity, and neuroprotective [301] Flower: infusion, salad [227] Soil decontamination (total petroleum hydrocarbons) [64] Triterpenes, proteins, phenolics, alkaloids, and steroids [298,299] Treatment: anthrax Activity: antitumor, virus inhibitor, anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, antioxidant, and antidiarrheal [20,299,300] Flower: food colouring Leaf: cooked, infusion Root: infusion Seed: infusion Oleaceae Jasminum sambac (L.) Aiton Diamela, Arabian Jasmine, Jasmine diamela, Jasmine paper, mostia, Lily jasmine [301] India National flower of the Philippines. It is one of the three important flowers in Indonesia [301] Leaf, flower, root [227,301] Foods 2023, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 25 of 80 unknown [34,289] Malvaceae M alvaviscus arboreus Cav Marshmallow, false hibiscus, azocopacle, manzanita [291] South and Central America, Southeastern United States [292] Flower [292] na Phenolics, sterols, fatty acids [292] Treatment: dysentery, stomach pain, ulcers, and coughs [292,293] Activity: antioxidant, antimicrobial, thrombolytic, antiinflammatory, cytotoxic, hepatoprotective [292] Arial part: infusion, salads [292] Nyctaginace ae Bougainvillea spectabilis Willd. Bougainvillea, b ogambilya, b ongabilya, great b ougainvillea [294] South America [20,294] Leaf, stem [294] Soil decontamination (Cu, Zn) [295] Phenols (flavonoids, tannins), saponins, sterols, triterpenes, and alkaloids [294,296] Treatment: stomach, hepatitis, cough [294] Activity: analgesic, anti-diabetic, anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, astringents, diuretics , antifertility [20,283,294,297] Flower: infusion, salad, fried [294] Nyctaginace ae M irabilis j alapa L. Don Diego at night, dompedros, parakeet, wonder of Peru, carnation [20] South America [20,126] Leaf, root, flower [298,299] Soil decontamination (total petroleum hydrocarbons) [64] Triterpenes, proteins, phenolics, alkaloids, and steroids [298,299] Treatment: anthrax Activity: antitumor, virus inhibitor, anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, antioxidant, and antidiarrheal [20,299,300] Flower: food colouring Leaf: cooked, infusion Root: infusion Seed: infusion Oleaceae J asminum sambac (L.) Aiton Diamela, Arabian J asmine, Jasmine diamela, Jasmine paper, mostia, Lily j asmine [301] India National flower of the Philippines. It is one of the three important flowers in Indonesia [301] Leaf, flower, root [227,301] Soil decontamination with Pb [302] Alkaloids, phenols (flavonoids, tannins), terpenoids (essential oils), coumarins, glycosides (cardiac glycosides), steroids, saponins, and phytosterols [303] Treatment: cough, reducing sputum, cancer, uterine bleeding, ulceration, leprosy, skin diseases, and wound healing [227,301] Activity: antioxidant, antiinflammatory, anti-carcinogenic, anti-obesity, and neuroprotective [301] Flower: infusion, salad [227] Soil decontamination with Pb [302] Alkaloids, phenols (flavonoids, tannins), terpenoids (essential oils), coumarins, glycosides (cardiac glycosides), steroids, saponins, and phytosterols [303] Treatment: cough, reducing sputum, cancer, uterine bleeding, ulceration, leprosy, skin diseases, and wound healing [227,301] Activity: antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, anti-carcinogenic, anti-obesity, and neuroprotective [301] Flower: infusion, salad [227] Onagraceae Fuchsia magellanica Lam. Fuchsia magellanica [20]Peru, Chile, and Argentina [20]Leaf, stem, fruit, flower Foods 2023, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 26 of 80 Onagraceae Fuchsia magellanica Lam. Fuchsia magellanica [20] Peru, Chile, and Argentina [20] Leaf, stem, fruit, flower na Phenolics [304] Treatment: scarce menstruation and increased flow of urine [20] It has a slightly acidic flavour. Fruit and flower: infusion Orchidaceae Phalaenopsis aphrodite Rchb. f. Orchid It is considered an Indonesian national flower. na Alkaloids (phanaelopsin T), phenolics Activity: antioxidant na Passiflorace ae Passiflora × belotii Pépin Passionflower North, Central and South America [305] Leaf, flower, fruit na Phenols (flavonoids) [306] Treatment: sedative, hypnotic, antispasmodic, and hypotensive Flower: infusion Plantaginace ae A ntirrhinum majus L. Scrofularia, dragon mouth, bunnies, dragoncitos, gallitos [126,307] Mediterranea n region [126] Flower Soil decontamination (Pb and petroleum) [308,309] Saponins, phenols [42] Treatment: scurvy, liver disorders, tumours, haemorrhages Activity: diuretics [307] Flower: salad [58] Plantaginace ae Plantago major L. Llantén [38] Europe Leaf, seed Soil decontamination (Cu, Mn, Zn, Pb and Cr) [214] Proteins (mucilage), phenols (tannins), chromogenic glycosides (catapol), and alkaloids (noscapid) [309] Treatment: digestive, stomach upset, intestine inflammation, abscesses, cold pimples, metabolic, muscular-skeletal, respiratory, mental-nervous, liver, kidney, rheumatism, wounds, dysentery, burns, angina, asthma, fever, tuberculosis, whooping cough, chronic renal inflammation, dermal diseases, bronchitis, Arial part: infusion [309] na Phenolics [304]Treatment: scarce menstruation and increased flow of urine [20] It has a slightly acidic flavour. Fruit and flower: infusion Orchidaceae Phalaenopsis aphrodite Rchb. f. Orchid It is considered an Indonesian national flower. Foods 2023, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 26 of 80 Onagraceae Fuchsia magellanica Lam. Fuchsia magellanica [20] Peru, Chile, and Argentina [20] Leaf, stem, fruit, flower na Phenolics [304] Treatment: scarce menstruation and increased flow of urine [20] It has a slightly acidic flavour. Fruit and flower: infusion Orchidaceae Phalaenopsis aphrodite Rchb. f. Orchid It is considered an Indonesian national flower. na Alkaloids (phanaelopsin T), phenolics Activity: antioxidant na Passiflorace ae Passiflora × belotii Pépin Passionflower North, Central and South America [305] Leaf, flower, fruit na Phenols (flavonoids) [306] Treatment: sedative, hypnotic, antispasmodic, and hypotensive Flower: infusion Plantaginace ae A ntirrhinum majus L. Scrofularia, dragon mouth, bunnies, dragoncitos, gallitos [126,307] Mediterranea n region [126] Flower Soil decontamination (Pb and petroleum) [308,309] Saponins, phenols [42] Treatment: scurvy, liver disorders, tumours, haemorrhages Activity: diuretics [307] Flower: salad [58] Plantaginace ae Plantago major L. Llantén [38] Europe Leaf, seed Soil decontamination (Cu, Mn, Zn, Pb and Cr) [214] Proteins (mucilage), phenols (tannins), chromogenic glycosides (catapol), and alkaloids (noscapid) [309] Treatment: digestive, stomach upset, intestine inflammation, abscesses, cold pimples, metabolic, muscular-skeletal, respiratory, mental-nervous, liver, kidney, rheumatism, wounds, dysentery, burns, angina, asthma, fever, tuberculosis, whooping cough, chronic renal inflammation, dermal diseases, bronchitis, Arial part: infusion [309] na Alkaloids (phanaelopsin T), phenolics Activity: antioxidant na Passifloraceae Passiflora ×belotii Pépin Passionflower North, Central and South America [305] Leaf, flower, fruit Foods 2023, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 26 of 80 Onagraceae Fuchsia magellanica Lam. Fuchsia magellanica [20] Peru, Chile, and Argentina [20] Leaf, stem, fruit, flower na Phenolics [304] Treatment: scarce menstruation and increased flow of urine [20] It has a slightly acidic flavour. Fruit and flower: infusion Orchidaceae Phalaenopsis aphrodite Rchb. f. Orchid It is considered an Indonesian national flower. na Alkaloids (phanaelopsin T), phenolics Activity: antioxidant na Passiflorace ae Passiflora × belotii Pépin Passionflower North, Central and South America [305] Leaf, flower, fruit na Phenols (flavonoids) [306] Treatment: sedative, hypnotic, antispasmodic, and hypotensive Flower: infusion Plantaginace ae A ntirrhinum majus L. Scrofularia, dragon mouth, bunnies, dragoncitos, gallitos [126,307] Mediterranea n region [126] Flower Soil decontamination (Pb and petroleum) [308,309] Saponins, phenols [42] Treatment: scurvy, liver disorders, tumours, haemorrhages Activity: diuretics [307] Flower: salad [58] Plantaginace ae Plantago major L. Llantén [38] Europe Leaf, seed Soil decontamination (Cu, Mn, Zn, Pb and Cr) [214] Proteins (mucilage), phenols (tannins), chromogenic glycosides (catapol), and alkaloids (noscapid) [309] Treatment: digestive, stomach upset, intestine inflammation, abscesses, cold pimples, metabolic, muscular-skeletal, respiratory, mental-nervous, liver, kidney, rheumatism, wounds, dysentery, burns, angina, asthma, fever, tuberculosis, whooping cough, chronic renal inflammation, dermal diseases, bronchitis, Arial part: infusion [309] na Phenols (flavonoids) [306]Treatment: sedative, hypnotic, antispasmodic, and hypotensive Flower: infusion
Foods 2023,12, 4066 18 of 67 Table 1. Cont. Family [18] Species [18] Common Name Place of Origin Most Used Part/Flower Image Phytoremediation Uses Main Chemical Groups Medicinal Use Gastronomic Uses Plantaginaceae Antirrhinum majus L. Scrofularia, dragon mouth, bunnies, dragoncitos, gallitos [126,307] Mediterranean region [126]Flower Foods 2023, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 26 of 80 Onagraceae Fuchsia magellanica Lam. Fuchsia magellanica [20] Peru, Chile, and Argentina [20] Leaf, stem, fruit, flower na Phenolics [304] Treatment: scarce menstruation and increased flow of urine [20] It has a slightly acidic flavour. Fruit and flower: infusion Orchidaceae Phalaenopsis aphrodite Rchb. f. Orchid It is considered an Indonesian national flower. na Alkaloids (phanaelopsin T), phenolics Activity: antioxidant na Passiflorace ae Passiflora × belotii Pépin Passionflower North, Central and South America [305] Leaf, flower, fruit na Phenols (flavonoids) [306] Treatment: sedative, hypnotic, antispasmodic, and hypotensive Flower: infusion Plantaginace ae A ntirrhinum majus L. Scrofularia, dragon mouth, bunnies, dragoncitos, gallitos [126,307] Mediterranea n region [126] Flower Soil decontamination (Pb and petroleum) [308,309] Saponins, phenols [42] Treatment: scurvy, liver disorders, tumours, haemorrhages Activity: diuretics [307] Flower: salad [58] Plantaginace ae Plantago major L. Llantén [38] Europe Leaf, seed Soil decontamination (Cu, Mn, Zn, Pb and Cr) [214] Proteins (mucilage), phenols (tannins), chromogenic glycosides (catapol), and alkaloids (noscapid) [309] Treatment: digestive, stomach upset, intestine inflammation, abscesses, cold pimples, metabolic, muscular-skeletal, respiratory, mental-nervous, liver, kidney, rheumatism, wounds, dysentery, burns, angina, asthma, fever, tuberculosis, whooping cough, chronic renal inflammation, dermal diseases, bronchitis, Arial part: infusion [309] Soil decontamination (Pb and petroleum) [308,309] Saponins, phenols [42]Treatment: scurvy, liver disorders, tumours, haemorrhages Activity: diuretics [307]Flower: salad [58] Plantaginaceae Plantago major L. Llantén [38] Europe Leaf, seed Foods 2023, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 26 of 80 Onagraceae Fuchsia magellanica Lam. Fuchsia magellanica [20] Peru, Chile, and Argentina [20] Leaf, stem, fruit, flower na Phenolics [304] Treatment: scarce menstruation and increased flow of urine [20] It has a slightly acidic flavour. Fruit and flower: infusion Orchidaceae Phalaenopsis aphrodite Rchb. f. Orchid It is considered an Indonesian national flower. na Alkaloids (phanaelopsin T), phenolics Activity: antioxidant na Passiflorace ae Passiflora × belotii Pépin Passionflower North, Central and South America [305] Leaf, flower, fruit na Phenols (flavonoids) [306] Treatment: sedative, hypnotic, antispasmodic, and hypotensive Flower: infusion Plantaginace ae A ntirrhinum majus L. Scrofularia, dragon mouth, bunnies, dragoncitos, gallitos [126,307] Mediterranea n region [126] Flower Soil decontamination (Pb and petroleum) [308,309] Saponins, phenols [42] Treatment: scurvy, liver disorders, tumours, haemorrhages Activity: diuretics [307] Flower: salad [58] Plantaginace ae Plantago major L. Llantén [38] Europe Leaf, seed Soil decontamination (Cu, Mn, Zn, Pb and Cr) [214] Proteins (mucilage), phenols (tannins), chromogenic glycosides (catapol), and alkaloids (noscapid) [309] Treatment: digestive, stomach upset, intestine inflammation, abscesses, cold pimples, metabolic, muscular-skeletal, respiratory, mental-nervous, liver, kidney, rheumatism, wounds, dysentery, burns, angina, asthma, fever, tuberculosis, whooping cough, chronic renal inflammation, dermal diseases, bronchitis, Arial part: infusion [309] Soil decontamination (Cu, Mn, Zn, Pb and Cr) [214] Proteins (mucilage), phenols (tannins), chromogenic glycosides (catapol), and alkaloids (noscapid) [309] Treatment: digestive, stomach upset, intestine inflammation, abscesses, cold pimples, metabolic, muscular-skeletal, respiratory, mental-nervous, liver, kidney, rheumatism, wounds, dysentery, burns, angina, asthma, fever, tuberculosis, whooping cough, chronic renal inflammation, dermal diseases, bronchitis, purgative, arthrosis, skin problems, haemorrhoids, blood pressure, and heart afflictions [134,195,249,310,311] Arial part: infusion [309] Plantaginaceae Russelia equisetiformis Schltdl. & Cham. Ruselia, tears of love, firecracker, coral, fountain plant [312] Tropical America [313]Leaf, flower [313] Foods 2023, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 27 of 80 purgative, arthrosis, skin problems, haemorrhoids, blood pressure, and heart afflictions [134,195,249,310,311] Plantaginace ae Russelia equisetiformis Schltdl. & Cham. Ruselia, tears of love, firecracker, coral, fountain plant [312] Tropical America [313] Leaf, flower [313] na Sterols, triterpenes, saponins [314] Treatment: malaria, cancer, and inflammatory diseases [313] Activity: antimicrobial [314] Toxicity: Its present cytotoxic activity [312] Arial part: infusion [314] Plumbagina ceae Limonium sinuatum (L.) Mill. Blue inmortelle, capitana, Straw flower, limoniun, paper flower [214] Mediterranea n region[315] Flower [28] Soil decontamination with Pb [28] na Treatment: helps prevent the increase in glucose levels [28] Activity: antioxidant [316] Flower: food additive, infusion [316] Plumbagina ceae Plumbago auriculata Lam. Plumbago, Blue J asmine, azulina, cape leadwort [34] South Africa [34] Flower, root [150] Soil decontamination (metalliferous mines and phytoremediation) [317] Phenolics (tannins) [318] Treatment: headache, warts, fractures, oedema, malaria, and skin lesions Activity: sedative and antimicrobial [150,319] Arial part: infusion Polygonacea e Fallopia aubertii (L. Henry) Holub Gabriele Falloppio, Fallopius [320] Turkestan [320] Flower na Phenols (flavonoids, tannins), terpenes (carotenoids, triterpenes), sterols, [320] Activity: antioxidant, anticarcinogenic, and antimutagenic Toxicity: It presents cytotoxic activity [320] na Polygonacea e Polygala vulgaris L. Common polygala Europe Flower na na na na Portulacacea e Portulaca oleracea L. Verdolaga, ghotika, pinyin, krokot, little hogweed, purslane [40,126] India Leaf, stem, flower [40] Soil decontamination with Cr (VI) [321] Alkaloids (oxalic acid), coumarins, phenols (flavonoids, tannins), glycosides (cardiac glycosides), anthraquinones, Treatment: used in musculoskeletal, nutritional, mental-nerve, cardiovascular, haemorrhoids, and gastrointestinal disorders [40,323] Arial part: raw or cooked [40,323] na Sterols, triterpenes, saponins [314] Treatment: malaria, cancer, and inflammatory diseases [313] Activity: antimicrobial [314] Toxicity: Its present cytotoxic activity [312] Arial part: infusion [314] Plumbaginaceae Limonium sinuatum (L.) Mill. Blue inmortelle, capitana, Straw flower, limoniun, paper flower [214] Mediterranean region [315]Flower [28] Foods 2023, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 27 of 80 purgative, arthrosis, skin problems, haemorrhoids, blood pressure, and heart afflictions [134,195,249,310,311] Plantaginace ae Russelia equisetiformis Schltdl. & Cham. Ruselia, tears of love, firecracker, coral, fountain plant [312] Tropical America [313] Leaf, flower [313] na Sterols, triterpenes, saponins [314] Treatment: malaria, cancer, and inflammatory diseases [313] Activity: antimicrobial [314] Toxicity: Its present cytotoxic activity [312] Arial part: infusion [314] Plumbagina ceae Limonium sinuatum (L.) Mill. Blue inmortelle, capitana, Straw flower, limoniun, paper flower [214] Mediterranea n region[315] Flower [28] Soil decontamination with Pb [28] na Treatment: helps prevent the increase in glucose levels [28] Activity: antioxidant [316] Flower: food additive, infusion [316] Plumbagina ceae Plumbago auriculata Lam. Plumbago, Blue J asmine, azulina, cape leadwort [34] South Africa [34] Flower, root [150] Soil decontamination (metalliferous mines and phytoremediation) [317] Phenolics (tannins) [318] Treatment: headache, warts, fractures, oedema, malaria, and skin lesions Activity: sedative and antimicrobial [150,319] Arial part: infusion Polygonacea e Fallopia aubertii (L. Henry) Holub Gabriele Falloppio, Fallopius [320] Turkestan [320] Flower na Phenols (flavonoids, tannins), terpenes (carotenoids, triterpenes), sterols, [320] Activity: antioxidant, anticarcinogenic, and antimutagenic Toxicity: It presents cytotoxic activity [320] na Polygonacea e Polygala vulgaris L. Common polygala Europe Flower na na na na Portulacacea e Portulaca oleracea L. Verdolaga, ghotika, pinyin, krokot, little hogweed, purslane [40,126] India Leaf, stem, flower [40] Soil decontamination with Cr (VI) [321] Alkaloids (oxalic acid), coumarins, phenols (flavonoids, tannins), glycosides (cardiac glycosides), anthraquinones, Treatment: used in musculoskeletal, nutritional, mental-nerve, cardiovascular, haemorrhoids, and gastrointestinal disorders [40,323] Arial part: raw or cooked [40,323] Soil decontamination with Pb [28]na Treatment: helps prevent the increase in glucose levels [28] Activity: antioxidant [316] Flower: food additive, infusion [316] Plumbaginaceae Plumbago auriculata Lam. Plumbago, Blue Jasmine, azulina, cape leadwort [34]South Africa [34]Flower, root [150] Foods 2023, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 27 of 80 purgative, arthrosis, skin problems, haemorrhoids, blood pressure, and heart afflictions [134,195,249,310,311] Plantaginace ae Russelia equisetiformis Schltdl. & Cham. Ruselia, tears of love, firecracker, coral, fountain plant [312] Tropical America [313] Leaf, flower [313] na Sterols, triterpenes, saponins [314] Treatment: malaria, cancer, and inflammatory diseases [313] Activity: antimicrobial [314] Toxicity: Its present cytotoxic activity [312] Arial part: infusion [314] Plumbagina ceae Limonium sinuatum (L.) Mill. Blue inmortelle, capitana, Straw flower, limoniun, paper flower [214] Mediterranea n region[315] Flower [28] Soil decontamination with Pb [28] na Treatment: helps prevent the increase in glucose levels [28] Activity: antioxidant [316] Flower: food additive, infusion [316] Plumbagina ceae Plumbago auriculata Lam. Plumbago, Blue J asmine, azulina, cape leadwort [34] South Africa [34] Flower, root [150] Soil decontamination (metalliferous mines and phytoremediation) [317] Phenolics (tannins) [318] Treatment: headache, warts, fractures, oedema, malaria, and skin lesions Activity: sedative and antimicrobial [150,319] Arial part: infusion Polygonacea e Fallopia aubertii (L. Henry) Holub Gabriele Falloppio, Fallopius [320] Turkestan [320] Flower na Phenols (flavonoids, tannins), terpenes (carotenoids, triterpenes), sterols, [320] Activity: antioxidant, anticarcinogenic, and antimutagenic Toxicity: It presents cytotoxic activity [320] na Polygonacea e Polygala vulgaris L. Common polygala Europe Flower na na na na Portulacacea e Portulaca oleracea L. Verdolaga, ghotika, pinyin, krokot, little hogweed, purslane [40,126] India Leaf, stem, flower [40] Soil decontamination with Cr (VI) [321] Alkaloids (oxalic acid), coumarins, phenols (flavonoids, tannins), glycosides (cardiac glycosides), anthraquinones, Treatment: used in musculoskeletal, nutritional, mental-nerve, cardiovascular, haemorrhoids, and gastrointestinal disorders [40,323] Arial part: raw or cooked [40,323] Soil decontamination (metalliferous mines and phytoremediation) [317] Phenolics (tannins) [318] Treatment: headache, warts, fractures, oedema, malaria, and skin lesions Activity: sedative and antimicrobial [150,319] Arial part: infusion Polygonaceae Fallopia aubertii (L. Henry) Holub Gabriele Falloppio, Fallopius [320]Turkestan [320] Flower Foods 2023, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 27 of 80 purgative, arthrosis, skin problems, haemorrhoids, blood pressure, and heart afflictions [134,195,249,310,311] Plantaginace ae Russelia equisetiformis Schltdl. & Cham. Ruselia, tears of love, firecracker, coral, fountain plant [312] Tropical America [313] Leaf, flower [313] na Sterols, triterpenes, saponins [314] Treatment: malaria, cancer, and inflammatory diseases [313] Activity: antimicrobial [314] Toxicity: Its present cytotoxic activity [312] Arial part: infusion [314] Plumbagina ceae Limonium sinuatum (L.) Mill. Blue inmortelle, capitana, Straw flower, limoniun, paper flower [214] Mediterranea n region[315] Flower [28] Soil decontamination with Pb [28] na Treatment: helps prevent the increase in glucose levels [28] Activity: antioxidant [316] Flower: food additive, infusion [316] Plumbagina ceae Plumbago auriculata Lam. Plumbago, Blue J asmine, azulina, cape leadwort [34] South Africa [34] Flower, root [150] Soil decontamination (metalliferous mines and phytoremediation) [317] Phenolics (tannins) [318] Treatment: headache, warts, fractures, oedema, malaria, and skin lesions Activity: sedative and antimicrobial [150,319] Arial part: infusion Polygonacea e Fallopia aubertii (L. Henry) Holub Gabriele Falloppio, Fallopius [320] Turkestan [320] Flower na Phenols (flavonoids, tannins), terpenes (carotenoids, triterpenes), sterols, [320] Activity: antioxidant, anticarcinogenic, and antimutagenic Toxicity: It presents cytotoxic activity [320] na Polygonacea e Polygala vulgaris L. Common polygala Europe Flower na na na na Portulacacea e Portulaca oleracea L. Verdolaga, ghotika, pinyin, krokot, little hogweed, purslane [40,126] India Leaf, stem, flower [40] Soil decontamination with Cr (VI) [321] Alkaloids (oxalic acid), coumarins, phenols (flavonoids, tannins), glycosides (cardiac glycosides), anthraquinones, Treatment: used in musculoskeletal, nutritional, mental-nerve, cardiovascular, haemorrhoids, and gastrointestinal disorders [40,323] Arial part: raw or cooked [40,323] na Phenols (flavonoids, tannins), terpenes (carotenoids, triterpenes), sterols, [320] Activity: antioxidant, anti-carcinogenic, and antimutagenic Toxicity: It presents cytotoxic activity [320] na Polygonaceae Polygala vulgaris L. Common polygala Europe Flower Foods 2023, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 27 of 80 purgative, arthrosis, skin problems, haemorrhoids, blood pressure, and heart afflictions [134,195,249,310,311] Plantaginace ae Russelia equisetiformis Schltdl. & Cham. Ruselia, tears of love, firecracker, coral, fountain plant [312] Tropical America [313] Leaf, flower [313] na Sterols, triterpenes, saponins [314] Treatment: malaria, cancer, and inflammatory diseases [313] Activity: antimicrobial [314] Toxicity: Its present cytotoxic activity [312] Arial part: infusion [314] Plumbagina ceae Limonium sinuatum (L.) Mill. Blue inmortelle, capitana, Straw flower, limoniun, paper flower [214] Mediterranea n region[315] Flower [28] Soil decontamination with Pb [28] na Treatment: helps prevent the increase in glucose levels [28] Activity: antioxidant [316] Flower: food additive, infusion [316] Plumbagina ceae Plumbago auriculata Lam. Plumbago, Blue J asmine, azulina, cape leadwort [34] South Africa [34] Flower, root [150] Soil decontamination (metalliferous mines and phytoremediation) [317] Phenolics (tannins) [318] Treatment: headache, warts, fractures, oedema, malaria, and skin lesions Activity: sedative and antimicrobial [150,319] Arial part: infusion Polygonacea e Fallopia aubertii (L. Henry) Holub Gabriele Falloppio, Fallopius [320] Turkestan [320] Flower na Phenols (flavonoids, tannins), terpenes (carotenoids, triterpenes), sterols, [320] Activity: antioxidant, anticarcinogenic, and antimutagenic Toxicity: It presents cytotoxic activity [320] na Polygonacea e Polygala vulgaris L. Common polygala Europe Flower na na na na Portulacacea e Portulaca oleracea L. Verdolaga, ghotika, pinyin, krokot, little hogweed, purslane [40,126] India Leaf, stem, flower [40] Soil decontamination with Cr (VI) [321] Alkaloids (oxalic acid), coumarins, phenols (flavonoids, tannins), glycosides (cardiac glycosides), anthraquinones, Treatment: used in musculoskeletal, nutritional, mental-nerve, cardiovascular, haemorrhoids, and gastrointestinal disorders [40,323] Arial part: raw or cooked [40,323] na na na na
Foods 2023,12, 4066 19 of 67 Table 1. Cont. Family [18] Species [18] Common Name Place of Origin Most Used Part/Flower Image Phytoremediation Uses Main Chemical Groups Medicinal Use Gastronomic Uses Portulacaceae Portulaca oleracea L. Verdolaga, ghotika, pinyin, krokot, little hogweed, purslane [40,126] India Leaf, stem, flower [40] Foods 2023, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 27 of 80 purgative, arthrosis, skin problems, haemorrhoids, blood pressure, and heart afflictions [134,195,249,310,311] Plantaginace ae Russelia equisetiformis Schltdl. & Cham. Ruselia, tears of love, firecracker, coral, fountain plant [312] Tropical America [313] Leaf, flower [313] na Sterols, triterpenes, saponins [314] Treatment: malaria, cancer, and inflammatory diseases [313] Activity: antimicrobial [314] Toxicity: Its present cytotoxic activity [312] Arial part: infusion [314] Plumbagina ceae Limonium sinuatum (L.) Mill. Blue inmortelle, capitana, Straw flower, limoniun, paper flower [214] Mediterranea n region[315] Flower [28] Soil decontamination with Pb [28] na Treatment: helps prevent the increase in glucose levels [28] Activity: antioxidant [316] Flower: food additive, infusion [316] Plumbagina ceae Plumbago auriculata Lam. Plumbago, Blue J asmine, azulina, cape leadwort [34] South Africa [34] Flower, root [150] Soil decontamination (metalliferous mines and phytoremediation) [317] Phenolics (tannins) [318] Treatment: headache, warts, fractures, oedema, malaria, and skin lesions Activity: sedative and antimicrobial [150,319] Arial part: infusion Polygonacea e Fallopia aubertii (L. Henry) Holub Gabriele Falloppio, Fallopius [320] Turkestan [320] Flower na Phenols (flavonoids, tannins), terpenes (carotenoids, triterpenes), sterols, [320] Activity: antioxidant, anticarcinogenic, and antimutagenic Toxicity: It presents cytotoxic activity [320] na Polygonacea e Polygala vulgaris L. Common polygala Europe Flower na na na na Portulacacea e Portulaca oleracea L. Verdolaga, ghotika, pinyin, krokot, little hogweed, purslane [40,126] India Leaf, stem, flower [40] Soil decontamination with Cr (VI) [321] Alkaloids (oxalic acid), coumarins, phenols (flavonoids, tannins), glycosides (cardiac glycosides), anthraquinones, Treatment: used in musculoskeletal, nutritional, mental-nerve, cardiovascular, haemorrhoids, and gastrointestinal disorders [40,323] Arial part: raw or cooked [40,323] Soil decontamination with Cr (VI) [321] Alkaloids (oxalic acid), coumarins, phenols (flavonoids, tannins), glycosides (cardiac glycosides), anthraquinones, linoleic acid, saponins [322,323] Treatment: used in musculoskeletal, nutritional, mental-nerve, cardiovascular, haemorrhoids, and gastrointestinal disorders [40,323] Activity: anti-diarrheal, anti-inflammatory, anthelmintic, diuretic, antiasthmatic, anti-bronchitis, anti-Buruli ulcer, antioxidant, and hypoglycaemic [40,79,324] Arial part: raw or cooked [40,323] Ranunculaceae Ranunculus asiaticus L. Mediterranean region [325]Flower Foods 2023, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 28 of 80 linoleic acid, saponins [322,323] Activity: anti-diarrheal, antiinflammatory, anthelmintic, diuretic, antiasthmatic, antib ronchitis, anti-Buruli ulcer, antioxidant, and hypoglycaemic [40,79,324] Ranunculac eae Ranunculus asiaticus L. Mediterranea n region [325] Flower na Alkaloids Activity: antibacterial [326] na Rosaceae Fragaria × ananassa (Duchesne ex Weston) Duchesne Strawberry, fruit b illa [250] Europe Fruit na Phenolics, vitamin C [327] Activity: antimicrobial, antiallergenic, antihypertensive [327] Fruit: widely used in the food industry Rosaceae Rosa hybrid Vill. Rosa na Flower Soil decontamination (As, Co, Mo, and Ni) [328] Phenols (glycosylated cyanidin’, pelargonidin) [329,330] Treatment: used in respiratory and dermatological diseases and arthritis. Activity: antioxidant, antiinflammatory laxative, and astringent [330] It is sweet and aromatic. Flower: dessert, sweet, savoury dishes Rubiaceae Gardenia j asminoides J. Ellis Gardenia, Cape J asmine Asia Fruit [331] Soil decontamination (alumina and aluminium salts) [332] Phenols (flavonoids), terpenoids, and organic acids [333] Activity: antioxidant, antiinflammatory, and fibrinolytic [331,333] Toxicity: the fruit can cause phytodermatitis. It presents a cytotoxic effect [55]. Fruit: food colouring [333] Flower: tea [331] Rubiaceae Ixora coccinea L. Ixora, iosca, Santa Rita, geranium of the jungle, llama of the forests, corralito [334] Asia [334] Leaf, stem [334,335] Soil decontamination [336] Alkaloids, glycosides , phenols (flavonoids, tannins), steroids, triterpenoids, saponins, and proteins (resins) Treatment: reduce cholesterol, control blood pressure, regeneration of tissues, reduce obesity Activity: antibacterial, antiviral, antimutagenic, anti- Arial part: infusion na Alkaloids Activity: antibacterial [326] na Rosaceae Fragaria × ananassa (Duchesne ex Weston) Duchesne Strawberry, fruit billa [250]Europe Fruit Foods 2023, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 28 of 80 linoleic acid, saponins [322,323] Activity: anti-diarrheal, antiinflammatory, anthelmintic, diuretic, antiasthmatic, antib ronchitis, anti-Buruli ulcer, antioxidant, and hypoglycaemic [40,79,324] Ranunculac eae Ranunculus asiaticus L. Mediterranea n region [325] Flower na Alkaloids Activity: antibacterial [326] na Rosaceae Fragaria × ananassa (Duchesne ex Weston) Duchesne Strawberry, fruit b illa [250] Europe Fruit na Phenolics, vitamin C [327] Activity: antimicrobial, antiallergenic, antihypertensive [327] Fruit: widely used in the food industry Rosaceae Rosa hybrid Vill. Rosa na Flower Soil decontamination (As, Co, Mo, and Ni) [328] Phenols (glycosylated cyanidin’, pelargonidin) [329,330] Treatment: used in respiratory and dermatological diseases and arthritis. Activity: antioxidant, antiinflammatory laxative, and astringent [330] It is sweet and aromatic. Flower: dessert, sweet, savoury dishes Rubiaceae Gardenia j asminoides J. Ellis Gardenia, Cape J asmine Asia Fruit [331] Soil decontamination (alumina and aluminium salts) [332] Phenols (flavonoids), terpenoids, and organic acids [333] Activity: antioxidant, antiinflammatory, and fibrinolytic [331,333] Toxicity: the fruit can cause phytodermatitis. It presents a cytotoxic effect [55]. Fruit: food colouring [333] Flower: tea [331] Rubiaceae Ixora coccinea L. Ixora, iosca, Santa Rita, geranium of the jungle, llama of the forests, corralito [334] Asia [334] Leaf, stem [334,335] Soil decontamination [336] Alkaloids, glycosides , phenols (flavonoids, tannins), steroids, triterpenoids, saponins, and proteins (resins) Treatment: reduce cholesterol, control blood pressure, regeneration of tissues, reduce obesity Activity: antibacterial, antiviral, antimutagenic, anti- Arial part: infusion na Phenolics, vitamin C [327]Activity: antimicrobial, anti-allergenic, antihypertensive [327] Fruit: widely used in the food industry Rosaceae Rosa hybrid Vill. Rosa na Flower Foods 2023, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 28 of 80 linoleic acid, saponins [322,323] Activity: anti-diarrheal, antiinflammatory, anthelmintic, diuretic, antiasthmatic, antib ronchitis, anti-Buruli ulcer, antioxidant, and hypoglycaemic [40,79,324] Ranunculac eae Ranunculus asiaticus L. Mediterranea n region [325] Flower na Alkaloids Activity: antibacterial [326] na Rosaceae Fragaria × ananassa (Duchesne ex Weston) Duchesne Strawberry, fruit b illa [250] Europe Fruit na Phenolics, vitamin C [327] Activity: antimicrobial, antiallergenic, antihypertensive [327] Fruit: widely used in the food industry Rosaceae Rosa hybrid Vill. Rosa na Flower Soil decontamination (As, Co, Mo, and Ni) [328] Phenols (glycosylated cyanidin’, pelargonidin) [329,330] Treatment: used in respiratory and dermatological diseases and arthritis. Activity: antioxidant, antiinflammatory laxative, and astringent [330] It is sweet and aromatic. Flower: dessert, sweet, savoury dishes Rubiaceae Gardenia j asminoides J. Ellis Gardenia, Cape J asmine Asia Fruit [331] Soil decontamination (alumina and aluminium salts) [332] Phenols (flavonoids), terpenoids, and organic acids [333] Activity: antioxidant, antiinflammatory, and fibrinolytic [331,333] Toxicity: the fruit can cause phytodermatitis. It presents a cytotoxic effect [55]. Fruit: food colouring [333] Flower: tea [331] Rubiaceae Ixora coccinea L. Ixora, iosca, Santa Rita, geranium of the jungle, llama of the forests, corralito [334] Asia [334] Leaf, stem [334,335] Soil decontamination [336] Alkaloids, glycosides , phenols (flavonoids, tannins), steroids, triterpenoids, saponins, and proteins (resins) Treatment: reduce cholesterol, control blood pressure, regeneration of tissues, reduce obesity Activity: antibacterial, antiviral, antimutagenic, anti- Arial part: infusion Soil decontamination (As, Co, Mo, and Ni) [328] Phenols (glycosylated cyanidin’, pelargonidin) [329,330] Treatment: used in respiratory and dermatological diseases and arthritis. Activity: antioxidant, anti-inflammatory laxative, and astringent [330] It is sweet and aromatic. Flower: dessert, sweet, savoury dishes Rubiaceae Gardenia jasminoides J. Ellis Gardenia, Cape Jasmine Asia Fruit [331] Foods 2023, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 28 of 80 linoleic acid, saponins [322,323] Activity: anti-diarrheal, antiinflammatory, anthelmintic, diuretic, antiasthmatic, antib ronchitis, anti-Buruli ulcer, antioxidant, and hypoglycaemic [40,79,324] Ranunculac eae Ranunculus asiaticus L. Mediterranea n region [325] Flower na Alkaloids Activity: antibacterial [326] na Rosaceae Fragaria × ananassa (Duchesne ex Weston) Duchesne Strawberry, fruit b illa [250] Europe Fruit na Phenolics, vitamin C [327] Activity: antimicrobial, antiallergenic, antihypertensive [327] Fruit: widely used in the food industry Rosaceae Rosa hybrid Vill. Rosa na Flower Soil decontamination (As, Co, Mo, and Ni) [328] Phenols (glycosylated cyanidin’, pelargonidin) [329,330] Treatment: used in respiratory and dermatological diseases and arthritis. Activity: antioxidant, antiinflammatory laxative, and astringent [330] It is sweet and aromatic. Flower: dessert, sweet, savoury dishes Rubiaceae Gardenia j asminoides J. Ellis Gardenia, Cape J asmine Asia Fruit [331] Soil decontamination (alumina and aluminium salts) [332] Phenols (flavonoids), terpenoids, and organic acids [333] Activity: antioxidant, antiinflammatory, and fibrinolytic [331,333] Toxicity: the fruit can cause phytodermatitis. It presents a cytotoxic effect [55]. Fruit: food colouring [333] Flower: tea [331] Rubiaceae Ixora coccinea L. Ixora, iosca, Santa Rita, geranium of the jungle, llama of the forests, corralito [334] Asia [334] Leaf, stem [334,335] Soil decontamination [336] Alkaloids, glycosides , phenols (flavonoids, tannins), steroids, triterpenoids, saponins, and proteins (resins) Treatment: reduce cholesterol, control blood pressure, regeneration of tissues, reduce obesity Activity: antibacterial, antiviral, antimutagenic, anti- Arial part: infusion Soil decontamination (alumina and aluminium salts) [332] Phenols (flavonoids), terpenoids, and organic acids [333] Activity: antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and fibrinolytic [331,333] Toxicity: the fruit can cause phytodermatitis. It presents a cytotoxic effect [55]. Fruit: food colouring [333] Flower: tea [331] Rubiaceae Ixora coccinea L. Ixora, iosca, Santa Rita, geranium of the jungle, llama of the forests, corralito [334] Asia [334]Leaf, stem [334,335] Foods 2023, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 28 of 80 linoleic acid, saponins [322,323] Activity: anti-diarrheal, antiinflammatory, anthelmintic, diuretic, antiasthmatic, antib ronchitis, anti-Buruli ulcer, antioxidant, and hypoglycaemic [40,79,324] Ranunculac eae Ranunculus asiaticus L. Mediterranea n region [325] Flower na Alkaloids Activity: antibacterial [326] na Rosaceae Fragaria × ananassa (Duchesne ex Weston) Duchesne Strawberry, fruit b illa [250] Europe Fruit na Phenolics, vitamin C [327] Activity: antimicrobial, antiallergenic, antihypertensive [327] Fruit: widely used in the food industry Rosaceae Rosa hybrid Vill. Rosa na Flower Soil decontamination (As, Co, Mo, and Ni) [328] Phenols (glycosylated cyanidin’, pelargonidin) [329,330] Treatment: used in respiratory and dermatological diseases and arthritis. Activity: antioxidant, antiinflammatory laxative, and astringent [330] It is sweet and aromatic. Flower: dessert, sweet, savoury dishes Rubiaceae Gardenia j asminoides J. Ellis Gardenia, Cape J asmine Asia Fruit [331] Soil decontamination (alumina and aluminium salts) [332] Phenols (flavonoids), terpenoids, and organic acids [333] Activity: antioxidant, antiinflammatory, and fibrinolytic [331,333] Toxicity: the fruit can cause phytodermatitis. It presents a cytotoxic effect [55]. Fruit: food colouring [333] Flower: tea [331] Rubiaceae Ixora coccinea L. Ixora, iosca, Santa Rita, geranium of the jungle, llama of the forests, corralito [334] Asia [334] Leaf, stem [334,335] Soil decontamination [336] Alkaloids, glycosides , phenols (flavonoids, tannins), steroids, triterpenoids, saponins, and proteins (resins) Treatment: reduce cholesterol, control blood pressure, regeneration of tissues, reduce obesity Activity: antibacterial, antiviral, antimutagenic, anti- Arial part: infusion Soil decontamination [336] Alkaloids, glycosides, phenols (flavonoids, tannins), steroids, triterpenoids, saponins, and proteins (resins) Note: It has cytotoxic activity [334] Treatment: reduce cholesterol, control blood pressure, regeneration of tissues, reduce obesity Activity: antibacterial, antiviral, antimutagenic, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, anthelmintic, antileishmanial, anti-asthmatic, hepatoprotective [334] Arial part: infusion Rubiaceae Palicourea marcgravii A. St.-Hil. Crying or golden Brazil Flower Foods 2023, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 29 of 80 Note: It has cytotoxic activity [334] inflammatory, antioxidant, anthelmintic, antileishmanial, anti-asthmatic, hepatoprotective [334] Rubiaceae Palicourea marcgravii A. St.-Hil. Crying or golden Brazil Flower na Alkaloids glucosides (croceaine A), triterpenes, coumarins, and phenols (phenolic acids) Treatment: inflammation of the urinary tract Activity: antimicrobial Toxicity: It presents ictiotoxic and cytotoxic activity Arial part: infusion Rubiaceae Warszewiczia coccinea (Vahl) Klotszch na Central and South America [337] Flower na Triterpenes Treatment: inhibitors of acetylcholinesterase [337] na Solanaceae Capsicum annuum L. Pepper, chilli, morron Mediterranea n region [338] Fruit [79] Soil and water decontamination (carbofuran residue and Pb) [339,340] Carotenoids (capsaicin, capsorubin), alkaloids [338,341] Treatment: Buruli ulcer and gastrointestinal benefits [79] Activity: anti-haemorrhoidal, antirheumatic, antiinflammatory, and analgesic [341] Fruit: macerated fruit tea, sweet and savoury dishes, salad, cooked seasoning [341] Solanaceae Lycianthes rantonnetii (Carrière) Bitter Solano of blue flower, perennial dulcamara Argentina and Paraguay [342] Flower na Alkaloids [342] Treatment: seborrheic dermatitis, b ronchitis, cough Activity: antioxidant and antihepatic Toxicity: It has high toxicity [342] Arial part: infusion Solanaceae Petunia × hybrida Vilm. Petunia [126] The hybrid of P. axillaris × P. integrifolia [126] Flower [214] Soil decontamination (Pb, Cu, and Zn) [343] Phenols (phenylpropanoids, anthocyanins) [344– 346] Activity: antimicrobial and antifungall [214,346] Flower: garrison [214] na Alkaloids glucosides (croceaine A), triterpenes, coumarins, and phenols (phenolic acids) Treatment: inflammation of the urinary tract Activity: antimicrobial Toxicity: It presents ictiotoxic and cytotoxic activity Arial part: infusion
Foods 2023,12, 4066 20 of 67 Table 1. Cont. Family [18] Species [18] Common Name Place of Origin Most Used Part/Flower Image Phytoremediation Uses Main Chemical Groups Medicinal Use Gastronomic Uses Rubiaceae Warszewiczia coccinea (Vahl) Klotszch na Central and South America [337]Flower Foods 2023, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 29 of 80 Note: It has cytotoxic activity [334] inflammatory, antioxidant, anthelmintic, antileishmanial, anti-asthmatic, hepatoprotective [334] Rubiaceae Palicourea marcgravii A. St.-Hil. Crying or golden Brazil Flower na Alkaloids glucosides (croceaine A), triterpenes, coumarins, and phenols (phenolic acids) Treatment: inflammation of the urinary tract Activity: antimicrobial Toxicity: It presents ictiotoxic and cytotoxic activity Arial part: infusion Rubiaceae Warszewiczia coccinea (Vahl) Klotszch na Central and South America [337] Flower na Triterpenes Treatment: inhibitors of acetylcholinesterase [337] na Solanaceae Capsicum annuum L. Pepper, chilli, morron Mediterranea n region [338] Fruit [79] Soil and water decontamination (carbofuran residue and Pb) [339,340] Carotenoids (capsaicin, capsorubin), alkaloids [338,341] Treatment: Buruli ulcer and gastrointestinal benefits [79] Activity: anti-haemorrhoidal, antirheumatic, antiinflammatory, and analgesic [341] Fruit: macerated fruit tea, sweet and savoury dishes, salad, cooked seasoning [341] Solanaceae Lycianthes rantonnetii (Carrière) Bitter Solano of blue flower, perennial dulcamara Argentina and Paraguay [342] Flower na Alkaloids [342] Treatment: seborrheic dermatitis, b ronchitis, cough Activity: antioxidant and antihepatic Toxicity: It has high toxicity [342] Arial part: infusion Solanaceae Petunia × hybrida Vilm. Petunia [126] The hybrid of P. axillaris × P. integrifolia [126] Flower [214] Soil decontamination (Pb, Cu, and Zn) [343] Phenols (phenylpropanoids, anthocyanins) [344– 346] Activity: antimicrobial and antifungall [214,346] Flower: garrison [214] na Triterpenes Treatment: inhibitors of acetylcholinesterase [337]na Solanaceae Capsicum annuum L. Pepper, chilli, morron Mediterranean region [338]Fruit [79] Foods 2023, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 29 of 80 Note: It has cytotoxic activity [334] inflammatory, antioxidant, anthelmintic, antileishmanial, anti-asthmatic, hepatoprotective [334] Rubiaceae Palicourea marcgravii A. St.-Hil. Crying or golden Brazil Flower na Alkaloids glucosides (croceaine A), triterpenes, coumarins, and phenols (phenolic acids) Treatment: inflammation of the urinary tract Activity: antimicrobial Toxicity: It presents ictiotoxic and cytotoxic activity Arial part: infusion Rubiaceae Warszewiczia coccinea (Vahl) Klotszch na Central and South America [337] Flower na Triterpenes Treatment: inhibitors of acetylcholinesterase [337] na Solanaceae Capsicum annuum L. Pepper, chilli, morron Mediterranea n region [338] Fruit [79] Soil and water decontamination (carbofuran residue and Pb) [339,340] Carotenoids (capsaicin, capsorubin), alkaloids [338,341] Treatment: Buruli ulcer and gastrointestinal benefits [79] Activity: anti-haemorrhoidal, antirheumatic, antiinflammatory, and analgesic [341] Fruit: macerated fruit tea, sweet and savoury dishes, salad, cooked seasoning [341] Solanaceae Lycianthes rantonnetii (Carrière) Bitter Solano of blue flower, perennial dulcamara Argentina and Paraguay [342] Flower na Alkaloids [342] Treatment: seborrheic dermatitis, b ronchitis, cough Activity: antioxidant and antihepatic Toxicity: It has high toxicity [342] Arial part: infusion Solanaceae Petunia × hybrida Vilm. Petunia [126] The hybrid of P. axillaris × P. integrifolia [126] Flower [214] Soil decontamination (Pb, Cu, and Zn) [343] Phenols (phenylpropanoids, anthocyanins) [344– 346] Activity: antimicrobial and antifungall [214,346] Flower: garrison [214] Soil and water decontamination (carbofuran residue and Pb) [339,340] Carotenoids (capsaicin, capsorubin), alkaloids [338,341] Treatment: Buruli ulcer and gastrointestinal benefits [79] Activity: anti-haemorrhoidal, antirheumatic, anti-inflammatory, and analgesic [341] Fruit: macerated fruit tea, sweet and savoury dishes, salad, cooked seasoning [341] Solanaceae Lycianthes rantonnetii (Carrière) Bitter Solano of blue flower, perennial dulcamara Argentina and Paraguay [342]Flower Foods 2023, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 29 of 80 Note: It has cytotoxic activity [334] inflammatory, antioxidant, anthelmintic, antileishmanial, anti-asthmatic, hepatoprotective [334] Rubiaceae Palicourea marcgravii A. St.-Hil. Crying or golden Brazil Flower na Alkaloids glucosides (croceaine A), triterpenes, coumarins, and phenols (phenolic acids) Treatment: inflammation of the urinary tract Activity: antimicrobial Toxicity: It presents ictiotoxic and cytotoxic activity Arial part: infusion Rubiaceae Warszewiczia coccinea (Vahl) Klotszch na Central and South America [337] Flower na Triterpenes Treatment: inhibitors of acetylcholinesterase [337] na Solanaceae Capsicum annuum L. Pepper, chilli, morron Mediterranea n region [338] Fruit [79] Soil and water decontamination (carbofuran residue and Pb) [339,340] Carotenoids (capsaicin, capsorubin), alkaloids [338,341] Treatment: Buruli ulcer and gastrointestinal benefits [79] Activity: anti-haemorrhoidal, antirheumatic, antiinflammatory, and analgesic [341] Fruit: macerated fruit tea, sweet and savoury dishes, salad, cooked seasoning [341] Solanaceae Lycianthes rantonnetii (Carrière) Bitter Solano of blue flower, perennial dulcamara Argentina and Paraguay [342] Flower na Alkaloids [342] Treatment: seborrheic dermatitis, b ronchitis, cough Activity: antioxidant and antihepatic Toxicity: It has high toxicity [342] Arial part: infusion Solanaceae Petunia × hybrida Vilm. Petunia [126] The hybrid of P. axillaris × P. integrifolia [126] Flower [214] Soil decontamination (Pb, Cu, and Zn) [343] Phenols (phenylpropanoids, anthocyanins) [344– 346] Activity: antimicrobial and antifungall [214,346] Flower: garrison [214] na Alkaloids [342] Treatment: seborrheic dermatitis, bronchitis, cough Activity: antioxidant and anti-hepatic Toxicity: It has high toxicity [342] Arial part: infusion Solanaceae Petunia ×hybrida Vilm. Petunia [126]The hybrid of P. axillaris × P. integrifolia [126]Flower [214] Foods 2023, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 29 of 80 Note: It has cytotoxic activity [334] inflammatory, antioxidant, anthelmintic, antileishmanial, anti-asthmatic, hepatoprotective [334] Rubiaceae Palicourea marcgravii A. St.-Hil. Crying or golden Brazil Flower na Alkaloids glucosides (croceaine A), triterpenes, coumarins, and phenols (phenolic acids) Treatment: inflammation of the urinary tract Activity: antimicrobial Toxicity: It presents ictiotoxic and cytotoxic activity Arial part: infusion Rubiaceae Warszewiczia coccinea (Vahl) Klotszch na Central and South America [337] Flower na Triterpenes Treatment: inhibitors of acetylcholinesterase [337] na Solanaceae Capsicum annuum L. Pepper, chilli, morron Mediterranea n region [338] Fruit [79] Soil and water decontamination (carbofuran residue and Pb) [339,340] Carotenoids (capsaicin, capsorubin), alkaloids [338,341] Treatment: Buruli ulcer and gastrointestinal benefits [79] Activity: anti-haemorrhoidal, antirheumatic, antiinflammatory, and analgesic [341] Fruit: macerated fruit tea, sweet and savoury dishes, salad, cooked seasoning [341] Solanaceae Lycianthes rantonnetii (Carrière) Bitter Solano of blue flower, perennial dulcamara Argentina and Paraguay [342] Flower na Alkaloids [342] Treatment: seborrheic dermatitis, b ronchitis, cough Activity: antioxidant and antihepatic Toxicity: It has high toxicity [342] Arial part: infusion Solanaceae Petunia × hybrida Vilm. Petunia [126] The hybrid of P. axillaris × P. integrifolia [126] Flower [214] Soil decontamination (Pb, Cu, and Zn) [343] Phenols (phenylpropanoids, anthocyanins) [344– 346] Activity: antimicrobial and antifungall [214,346] Flower: garrison [214] Soil decontamination (Pb, Cu, and Zn) [343] Phenols (phenylpropanoids, anthocyanins) [344–346]Activity: antimicrobial and antifungall [214,346]Flower: garrison [214] Solanaceae Solanum lycopersicum L. Tomato, jitomato, gold-apple [34]Colombia, Peru, Ecuador [214]Fruit [347,348] Foods 2023, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 30 of 80 Solanaceae Solanum lycopersicum L. Tomato, jitomato, gold-apple [34] Colombia, Peru, Ecuador [214] Fruit [347,348] Soil decontamination (Cr, As, Zn, Cd, Pb, Cu, and Ni) [340,349] Solanine (leaves and stems contain high concentrations) [214] Treatment: cardiovascular diseases and macular degeneration [347,348] Activity: anti-carcinogenic, antifuruncular [347,350] Toxicity: The leaves present phytodermatitis [55] Fruit: widely used in the food industry [34] Verbenaceae A loysia citriodora Palau Kidron, lemon verbena, verbena de Indias, María Luisa, Verbena olorosa, Verbena grass Louise, Arabic tea [194,214] America [214] Leaf, stem, flower [92,214,351] Soil decontamination (Cd and Ni) [352] Terpenes (essential oil (neral, geranial, limonene, 1,8- cineole)), verbascosides and derivatives, and phenolics (flavonoids) Note: It has cytotoxic activity and allelopathic properties [351,353] Treatment: digestive and nervous systems Activity: antioxidant, antifungal, antiasthmatic, antimicrobial, anaesthetic, neuroprotective, spasmolytic, anxiolytic, anticolitis, antibacterial activity, antispasmodic, stomach, sedative, antipyretic [92,214,351,353,354] Arial part: infusion [351] Dried leaf: marinated, seasoning, sauces [351,354] Verbenaceae Lantana camara L. Lantana, Spanish flag, frutillo, supirrosa, cariaquito [214,355] America [355] Leaf, seed, flower [355] Soil decontamination (Pb, Cr, As, Zn, Cd, Cu, Hg, Ni) [356]. Alkaloids (lanthamine), terpenoids, phytosterols, saponins, phenols (tannins, phycobatannins), and steroids [42,72] Treatment: fever, flu, stomach problems, asthma, and rheumatism [214,355,357] Activity: antispasmodic, anticarcinogenic, antitumor, and antimicrobial [214,355,358] Toxicity: the leaves and fruits present gastrointestinal toxins [55] Flower: infusion [355,358] Verbenaceae Verbena × hybrid Groenland & Rümpler Verbena [143] na Flower [143] na Phenols (flavones, flavonols) na Flower: raw, cooked, garnished [143] Soil decontamination (Cr, As, Zn, Cd, Pb, Cu, and Ni) [340,349] Solanine (leaves and stems contain high concentrations) [214] Treatment: cardiovascular diseases and macular degeneration [347,348] Activity: anti-carcinogenic, anti-furuncular [347,350] Toxicity: The leaves present phytodermatitis [55] Fruit: widely used in the food industry [34] Verbenaceae Aloysia citriodora Palau Kidron, lemon verbena, verbena de Indias, María Luisa, Verbena olorosa, Verbena grass Louise, Arabic tea [194,214] America [214]Leaf, stem, flower [92,214,351] Foods 2023, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 30 of 80 Solanaceae Solanum lycopersicum L. Tomato, jitomato, gold-apple [34] Colombia, Peru, Ecuador [214] Fruit [347,348] Soil decontamination (Cr, As, Zn, Cd, Pb, Cu, and Ni) [340,349] Solanine (leaves and stems contain high concentrations) [214] Treatment: cardiovascular diseases and macular degeneration [347,348] Activity: anti-carcinogenic, antifuruncular [347,350] Toxicity: The leaves present phytodermatitis [55] Fruit: widely used in the food industry [34] Verbenaceae A loysia citriodora Palau Kidron, lemon verbena, verbena de Indias, María Luisa, Verbena olorosa, Verbena grass Louise, Arabic tea [194,214] America [214] Leaf, stem, flower [92,214,351] Soil decontamination (Cd and Ni) [352] Terpenes (essential oil (neral, geranial, limonene, 1,8- cineole)), verbascosides and derivatives, and phenolics (flavonoids) Note: It has cytotoxic activity and allelopathic properties [351,353] Treatment: digestive and nervous systems Activity: antioxidant, antifungal, antiasthmatic, antimicrobial, anaesthetic, neuroprotective, spasmolytic, anxiolytic, anticolitis, antibacterial activity, antispasmodic, stomach, sedative, antipyretic [92,214,351,353,354] Arial part: infusion [351] Dried leaf: marinated, seasoning, sauces [351,354] Verbenaceae Lantana camara L. Lantana, Spanish flag, frutillo, supirrosa, cariaquito [214,355] America [355] Leaf, seed, flower [355] Soil decontamination (Pb, Cr, As, Zn, Cd, Cu, Hg, Ni) [356]. Alkaloids (lanthamine), terpenoids, phytosterols, saponins, phenols (tannins, phycobatannins), and steroids [42,72] Treatment: fever, flu, stomach problems, asthma, and rheumatism [214,355,357] Activity: antispasmodic, anticarcinogenic, antitumor, and antimicrobial [214,355,358] Toxicity: the leaves and fruits present gastrointestinal toxins [55] Flower: infusion [355,358] Verbenaceae Verbena × hybrid Groenland & Rümpler Verbena [143] na Flower [143] na Phenols (flavones, flavonols) na Flower: raw, cooked, garnished [143] Soil decontamination (Cd and Ni) [352] Terpenes (essential oil (neral, geranial, limonene, 1,8-cineole)), verbascosides and derivatives, and phenolics (flavonoids) Note: It has cytotoxic activity and allelopathic properties [351,353] Treatment: digestive and nervous systems Activity: antioxidant, antifungal, antiasthmatic, antimicrobial, anaesthetic, neuroprotective, spasmolytic, anxiolytic, anti-colitis, antibacterial activity, antispasmodic, stomach, sedative, antipyretic [92,214,351,353,354] Arial part: infusion [351] Dried leaf: marinated, seasoning, sauces [351,354] Verbenaceae Lantana camara L. Lantana, Spanish flag, frutillo, supirrosa, cariaquito [214,355]America [355]Leaf, seed, flower [355] Foods 2023, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 30 of 80 Solanaceae Solanum lycopersicum L. Tomato, jitomato, gold-apple [34] Colombia, Peru, Ecuador [214] Fruit [347,348] Soil decontamination (Cr, As, Zn, Cd, Pb, Cu, and Ni) [340,349] Solanine (leaves and stems contain high concentrations) [214] Treatment: cardiovascular diseases and macular degeneration [347,348] Activity: anti-carcinogenic, antifuruncular [347,350] Toxicity: The leaves present phytodermatitis [55] Fruit: widely used in the food industry [34] Verbenaceae A loysia citriodora Palau Kidron, lemon verbena, verbena de Indias, María Luisa, Verbena olorosa, Verbena grass Louise, Arabic tea [194,214] America [214] Leaf, stem, flower [92,214,351] Soil decontamination (Cd and Ni) [352] Terpenes (essential oil (neral, geranial, limonene, 1,8- cineole)), verbascosides and derivatives, and phenolics (flavonoids) Note: It has cytotoxic activity and allelopathic properties [351,353] Treatment: digestive and nervous systems Activity: antioxidant, antifungal, antiasthmatic, antimicrobial, anaesthetic, neuroprotective, spasmolytic, anxiolytic, anticolitis, antibacterial activity, antispasmodic, stomach, sedative, antipyretic [92,214,351,353,354] Arial part: infusion [351] Dried leaf: marinated, seasoning, sauces [351,354] Verbenaceae Lantana camara L. Lantana, Spanish flag, frutillo, supirrosa, cariaquito [214,355] America [355] Leaf, seed, flower [355] Soil decontamination (Pb, Cr, As, Zn, Cd, Cu, Hg, Ni) [356]. Alkaloids (lanthamine), terpenoids, phytosterols, saponins, phenols (tannins, phycobatannins), and steroids [42,72] Treatment: fever, flu, stomach problems, asthma, and rheumatism [214,355,357] Activity: antispasmodic, anticarcinogenic, antitumor, and antimicrobial [214,355,358] Toxicity: the leaves and fruits present gastrointestinal toxins [55] Flower: infusion [355,358] Verbenaceae Verbena × hybrid Groenland & Rümpler Verbena [143] na Flower [143] na Phenols (flavones, flavonols) na Flower: raw, cooked, garnished [143] Soil decontamination (Pb, Cr, As, Zn, Cd, Cu, Hg, Ni) [356]. Alkaloids (lanthamine), terpenoids, phytosterols, saponins, phenols (tannins, phycobatannins), and steroids [42,72] Treatment: fever, flu, stomach problems, asthma, and rheumatism [214,355,357] Activity: antispasmodic, anti-carcinogenic, antitumor, and antimicrobial [214,355,358] Toxicity: the leaves and fruits present gastrointestinal toxins [55] Flower: infusion [355,358] Verbenaceae Verbena ×hybrid Groenland & Rümpler Verbena [143] na Flower [143] Foods 2023, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 30 of 80 Solanaceae Solanum lycopersicum L. Tomato, jitomato, gold-apple [34] Colombia, Peru, Ecuador [214] Fruit [347,348] Soil decontamination (Cr, As, Zn, Cd, Pb, Cu, and Ni) [340,349] Solanine (leaves and stems contain high concentrations) [214] Treatment: cardiovascular diseases and macular degeneration [347,348] Activity: anti-carcinogenic, antifuruncular [347,350] Toxicity: The leaves present phytodermatitis [55] Fruit: widely used in the food industry [34] Verbenaceae A loysia citriodora Palau Kidron, lemon verbena, verbena de Indias, María Luisa, Verbena olorosa, Verbena grass Louise, Arabic tea [194,214] America [214] Leaf, stem, flower [92,214,351] Soil decontamination (Cd and Ni) [352] Terpenes (essential oil (neral, geranial, limonene, 1,8- cineole)), verbascosides and derivatives, and phenolics (flavonoids) Note: It has cytotoxic activity and allelopathic properties [351,353] Treatment: digestive and nervous systems Activity: antioxidant, antifungal, antiasthmatic, antimicrobial, anaesthetic, neuroprotective, spasmolytic, anxiolytic, anticolitis, antibacterial activity, antispasmodic, stomach, sedative, antipyretic [92,214,351,353,354] Arial part: infusion [351] Dried leaf: marinated, seasoning, sauces [351,354] Verbenaceae Lantana camara L. Lantana, Spanish flag, frutillo, supirrosa, cariaquito [214,355] America [355] Leaf, seed, flower [355] Soil decontamination (Pb, Cr, As, Zn, Cd, Cu, Hg, Ni) [356]. Alkaloids (lanthamine), terpenoids, phytosterols, saponins, phenols (tannins, phycobatannins), and steroids [42,72] Treatment: fever, flu, stomach problems, asthma, and rheumatism [214,355,357] Activity: antispasmodic, anticarcinogenic, antitumor, and antimicrobial [214,355,358] Toxicity: the leaves and fruits present gastrointestinal toxins [55] Flower: infusion [355,358] Verbenaceae Verbena × hybrid Groenland & Rümpler Verbena [143] na Flower [143] na Phenols (flavones, flavonols) na Flower: raw, cooked, garnished [143] na Phenols (flavones, flavonols) na Flower: raw, cooked, garnished [143]
Foods 2023,12, 4066 21 of 67 Table 1. Cont. Family [18] Species [18] Common Name Place of Origin Most Used Part/Flower Image Phytoremediation Uses Main Chemical Groups Medicinal Use Gastronomic Uses Viola Viola × wittrockiana Gams Pansy, Wesel Ice [180] na Flower [180] Foods 2023, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 31 of 80 Viola Viola × wittrockiana Gams Pansy, Wesel Ice [180] na Flower [180] Soil decontamination (As, Cd, Pb, and Se) [307] na Treatment: respiratory ailments, relaxation of blood vessels, and reduction of fevers and colds [12,113] Activity: anti-inflammatory [12,359] It has a sweet flavour [12]. Zingiberace ae Renealmia alpinia (Rottb.) Maas x’kijit, Kumpia [360,361] Mexico [362] Fruit [361] na na Treatment: antiemetic, antinausea, and snake venom neutraliser [360,361,363,364] Seed: oil food [361,365] Note: na, not available; COD, Chemical oxygen demand; PM, particulate matter; HIV, Human immunodeficiency virus; LC50, Lethal concentration; TSS, total suspended solids; BOD, Biochemical oxygen demand; TP, material contamination; PM, particulate matter; LD50, Dosage lethal media. Table 2. Methods for quantifying and concentrating carotenoids and phenolics in studied plants. Family [18] Species [18] Carotenoids Concentration/Quantification Technique Phenolics Concentration/Quantification Technique Acanthaceae A phelandra squarrosa Nees Flower: 381.3 µg/g DW, individual carotenoids (RRLC) [366] Root: 3.5 µmol Benzoxazinoid/g FW)/(HPLC) [22] Acanthaceae J usticia aurea Schltdl. Flower: 47.9 µg violaxanthin/g DW (RRLC) [366] na Alstroemeriaceae A lstroemeria aurea Graham Flower: 4.5 to 4.9 µg total carotenoids/g DW (SM) [30]; 30 µg/g DW, individual carotenoids (RRLC) [366]; 536.6 µg/g β-carotene total carotenoids (SM) [214] Flower: 3 mg GAE/g total phenolics (SM) [214] Amaranthaceae Celosia argentea L. Flower: 22.1 and 116.3 µg total carotenoids/g DW, individual carotenoids (RRLC) [366] Leaf: 0.12 to 0.36 mg total carotenoids/g FW (SM) [36] Flower: 5.01 and 6.06 g total anthocyanin/100 g FW (SM) [36], 58.4 mg GAE/g water extract, 67.6 mg GAE/g ethanol extract (SM) [39]; 13.8 and 7.7 mg total phenolics/g DW, individual phenolics (RRLC) [366] Arial part: 2.2 and 9.4 mg GAE/g DW (SM) [367] , 45.2 mg GAE/g extract, and 66.7 mg QE/g extract (SM) [37] Amaryllidaceae A llium schoenoprasum L. Flower:58.2 mg total carotenoids/kg FW (SM) [368]; 70.1 µg total carotenoids/g DW, individual carotenoids (RRLC) [366]; 423.2 µg total carotenoids/g DW [214] Root: 0.08 mg β-carotene/100 g FW, 0.65 mg total carotenoids/100 g FW (review) [40] Flowers: 201.8 µg gallic acid/g DW, 207.3 µg coumaric acid/g DW, 887.4 µg ferulic acid/g DW, 20.3 µg rutin/g DW (HPLC) [369]; 375.8 mg total polyphenols/100 FW (SM) [368]; 9.3 mg total phenolics/g DW, individual phenolics (RRLC) [366]; 28.9 mg GAE/g DW (SM) [214] Soil decontamination (As, Cd, Pb, and Se) [307]na Treatment: respiratory ailments, relaxation of blood vessels, and reduction of fevers and colds [12,113] Activity: anti-inflammatory [12,359] It has a sweet flavour [12]. Zingiberaceae Renealmia alpinia (Rottb.) Maas x’kijit, Kumpia [360,361] Mexico [362] Fruit [361] Foods 2023, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 31 of 80 Viola Viola × wittrockiana Gams Pansy, Wesel Ice [180] na Flower [180] Soil decontamination (As, Cd, Pb, and Se) [307] na Treatment: respiratory ailments, relaxation of blood vessels, and reduction of fevers and colds [12,113] Activity: anti-inflammatory [12,359] It has a sweet flavour [12]. Zingiberace ae Renealmia alpinia (Rottb.) Maas x’kijit, Kumpia [360,361] Mexico [362] Fruit [361] na na Treatment: antiemetic, antinausea, and snake venom neutraliser [360,361,363,364] Seed: oil food [361,365] Note: na, not available; COD, Chemical oxygen demand; PM, particulate matter; HIV, Human immunodeficiency virus; LC50, Lethal concentration; TSS, total suspended solids; BOD, Biochemical oxygen demand; TP, material contamination; PM, particulate matter; LD50, Dosage lethal media. Table 2. Methods for quantifying and concentrating carotenoids and phenolics in studied plants. Family [18] Species [18] Carotenoids Concentration/Quantification Technique Phenolics Concentration/Quantification Technique Acanthaceae A phelandra squarrosa Nees Flower: 381.3 µg/g DW, individual carotenoids (RRLC) [366] Root: 3.5 µmol Benzoxazinoid/g FW)/(HPLC) [22] Acanthaceae J usticia aurea Schltdl. Flower: 47.9 µg violaxanthin/g DW (RRLC) [366] na Alstroemeriaceae A lstroemeria aurea Graham Flower: 4.5 to 4.9 µg total carotenoids/g DW (SM) [30]; 30 µg/g DW, individual carotenoids (RRLC) [366]; 536.6 µg/g β-carotene total carotenoids (SM) [214] Flower: 3 mg GAE/g total phenolics (SM) [214] Amaranthaceae Celosia argentea L. Flower: 22.1 and 116.3 µg total carotenoids/g DW, individual carotenoids (RRLC) [366] Leaf: 0.12 to 0.36 mg total carotenoids/g FW (SM) [36] Flower: 5.01 and 6.06 g total anthocyanin/100 g FW (SM) [36], 58.4 mg GAE/g water extract, 67.6 mg GAE/g ethanol extract (SM) [39]; 13.8 and 7.7 mg total phenolics/g DW, individual phenolics (RRLC) [366] Arial part: 2.2 and 9.4 mg GAE/g DW (SM) [367] , 45.2 mg GAE/g extract, and 66.7 mg QE/g extract (SM) [37] Amaryllidaceae A llium schoenoprasum L. Flower:58.2 mg total carotenoids/kg FW (SM) [368]; 70.1 µg total carotenoids/g DW, individual carotenoids (RRLC) [366]; 423.2 µg total carotenoids/g DW [214] Root: 0.08 mg β-carotene/100 g FW, 0.65 mg total carotenoids/100 g FW (review) [40] Flowers: 201.8 µg gallic acid/g DW, 207.3 µg coumaric acid/g DW, 887.4 µg ferulic acid/g DW, 20.3 µg rutin/g DW (HPLC) [369]; 375.8 mg total polyphenols/100 FW (SM) [368]; 9.3 mg total phenolics/g DW, individual phenolics (RRLC) [366]; 28.9 mg GAE/g DW (SM) [214] na na Treatment: antiemetic, antinausea, and snake venom neutraliser [360,361,363,364] Seed: oil food [361,365] Note: na, not available; COD, Chemical oxygen demand; PM, particulate matter; HIV, Human immunodeficiency virus; LC50, Lethal concentration; TSS, total suspended solids; BOD, Biochemical oxygen demand; TP, material contamination; PM, particulate matter; LD50, Dosage lethal media. Table 2. Methods for quantifying and concentrating carotenoids and phenolics in studied plants. Family [18] Species [18] Carotenoids Concentration/Quantification Technique Phenolics Concentration/Quantification Technique Acanthaceae Aphelandra squarrosa Nees Flower: 381.3 µ g/g DW, individual carotenoids (RRLC) [ 366 ] Root: 3.5 µmol Benzoxazinoid/g FW)/(HPLC) [22] Acanthaceae Justicia aurea Schltdl. Flower: 47.9 µg violaxanthin/g DW (RRLC) [366] na Alstroemeriaceae Alstroemeria aurea Graham Flower: 4.5 to 4.9 µg total carotenoids/g DW (SM) [30]; 30 µg/g DW, individual carotenoids (RRLC) [366]; 536.6 µg/g β-carotene total carotenoids (SM) [214] Flower: 3 mg GAE/g total phenolics (SM) [214] Amaranthaceae Celosia argentea L. Flower: 22.1 and 116.3 µ g total carotenoids/g DW, individual carotenoids (RRLC) [366] Leaf: 0.12 to 0.36 mg total carotenoids/g FW (SM) [36] Flower: 5.01 and 6.06 g total anthocyanin/100 g FW (SM) [36], 58.4 mg GAE/g water extract, 67.6 mg GAE/g ethanol extract (SM) [39]; 13.8 and 7.7 mg total phenolics/g DW, individual phenolics (RRLC) [366] Arial part: 2.2 and 9.4 mg GAE/g DW (SM) [367], 45.2 mg GAE/g extract, and 66.7 mg QE/g extract (SM) [37] Amaryllidaceae Allium schoenoprasum L. Flower:58.2 mg total carotenoids/kg FW (SM) [368]; 70.1 µg total carotenoids/g DW, individual carotenoids (RRLC) [ 366 ]; 423.2 µg total carotenoids/g DW [214] Root: 0.08 mg β-carotene/100 g FW, 0.65 mg total carotenoids/100 g FW (review) [40] Flowers: 201.8 µg gallic acid/g DW, 207.3 µg coumaric acid/g DW, 887.4 µg ferulic acid/g DW, 20.3 µg rutin/g DW (HPLC) [369]; 375.8 mg total polyphenols/100 FW (SM) [368]; 9.3 mg total phenolics/g DW, individual phenolics (RRLC) [366]; 28.9 mg GAE/g DW (SM) [214] Leaf: 16.7 mg total flavonoids/g FW [42], 68.5 GAE/g (SM) [44] Root: 2.7 mg myricetin/100 g FW, 4.5 mg quercetin/100 g FW, 7.7 mg kaempferol/100 g FW, 21.0 mg GAE/100 g FW, 0.5 mg anthocyanin/100 g FW (review) [40]
Foods 2023,12, 4066 22 of 67 Table 2. Cont. Family [18] Species [18] Carotenoids Concentration/Quantification Technique Phenolics Concentration/Quantification Technique Amaryllidaceae Agapanthus africanus (L.) Hoffmanns Flower: 8.1 µg total carotenoids/g DW, individual carotenoids (RRLC) [366]; 67.0 and 90.0 µg total carotenoids/g DW (SM) [214] Flower: Identification of delphinidin, p-coumaroyl, kaempferol, and others (HPLC-MS) [370] 13.7 mg total phenolics/g DW, individual phenolics (RRLC) [366]; 23.6 and 25.7 mg GAE/g DW (SM) [214] Amaryllidaceae Clivia miniata (Lindl.) Bosse Clivia miniata var. citrina S. Watson na Flower: 1.8 total anthocyanin/100 mg FW (SM) [371] Apiaceae Coriandrum sativum L. Flower: 267.6 µg total carotenoids/g DW, individual carotenoids (RRLC) [366]; 189.1 µg total carotenoids/g DW (SM) [214] Leaf: 152.8 to 169.2 mg total carotenoids/100 g DW, 38.3 to 58.6 mg β -carotene/100 g DW (before saponification), 27.1 to 47.5 mg β-carotene/100 g DW (after saponification) (SM) [372] Arial part: 2.0 g total carotenoids/kg DW, 0.6 g β-carotene/DW, 1.0 g lutein/kg DW (HPLC) [373] Seed: 1.8 to 2.2 mg total carotenoids/100 g DW, 0.3 to 0.6 mg β-carotene/100 g DW (SM) [372] Flower: 2.4 mg total phenolics/g DW, individual phenolics (RRLC) [366]; 16.5 mg GAE/g DW (SM) [214] Seed: 12.2 GAE/g, 12.6 total flavonoids (quercetin equivalents)/g, 133.74 µg GAE/mg hydro-alcohol extract, 44.5 µg total flavonoids/mg 70% ethanol extract (SM) [42]; individual phenolics, 2.2 mg/g (HPLC-MS) [374]; individual phenolics, 129.9 mg total phenolics acids/kg DW (HPLC-MS) [58]; Arial part: individual phenolics, 6273.5 mg total phenolics/kg DW (HPLC-MS) [58]; 10.0 g total phenolics/kg DW; 0.5 g chlorogenic acid/kg DW (SM and HPLC) [373] Apocynaceae Catharanthus roseus (L.) G. Don Flower: 3.7 µ g lutein/g DW (RRLC) [ 366 ]; 163.7 and 185.1 µ g total carotenoids/g DW (SM) [214] Leaf: 0.5 to 0.7 mg carotenoids/g DW (SM) [ 375 ]; 9 to 1.3 mg carotenoid/g FW, 11.9 to 32.1 mg xanthophyll/g FW (SM) [376] Flower: 26.5 and 29.1 mg total phenolics/g DW, individual phenolics (RRLC) [366]; 67.1 and 55.5 mg GAE/g DW (SM) [214] Leaf: 05.0 to 19.0 mg phenolics/g DW (SM) [375]; 55.3 to 88.0 mg anthocyanin/g FW (SM) [376] Apocynaceae Nerium oleander L. Flower: 1.0 to 3.4 µg lutein/g DW (RRLC) [366]; 51.2 to 67.6 µg total carotenoids/g DW (SM) [214] Leaf: 2.3 µmol carotenoids/g DW, 40.7 µmol β-carotene/g DW, 42.4 µmol lutein/g DW (SM) [377] Flower: 53.8 µg GAE/mg ethanol extract, 34.3 µg quercetin/mg ethanol extract (SM) [73]; 14.0 to 22.0 mg total phenolics/g DW, individual phenolics (RRLC) [366]; 58.0 to 67.1 mg GAE/g DW (SM) [214] Apocynaceae Trachelospermum jasminoides (Lind.) Len. Flower: 3.6 µg lutein/g DW (RRLC) [366]; 14.7 µg total carotenoids/g DW (SM) [214] Flower: 13.2 mg taxifolin/g, 9.5 mg isoquercitrin/g, 7.6 mg chlorogenic acid/g, and 0.2 mg gallic acid/g (HPLC) [75] Aerial part: five compounds were isolated [74]; 4.1 mg total phenolics/g DW, individual phenolics (RRLC) [366]; 110.3 mg GAE/g DW (SM) [214]
Foods 2023,12, 4066 23 of 67 Table 2. Cont. Family [18] Species [18] Carotenoids Concentration/Quantification Technique Phenolics Concentration/Quantification Technique Araceae Aglaonema commutatum Schott Flower: 78.7 µg total carotenoids/g DW, individual carotenoids (RRLC) [366]; 191.6 µg total carotenoids/g DW (SM) [214] Leaf: αand β-carotene [77] Fruit: lycopene, lycoxanthin, violaxanthin,α,β,γ, δ-carotene [77]; 100.0 µgβ-carotene/g DW, 110.0 µg cryptoxanthin/g DW, 1100.0 µg lycopene/g DW (polarization microscopy) [378] Seed: lutein [77] Flower: 12.5 mg GAE/g DW (SM) [367]; 0.6 mg total phenolics/g DW, individual phenolics (RRLC) [366]; 57.9 mg GAE/g DW (SM) [214] Araceae Anthurium andraeanum Linden ex André Flower: 14.1 µg total carotenoids/g DW, individual carotenoids (RRLC) [366]; 61.9 µg total carotenoids/g DW (SM) [214] Flower: Individual flavonoids (HPLC-MS) [80], individual flavonoids, 0.3 to 8.7 mg total anthocyanin/g FW (HPLC-ESI-MS) [81]; 12.0 to 26.0 mg flavonoids/g FW [379]; 7.7 mg total phenolics/g DW, individual phenolics (RRLC) [366]; 117.4 mg GAE/g DW (SM) [214] Araceae Spathiphyllum montanum (R. A. Baker) Grayum Flower: 326.6 µg total carotenoids/g DW (SM) [214] Flower: Phenols and flavonoids [ 84 ]; 87.3 mg GAE/g DW (SM) [ 214 ] Asparagaceae Chlorophytum comosum (Thunb.) Jacques Flower: 93.9 µg total carotenoids/g DW, individual carotenoids (RRLC) [366]; 245.3 µg total carotenoids/g DW (SM) [214] Leaf: 0.5 to 3.0 mg total carotenoid/g FW (SM) [380] Flower: 21.1 mg total phenolics/g DW, individual phenolics (RRLC) [366]; 42.7 mg GAE/g DW (SM) [214] Arial part: 1.4 mg total phenolic/g [90] Asteraceae Bidens andicola Kunth na Arial part: Phytochemical screening (SM) [96] Asteraceae Calendula officinalis L. Flower: 48.0 to 276 mg carotenoids/100 g FW, 270.0 to 3510.0 mg carotenoids/100 g DW [99]; 57.2 µg total carotenoids/g FW (SM) [296]; 50.0 to 350.0 µg carotenoid/g DW [100]; 1.0 to 1.3 mg β-carotene/g DW [102] Flower: 313.4 mg total polyphenol/g 2% flowers extract, 19.4 mg flavonoid and quercetin/g 2% flowers extract, 28.6 mg total polyphenols/g, 18.8 mg total flavonoids/g, 12.2 mg rutin and narcissin/g [42]; 0.7 to 5.1 mg GAE/g FW, 0.7 to 3.30 mg total flavonoids/g FW [296]; individual phenolics (HPLC-MS), 0.03 to 5.5 mg GAE/g DW [101]; 15.0 to 20.0 mg caffeic acid/g DW [100] Asteraceae Centaurea seridis L. na na
Foods 2023,12, 4066 24 of 67 Table 2. Cont. Family [18] Species [18] Carotenoids Concentration/Quantification Technique Phenolics Concentration/Quantification Technique Asteraceae Cichorium intybus L. Flower: 8.0 to 30.2 µg lutein/g FW, 0.1 to 0.4 µg β -cryptoxanthin/g FW, 3.3 to 14.1 µ g β -carotene/g FW [ 109 ]; 64.5 µg total carotenoids/g DW (SM) [214] Root: 1.1 to 2.4 mg lutein/kg, 0.2 to 0.5 mg β-carotene/kg (HPLC) [106] Root: 12.8 to 101.5 mg quercetin/kg, 8.1 to 26.2 mg kaempferol/kg (HPLC-ESI-MS) [106] Flower: 20.0 to 130.0 mg GAE/100 g FW (SM) [ 109 ], 10.6 mg GAE/g FW (SM) [108]; 9.9 mg total phenolics/g DW, individual phenolics (RRLC) [366]; 46.0 mg GAE/g DW (SM) [214] Seed: 0.05 to 0.1 g total flavonoids/100 g DW; 0.5 to 2.5 g phenolic acids/100 g DW; 50.8 to 285.0 mg GAE/100 g DW; 43.3 to 150.0 mg total flavonoid/100 DW; sixty-four phenolic acids and flavonoids were extracted (SM, HPLC [42] Asteraceae Chrysanthemum morifolium Ramat Flower: 0.1 to 0.2 mg carotenoid/g FW (SM) [381]; 11.8 to 165.5 µg lutein/g DW, 0.1 to 4.4 µg zeaxanthin/g DW, 0.1 to 1.9 µgβ-cryptoxanthin/g DW, 0.1 to 2.9 µg 13-cis-β-carotene/g DW, 0.0 to 3.5 µgα-carotene/g DW, 1.4 to 21.9 g transβ-carotene/g DW, 0.3 to 5.2 µg 9-cis- β-carotene/g DW (HPLC) [110] Flower: 12.0 mg GAE/g DW (SM) [ 367 ]; individual phenols, 3732 to 12,562 mg total phenolics/g (HPLC-ESI) [111]; 0.5 to 5.5 mg total flavonoid/g FW, 0.2 to 2.5 total phenolic/g FW (SM) [381]; individual anthocyanin, 004 to 11.3 mg anthocyanin/g DW (HPLC-ESI-MS) [381] Asteraceae Coreopsis grandiflora Hogg ex Sweet Flower: 1060 mg β-carotene/g (SM) [115]; 1060 µg total carotenoids/g DW (SM) [214]Flower: 6.2 mg GAE/g DW (SM) [214] Asteraceae Cota tinctoria (L.) J. Gay Flower: 0.7 mg α-carotene/g FW, 5.1 mg β-carotene/g FW (TLC) [115]; individual carotenoids, 46.9 mg carotenoid/100 g FW, 6.3 mg carotenoids/100 g DW (HPLC) [121] Flower: 0.9 mg gallic acid/100 g DW, 26.8 mg chlorogenic acid/100 g DW, and other [118] Stem: 3.30 mg 4droxybenzoic acid/100 g DW, 1.3 mg caffeic acid/100 g DW, and other [118] Root: 0.01 mg quercetin/100 g DW and other (HPLC) [118] Asteraceae Dahlia coccinea Cav. Flower: 2.5 to 24.0 g carotenoid/g DW (SM) [122] Flower: 6.4 to 13.7 µg gallic acid/g DW, 0.9 to 4.7 µg caffeic acid/g DW, 2.7 to 16.4 µg chlorogenic acid/g DW, 3.7 to 5.8 µg hydroxybenzoic acid/g DW, 7.2 to 26.3 µ g quercetin/g DW (HPLC), 2.0 to 125 mg gallic acid/g DW (SM) [122]; 86.6 mg GAE/g DW (SM) [214]; 15.7 mg total phenolics/g DW, individual phenolics (RRLC) [366] Asteraceae Dahlia pinnata Cav. Flowers: 2.5 to 24.0 g total carotenoids/g DW (SM) [122] Flower: 6.4 to 13.7 µg gallic acid/g DW, 0.9 to 4.7 µg caffeic acid/g DW, 2.7 to 16.4 µg chlorogenic acid/g DW, 3.7 to 5.8 µg hydroxybenzoic acid/g DW, 7.2 to 26.3 µ g quercetin/g DW (HPLC), 2.0 to 125.0 mg gallic acid/g DW (SM) [122] Asteraceae Gaillardia ×grandiflora Hort. Ex Van Houtte na na
Foods 2023,12, 4066 25 of 67 Table 2. Cont. Family [18] Species [18] Carotenoids Concentration/Quantification Technique Phenolics Concentration/Quantification Technique Asteraceae Tagetes erecta L. Flower: 2.0 to 52.0 µg violaxanthin/g DW, 10.0 to 305.0 µg zeaxanthin/g DW, 0.2 to 8.2 µ g luteolin/g DW, 1.0 to 36.0 µ g α-carotene/g DW, 2.0 to 53.0 µgβ-carotene/g DW, 1.0 to 3.8 µg 13-cis- β-carotene/g DW (HPLC) [130]; 1.9 to 11.6 mg lutein ester/g DW (HPLC) [382] Flower: total phenolics and flavonoids, 62.3 mg GAE/g, 97.0 mg rutin equivalent/g (HPLC-MS) [ 131 ]; 27.1 to 42.2 mg GAE/g, 20.1 to 41.9 mg quercetin equivalent/g (SM) [127]; 4.6 g gallic acid/kg FW (SM) [180] Asteraceae Taraxacum campylodes G. E. Haglund Flower: 41.9 mg total carotenoids/kg [138]; 259.0 µg carotenoids/g DW [383] Leaf: 206.4 mg total carotenoid/kg [138] Stem: 20.5 mg total carotenoid/kg [138] Flower: 441.4 µg gallic acid/g DW, 18.7 µg rutin/g DW, 274.9 µg resveratrol/g DW, 82.9 µg vanillic acid/g DW, 593.0 µg sinapic acid/g DW (HPLC) [369]; 11.1 mg quercetin/g DW [383]; 441.1 mg gallica acid/kg DW, 274.9 mg resveratrol/kg DW, 593.0 mg sinapic acid/kg DW [384]; 22.3 GAE/g DW [140] Asteraceae Zinnia elegans L. Flower: 223.7 to 995.9 µg total carotenoids/g DW (SM) [214] Flower: 87.5 to 985.0 µg total anthocyanin/g FW (SM) [385]; 22.7 to 25.7 mg GAE/g DW (SM) [214] Leaf: 2.6 mg total phenolics/g DW, 0.6 mg total flavonoids/g DW (SM) [141] Balsaminaceae Impatiens walleriana Hook. f. Flower: 148.3 µg total carotenoids/g DW (SM) [214]; 2.9 µg total carotenoids/g DW, individual carotenoids (RRLC) [ 366 ] Flower: 6.8 mg GAE/g (SM), 96.1 mg epicatechin/100 g, 183.5 mg gallic acid/100 g, 83.9 mg protocatechuic acid/100 g [235]; 4.9 g gallic acid/kg FW (SM) [180]; 111.8 mg GAE/g DW (SM) [214]; 8.4 mg total phenolics/g DW, individual phenolics (RRLC) [366] Leaf: 3.4 µg gallic acid/g DW, 71.9 µg protocatechuic acid/g DW, 12.8 µg 4-hydroxy benzoic/g DW, 8.2 µg vanillic acid/g DW, 7.6 µg cis-p-coumaric/g DW, and other (HPLC) [386] Aerial part: individual compounds (UHPLC-MS), 12.2 mg total phenolic/g DW, 2.7 mg total phenolic acids/g DW, 3.9 mg quercetin equivalent/g DW (SM) [142] Begoniaceae Begonia cucullata Willd. Flower: 0.03 µg total carotenoids/g FW (SM) [143]Flower: 448.8 mg total phenolics/100 g FW (SM) [143]; 1.8 to 9.8 µg quercetin/g FW [123] Begoniaceae Begonia ×tuberhybrida Voss Flower: 0.02 µg total carotenoids/g FW (SM) [143]; 187.6 µg total carotenoids/g DW (SM) [214]; 8.7 µg total carotenoids/g DW, individual carotenoids (RRLC) [366] Flower: 100.9 mg total phenolics/100 g FW (SM) [143]; 107.2 mg GAE/g DW (SM) [214]; 8.7 mg total phenolics/g DW, individual phenolics (RRLC) [366] Bignoniaceae Tecoma capensis (Thunb.) Lindl. Flower: 238.6 µ g total carotenoids/g DW (SM) [ 214 ]; 37.6 µ g total carotenoids/g DW, individual carotenoids (RRLC) [ 366 ] Leaf: 0.3 to 0.6 mg carotenoids/g FW [145] Flower: 19.2 mg GAE/g DW (SM) [214]; 1.3 mg total phenolics/g DW, individual phenolics (RRLC) [366] Leaf: Phytochemical screening [149] Bignoniaceae Tecoma stans (L.) Juss. ex Kunth na Leaf: 177.0 to 216.0 mg GAE/g DW [153] Whole plant: Phytochemical screening [387]
Foods 2023,12, 4066 32 of 67 Table 2. Cont. Family [18] Species [18] Carotenoids Concentration/Quantification Technique Phenolics Concentration/Quantification Technique Nyctaginaceae Bougainvillea spectabilis Willd. Flower: 323.6 µ g total carotenoids/g DW (SM) [ 214 ]; 45.5 µ g total carotenoids/g DW, individual carotenoids (RRLC) [ 366 ] Flower: 6.9 mg GAE/g (SM), 79.6 mg catechin/100 g, 89.3 mg epicatechin/100 g, 39.8 mg gallic acid/100 g (HPLC) [235]; 1.7 to 2.3 mg GAE/g FW, 0.9 to 1.3 mg total flavonoids/g FW (SM) [296]; 15.8 mg total phenolics/g DW, individual phenolics (RRLC) [366] Leaf: 3.9 mg GAE/g [294]; 24.0 mg GAE/g DW (SM) [214] Nyctaginaceae Mirabilis jalapa L. Flower: 524.1 µg total carotenoids/g DW (SM) [214]; 4.1 µg total carotenoids/g DW, individual carotenoids (RRLC) [ 366 ] Flower: 88.6 mg GAE/g DW (SM) [214]; 9.5 mg total phenolics/g DW, individual phenolics (RRLC) [366] Arial part: 4.4 mg total flavonoid/g DW (SM) [417] Whole plant: individual phenolics, 2977.4 µg total phenolics/mg flowers, 304.3 µ g total phenolics/mg herb, 67.9 µ g total phenolics/g fruits, 12.4 µg total phenolics/mg roots [298] Oleaceae Jasminum sambac (L.) Aiton Flower: 80.3 µg total carotenoids/g DW (SM) [214]; 4.9 µg total carotenoids/g DW, individual carotenoids (RRLC) [ 366 ] Flower: 39.3 mg GAE/g DW (SM) [214]; 9.2 mg total phenolics/g DW, individual phenolics (RRLC) [366] Onagraceae Fuchsia magellanica Lam. Flower: 95.3 µg total carotenoids/g DW (SM) [214]; 11.8 µg total carotenoids/g DW, individual carotenoids (RRLC) [ 366 ] Flower: individual anthocyanins [304]; 191.7 mg GAE/g DW (SM) [214]; 42.5 mg total phenolics/g DW, individual phenolics (RRLC) [366] Orchidaceae Phalaenopsis aphrodite Rchb. f. Flower: 50.3 and 257.8 µ g total carotenoids/g DW (SM) [ 214 ]; 8.3 and 44.4 µg total carotenoids/g DW, individual carotenoids (RRLC) [366] Flower: 22.7 and 44.6 mg GAE/g DW (SM) [214]; 7.9 and 39.9 mg total phenolics/g DW, individual phenolics (RRLC) [366] Passifloraceae Passiflora ×belotii Pépin Flower: 100.3 µ g total carotenoids/g DW (SM) [ 214 ]; 49.1 µ g total carotenoids/g DW, individual carotenoids (RRLC) [ 366 ] Flower: 25.2 mg GAE/g DW (SM) [214]; 6.4 mg total phenolics/g DW, individual phenolics (RRLC) [366] Plantaginaceae Antirrhinum majus L. Flower: 71.6 µg total carotenoids/g DW (SM) [214] Flower: 10.0 mg GAE/g DW, 1.8 mg total flavonoids/g DW [307]; 74.7 mg GAE/g DW (SM) [214]; 8.9 mg total phenolics/g DW, individual phenolics (RRLC) [366] Plantaginaceae Plantago major L. Flower: 355.0 µ g total carotenoids/g DW (SM) [ 214 ]; 168.2 µ g total carotenoids/g DW, individual carotenoids (RRLC) [ 366 ] Flower: 76.4 mg GAE/g DW (SM) [214]; 22.8 mg total phenolics/g DW, individual phenolics (RRLC) [366] Whole plant: 1.6 mg GAE/g DW [367] Plantaginaceae Russelia equisetiformis Schltdl. & Cham. Flower: 173.1 µg total carotenoids/g DW (SM) [214]Flower: 31.6 mg GAE/g DW (SM) [214] Leaf: 26 phenolics (LC-MS) [418] Plumbaginaceae Limonium sinuatum (L.) Mill. Flower: 21.41 µg total carotenoids/g DW (SM) [214]; 3.2 µg total carotenoids/g DW, individual carotenoids (RRLC) [ 366 ] Flower: 34.2 mg GAE/g DW (SM) [235]; 5.6 to 61.4 mg GAE/g DW [ 315 ]; 31.5 mg GAE/g DW (SM) [ 214 ]; 2.0 mg total phenolics/g DW, individual phenolics (RRLC) [366]
Foods 2023,12, 4066 33 of 67 Table 2. Cont. Family [18] Species [18] Carotenoids Concentration/Quantification Technique Phenolics Concentration/Quantification Technique Plumbaginaceae Plumbago auriculata Lam. na Flower: 59.8 mg total phenolics/g DW, individual phenolics (RRLC) [366] Leaf: 24.3 mg GAE/g DW; 87.1 mg total flavonoid/g DW (SM) [318] Polygonaceae Fallopia aubertii (L. Henry) Holub Flower: 19.9 µg total carotenoids/g DW (SM) [214]; 3.7 and 5.4 µg total carotenoids/g DW, individual carotenoids (RRLC) [366] Whole plant: phytochemical screening [320] Flower: 66.3 mg GAE/g DW (SM) [214]; 1.7 and 2.7 mg total phenolics/g DW, individual phenolics (RRLC) [366] Whole plant: phytochemical screening [320] Polygonaceae Polygala vulgaris L. Flower: 29.5 µg total carotenoids/g DW (SM) [214]; 1.7 µg total carotenoids/g DW, individual carotenoids (RRLC) [ 366 ] Flower: 40.4 mg GAE/g DW (SM) [214]; 4.5 mg total phenolics/g DW, individual phenolics (RRLC) [366] Portulacaceae Portulaca oleracea L. Flower: 476.5 to 949.5 µ g total carotenoids/g DW (SM) [ 214 ]; 632.9 and 1012.4 µg total carotenoids/g DW, individual carotenoids (RRLC) [366] Arial part: 0.9 mg β-carotene/100 g FW, 5.5 mg total carotenoids/100 g FW [40]; 45.0 mg total carotenoids/100 g [324]; 18.9 to 36.5 mg total carotenoids/g DW [323] Flower: 2.0 to 88.4 mg GAE/g DW (SM) [214]; 4.3 mg total phenolics/g DW, individual phenolics (RRLC) [366] Whole plant: 14.1 mg GAE/g DW (SM) [367], 0.3 mg quercetin/100 g FW (HPLC), 82.7 mg GAE/100 g FW, 0.24 mg total anthocyanin/100 g FW (SM) [40] Arial part: 5.9 mg total phenolics/g [90]; 3.2 mg total phenolics/100 g, 6.2 mg total flavonoids/100 g, and other phenolics [324]; 56.2 to 142.2 mg GAE/g DW [323] Ranunculaceae Ranunculus asiaticus L. Flower: lutein and zeaxanthin (HPLC) [325] Flower: Individual flavonoids, anthocyanidin and flavonol aglucone (HPLC) [325] Rosaceae Fragaria ×ananassa (Duchesne ex Weston) Duchesne Flower: 7.2 µg total carotenoids/g DW (SM) [214] Flower: Anthocyanidins and flavonols/UHPLC-qTOF-MS [419]; 143.0 mg GAE/g DW (SM) [214]; 41.6 mg total phenolics/g DW, individual phenolics (RRLC) [366] Rosaceae Rosa hybrid Vill. Flower: 80.8 to 106.2 µg total carotenoids/g DW (SM) [214]; 33.2 and 64.2 µg total carotenoids/g DW, individual carotenoids (RRLC) [366] Flower: 2.6 mg GAE/g (SM), 880.0 mg homogentisic acid/100 g, 587.9 mg protocatechuic acid/100 g, 825.7 mg epicatechin/100 g (HPLC) [235]; quercetin and kaempferol compounds [329]; 106.3 to 153.4 mg GAE/g DW (SM) [214]; 7.8 to 19.2 mg total phenolics/g DW, individual phenolics (RRLC) [366] Rubiaceae Gardenia jasminoides J. Ellis Flower: 21.8 µg total carotenoids/g DW (SM) [214]; 6.9 µg total carotenoids/g DW, individual carotenoids (RRLC) [ 366 ] Flower: 29.6 mg GAE/g DW (SM) [214]; 1.9 mg total phenolics/g DW, individual phenolics (RRLC) [366] Leaf: 9.1 mg gallic acid/100 g DW, 141.0 mg catechin/100 g DW, 72.1 mg rutin hydrate/100 g DW, 19.1 mg quercetin/100 g DW (HPLC) [331] Whole plant: 17.3 mg GAE/g (SM) [367]
Foods 2023,12, 4066 34 of 67 Table 2. Cont. Family [18] Species [18] Carotenoids Concentration/Quantification Technique Phenolics Concentration/Quantification Technique Rubiaceae Ixora coccinea L. Flower: 387.9 µg total carotenoids/g DW (SM) [214] Flower: 9.5 mg GAE/g DW (SM) [214] Whole plant: 210.6 µg GAE/mg flower, 180.6 µg GAE/mg leaf, 100.3 µg GAE/mg stem [420] Rubiaceae Palicourea marcgravii A. St.-Hil. na na Rubiaceae Warszewiczia coccinea (Vahl) Klotszch Flower: 97.2 µg total carotenoids/g DW, individual carotenoids (RRLC) [366]Whole plant: 595.0 mg GAE/100 g DW (SM) [421] Solanaceae Capsicum annuum L. Flower: 482.6 µ g total carotenoids/g DW (SM) [ 214 ]; 139.7 µ g total carotenoids/g DW, individual carotenoids (RRLC) [ 366 ] Flower: 65.6 mg GAE/g DW (SM) [214]; 9.7 mg total phenolics/g DW, individual phenolics (RRLC) [366] Fruit: 1012.0 to 4135.5 µg GAE/g FW (SM) [42] Solanaceae Lycianthes rantonnetii (Carrière) Bitter na na Solanaceae Petunia ×hybrida Vilm. Flower: 0.1 to 35.8 µgβ-carotene/g FW, 0.0 to 13.9 µg lutein/g FW, and others (HPLC) [422]; 80.8 to 213.0 µg total carotenoids/g DW (SM) [214]; 9.1 µg total carotenoids/g DW, individual carotenoids (RRLC) [366] Flower: 30.2 to 48.9 mg GAE/g DW (SM) [214]; 4.8 mg total phenolics/g DW, individual phenolics (RRLC) [366] Solanaceae Solanum lycopersicum L. Flower: 748.1 µ g total carotenoids/g DW (SM) [ 214 ]; 88.1 µ g total carotenoids/g DW, individual carotenoids (RRLC) [ 366 ] Flower: 47.8 mg GAE/g DW (SM) [214]; 3.4 mg total phenolics/g DW, individual phenolics (RRLC) [366] Verbenaceae Aloysia citriodora Palau Flower: 50.4 µg total carotenoids/g DW (SM) [214]; 1.7 µg total carotenoids/g DW, individual carotenoids (RRLC) [ 366 ] Flower: 39.1 mg GAE/g DW (SM) [214]; 15.6 mg total phenolics/g DW, individual phenolics (RRLC) [366] Leaf: 260.0 to 350 µg GAE/g DW, 12.0 to 13.0 µg total flavonoids/g DW (SM) [353] Verbenaceae Lantana camara L. Flower: β-carotene [5]; 64.8 to 2056.1 µg total carotenoids/g DW, individual carotenoids (RRLC) [366] Flower: 0.1 mg GAE/g (SM), 56.1 mg catechin/100 g, 48.6 mg cyanidin-3-glucoside/100 g (HPLC) [235]; 10.9 to 22.5 mg total phenolics/g DW, individual phenolics (RRLC) [366] Leaf: 11.1 mg flavonoids/g, 917.6 mg polyphenol/100 g, 328.6 mg polyphenols/100 g [42] Stem: 3.29 mg flavonoids/100 g, 8.0 mg flavonoids/100 g [42] Verbenaceae Verbena ×hybrid Groenland & Rümpler Flower: 0.05 µg total carotenoids/g FW (SM) [143]; 13.3 to 74.2 µg total carotenoids/g DW (SM) [214]; 12.7 to 106.3 µg total carotenoids/g DW, individual carotenoids (RRLC) [ 366 ] Flower: 809.0 mg total phenolics/100 g FW (SM) [143]; 35.1 to 44.4 mg GAE/g DW (SM) [214]; 21.3 to 797.0 mg total phenolics/g DW, individual phenolics (RRLC) [366]
Foods 2023,12, 4066 35 of 67 Table 2. Cont. Family [18] Species [18] Carotenoids Concentration/Quantification Technique Phenolics Concentration/Quantification Technique Viola Viola ×wittrockiana Gams Flower: β-carotene, lycopene, and xanthophyll (FT-Raman) [423] Flower: Kaempferol, quercetin dihydrate, lutein, and other anthocyanins (FT-Raman) [423]; 64.0 mg total phenolics/g extract LC-DAD-ESI/MS [424]; 15.20 mg GAE/g DW, 2.3 mg total flavonoids/g, individual phenolics DW [307]; 5.1 g GAE/kg FW [180] Zingiberaceae Renealmia alpinia (Rottb.) Maas Flower: 3044.7 µg total carotenoids/g DW, individual carotenoids (RRLC) [366] Fruit: 9.2 mg GAE/g DW (MS), individual anthocyanin (HPLC) [365] Note: na, not available; DW: dry weight; FW, fresh weight; SM, Spectrophotometric method; GAE, gallic acid equivalents; QE, quercetin equivalent; RRLC, Rapid resolution liquid chromatography; HPLC, High performance liquid chromatography; MS, mass spectrometry; ESI, electrospray ionisation; TOF-MS, time-of-flight mass spectrometry; HPLC, High-performance liquid chromatography. Table 3. Some common carotenoids present in flowers. Carotenoids Edible Flowers Antheraxanthin Agapanthus africanus [366], Agastache foeniculum,Agastache rugosa [425], Calendula officinalis ‘Alice Orange’ [426], Calendula officinalis ‘Alice Yellow’, Camelia chrysantha [5], Campanula shetleri,Campanula carpatica,Capsicum annuum [366], Celosia cristata [35], Coriandrum sativum,Cuphea hyssopifolia,Diplotaxis tenuifolia,Eschscholzia californica, Fuchsia magellanica,Gazania spp. ‘Daybreak Orange’, Gazania spp. ‘Day Break Yellow’, Gentiana lutea [ 5 ], Gypsophila paniculate [ 366 ], Helianthus annuus ‘Sunrich Orange’ [ 5 ], Inula helenium [427], Lantana camara [366], Lilium spp. ‘Connecticut King’ [426], Lilium spp. ‘Montreux’, Lilium spp. ‘Saija’, Lilium tigrinum ‘Red Night’, Lily Connecticut king, Lotus japonicus [ 5 ], Malvaviscus arboreus [ 366 ], Mimulus lewisii,Minulus cupreus,Mimulus cardinalis,Minulus verbenacreus,Minulus guttatus,Minulus kelloggil,Mimulus jungermannioides [ 428 ], Momordica charantia,Narcissus poeticus ‘Florex Gold’ [ 5 ], Nicotiana glauca [ 5 ], Passiflora × belotti [ 366 ], Petunia × hybrida [ 429 ], Phalaenopsis aphrodite, Portulaca oleracea,Rosa × hybrida [ 366 ], Scaevola aemula,Solanum laxum [ 366 ], Tagetes erecta orange [ 430 ], Tagetes patula ‘Safari Tangerine’ [ 5 ], Tecoma capensis [ 366 ], Tropaeolum majus,Verbena ×hybrid,Viola tricolour [5], and Viola witrockiana ‘Pansy’ [307]. Astaxanthin Adonis aestivalis,Adonis annua,Gazania rigens,Gerbera jamesonii yellow, orange and red, Hieracium aurantiacum,Hieracum pilosella,Hypochoeris radicata, transgenic Lotus japonicus,Senecio scandens,Tagetes erecta yellow and orange [430], Tagetes patula [130]. Capsanthin Asiatic hybrid Lily, Lilium spp. ‘Saija’, Lilium spp. ‘Red Night’, Tiger Lily [5]. α-Carotene Acnutea ageratum,Agastache foeniculum,Agastache rugosa [425], Bidens ferulaefolia,Calendula officinalis, ‘Alice Orange’ and ‘Alice Yellow’ [5], Chrysanthemum carinatum, Chrysanthemum segetum,Coreopsis grandiflora,Coreopsis tinctoria,Coreopsis verticillate,Cosmidium brunette,Begonia argentea, twenty-three Dendranthema grandiflorum [110], Dimorphotheca aurantiaca,Helianthus decapitatis var. Loddon Gold, Helichrysum bracteatum,Hypericum perforatum [ 5 ], Hypochoeris radicata,Lantana camara [ 5 , 366 ], Lavandula angustifolia [366], Layia elegans,Layia platyglossa,Momordica charantia, Osmanthus Chenghong Dangui, Osmanthus fragrans [5], Osmanthus fragrans ‘Yanhong Gui’ [431], Passiflora ×belotti,Renealmia Alpinia [366], Rhododendron mole [432], Rudbeckia speciosum,Santolinas teretifolia,Santolinas viridis,Spathiphyllum montanum [366], Senecio scandens,Solidago sp., Tagetes erecta yellow and orange [430], Tagete patula [130], Taraxacum kok-saghyz,Tragopogon pratensis,Tropaeolum majus [5], Ursinia calenduliflora, Venidium decurrens,Zinnia elegans [433], Zinnia elegans ‘Dreamland Red’, and ‘Dreamland Yellow’ [433].
Foods 2023,12, 4066 36 of 67 Table 3. Cont. Carotenoids Edible Flowers β-Cryptoxanthin Camelia chrysantha [426], Canna indica [5], Cosmos bipinnatus, twenty-three Dendranthema grandiflorum [110], Eschscholzia California,Gentiana lutea [5], Gerbera jamesonii yellow, orange, and red, Hemerocallis disticha [5], Hieracium aurantiacum,Ipomoea sp. [5], Ipomoea obscura,Ipomoea nil,Lantana camara [5,366], Melampodium divaricatum, Mimulus tigrinus [ 5 ], Momordica charantia,Narcissus pseudonarcissus ‘King Alfred’, Nicotiana glauca,Pyrostegia venusta,Sandersonia aurantiaca,Tabebula chrysantha [ 5 ], Tagetes erecta,Tagetes erecta yellow and orange [430], Tagetes patula [130], Tecoma capensis [214], Tropaeolum majus [5], Zinnia elegans [214], Zinnia elegans ‘Dreamland Red’, and ‘Dreamland Yellow’ [433]. B-Carotene Adonis aestivalis,Agastache foeniculum,Agastache rugosa [ 425 ], Agastache anisate [ 214 ], Aglaonema commutatum,Allium schoenoprasum,Alyssum montanum [ 366 ], Antirrhinum majus ‘Snapdragon’ [307], Anthurium andreanum [214,366], Allamanda cathartica [5], Begonia argentea,Begonia cavaleriei [366], Borago officinalis [434], Boronia megastigma, Brassica oleraceae,Brownea macrophylla [366], nine Calendula officinalis [426], Calendula officinalis ‘Alice Orange’ [5], Calibrachoa ‘Million Bells Yellow’ [5], Camelia chrysantha [426], Campanula carpatica [366], Canna indica,Cannabis sativa,Capparis spinosa,Capsicum annuum [366], Carica papaya,Celosia argentea,Celosia cristata [366], Centaurea cyanus,Chlorophytum comossum,Coriandrum sativum [366], Cosmos bipinnatus, Multiflora chrysanthemum, Chrysanthemum morifolium [426], Crocus sativus, Cucurbita maxima,Cucumis sativus var. Anguria, Cuphea hyssopifolia [ 214 , 366 ], Cyclamen hederifolium,Cyclamen mirabile,Cyclamen persicum,Dahlia pinnata [ 366 ], twenty-three Dendranthema grandiflorum [110], Dianthus caryophyllus,Dimorphotheca aurantiaca,Diplotaxis tenuifolia,Drymonia affinis [366], Ethlingera elatior,Eustoma grandiflorum ‘Azuma-no-yuki’ and ‘Halley Lime’, Gazania ×hybrida [5], Gentiana lutea [5], Gerbera jamesonii yellow and orange [5], Guzmania hybrid,Gypsophila paniculate [214], Heliotropium peruvianum [ 366 ], Hemerocallis disticha,Hibiscus sabdariffa [ 435 ], Hieracium aurantiacum,Hieracium pilosella,Hypochoeris radicata,Hypericum perforatum,Ipomoea sp., Ipomoea obscura [5], Ipomoea nil,Inula helenium [427], Ipomoea obscura,Lagerstroemia indica [366], Lantana camara [5,366], Lavandula angustifolia [214,366], Lilium spp., Lilium spp. ‘Conneticut King’ [426], Lilium spp. ‘Montreux’, Limonium sinuatum [366], Lycium barbarum,Lycoris radiata,Lotus japonicus,Melampodium divaricatum, Mentha ×piperita [ 366 ], Mentha suaveolens [ 366 ], Mimulus cupreus,Mimulus trigrinus [ 5 ], Momordica charantia,Narcissus poeticus, ‘Scarlet Elegance’, Narcissus pseudonarcissus, ‘King Alfred’; Nelumbo lutea. ‘American Yellow’, Nicotiana glauca [ 5 ], Nicotiana tabacum [ 432 ], Ocimun basilicum [ 366 ], Osmanthus,Osmanthus fragrans [ 5 ], Osmanthus fragans ‘Yanhong Gui’ [ 431 ], Passiflora × belotti,Phalaenopsis aphrodite [ 214 , 366 ], Petunia ×hybrida [ 5 , 366 ], Portulaca oleracea [ 366 ], Pyrostegia venusta [ 5 ], Punica granatum [ 214 , 366 ], Renealmia alpinia [366], Rhododendron mole [432], Rosa hybrida [214,436], Rosa hybrida ‘Alister Stella’, Rose ‘American Pillar’, Rose canina,Rose ‘Golden Wings’, Rose moyesii, Rose pomífera,Rose rubrijoli,Rose rubiginosa,Rose ‘Saraband’, Russelia equisetiformis [366], Saccharum edule,Sandersonia aurantiaca,Senna paillosa [366], Senecio scandens, Solanum laxum [366], white Solanum lycopersicum,Solanum rantonnetii [366], Sophora japonica [214], Sphatiphyllum montanum [366], Tagetes erecta yellow and orange [430], Tagetes patula [130], Tobebuia chrysantha,Thumbergia alata [5], and Trifolium hybridum, orange and red Tropaeolum majus [437], Tulipa sp. ‘Golden Harvest’, Verbena ×hybrida [214], Viola tricolor,Viola witrockiana ‘Pansy’ [307], Vitex agnus-castus [366], Zinnia elegans,Zinnia elegans ‘Dreamland Red’, and ‘Dreamland Yellow’ [5,433].
Foods 2023,12, 4066 37 of 67 Table 3. Cont. Carotenoids Edible Flowers Lutein Agapanthus africanus,Agastache anisate [ 366 ], Agastache foeniculum,Agastache rugosa [ 425 ], Aglaonema commutatum [ 366 ], Allamanda cathartica [ 5 ], Allium schoenoprasum [ 366 ], Aloysia citrodora,Alyssum montanum,Anthurium andraeanum [366], Antirrhinum majus ‘Snapdragon’ [307], Aphelandra squarrosa,Begonia argentea [366], Begonia ×tuberhybrida,Boronia megastigma,Bidens ferulifolia,Bougainvillea spectabilis,Borago officinalis [434], Calendula officinalis ‘Alice Orange’ and ‘Alice Yellow’, Calibrachoa ‘Million Bells Yellow’ [ 5 ], Campanula carpatica [ 366 ], Campanula shertleri,Cannavis sativa [ 366 ], Capparis spinosa,Capsicum annuum [ 366 ], Capparis spinose,Canna indica [ 5 ], Cannabis sativa, red Catharanthus roseus,Celosia argentea,Celosia cristata [ 366 ], Centaurea cyanus,Chlorophytum comossum [ 366 ], Chrysanthemum spp., Sunny Orange Chrysanthemum, yellow Paragon Chrysanthemum morifolium [ 5 ], Cichorium intybus,Coeopsis grandiflora,Convolvulus scammonia,Coriandrum sativum [ 366 ], Cosmos bipinnatus, Cucumis sativas var. Anguria, Cuphea hyssopifolia [366], Cyclamen hederifolium,Cyclamen mirabile,Cyclamen persicum [438], twenty-three Dahlia pinnata [366], Dendranthema grandiflorum [ 110 ], Dianthus caryophyllus,Drymonia affinis [ 366 ], Drymonia sp., Escallonia rubra,Euonymus japonicus,Euphorbia milii,Eustoma,Eustoma grandiflorum,Eustoma grandiflorum ‘Azuma-no-yuki’ and ‘Halley Lime’, Fallopia aubertii,Fuchsia magellanica,Gladiolus communis,Gazania spp., ‘Day Break Yellow’ [ 5 ], Gentiana lutea [ 426 ], Gerbera jamesonii ‘Dancer’ [5], Gladiolus communis,Gossypium arboreum,Guzmania hybrid,Gypsophila paniculates [366], Helianthus annuus,Helianthus annuus ‘Sunrich Orange’ [5], Heliotropium peruvianum [366], Hemerocallis disticha [5], Hibiscus sabdariffa [435], Hibiscus syriacus,Hydrangea petiolaris,Impatiens balsamina,Impatiens walleriana,Inulina helenium [427], Ipomoea sp., Ipomoea nil,Ipomoea obscura [5], Ixora coccinea,Jasminum sambac,Kalanchoe blossfeldiana,Lagerstroemia indica [366], Lantana camara,Lavandula angustifolia [366], Lilium spp. [5], Lily connecticut, Lilium spp. ‘Cocceticut King’ [426], Lilium spp. ‘Montreux [5]‘, Lycoris radiata,Lotus japonicus,Malvaviscus arboreun, Mattiola incana,Melampodium divaricatum,Mentha ×piperita,Mentha suaveolens [366], Mirabilis jalapa,Momordica charantia,Narcissus poeticus ‘Scarlet Elegance’, Narcissus pseudonarcissus ‘King Alfred’, Narcissus pseudonarcissus [5], Nerium oleander,Nelumbo lutea, ‘American Yellow’, Nicotiana glauca [5], Nicotiana tabacum [432], Ocimun basilicum [366], Osmanthus jingui,Osteospermum ecklonis ‘Jury’, Osteospermun fruticosum,Papaver rhoeas,Passiflora ×belotti [366], Pelargonium ×domesticum, Pelargonium ×hortorum,Pelargonium peltatum,Petunia ×hybrida [5,366], Phalaenopsis aphrodite [366], Pterocaya stenoptera,Petunia ×hybrida [429], Plantago major,Polygala vulgaris,Punica grantum,Purtulaca oleracea [ 366 ], Pyrostegia venusta [ 5 ], Rhododendron mole [ 432 ], Rhododendron simsii,Rosa hybrida [ 366 ], Rose ‘American Pillar’, Rose ‘Golden Wings’, Rose moyesii,Rosmarinus officinalis,Rubiaceae warszewiczia,Russelia equisetiformis [366], Saintpaulia ionantha,Salvia splendens,Saponaria officinalis,Scaevola aemula, Senna alexandrina,Senna papillosa,Solanum laxum [366], Solanum lycopersicum ‘M82’ [5], Sophora japónica,Spathiphyllum montanum [366], Solanum lycopersicum,Solanum rantonnetii [366], Tabebuia chrysantha,Tagetes erecta [5], Lady Tagetes erecta,Tagetes patula [430], Tagetes patula ‘Safari Tangerine’ [5], Tecoma capensis,Trachelospermum jasminoides,Theretia peruviana,Thumbergia alata [5], Trachelospermum jasminoides,Trifolium cernnum,Trifolium hybridum,Tropaeolum majus [437], Tulipa sp. ‘Golden Harvest’ [5], Verbena ×hybrida [366], Viola tricolor,Viola witrockiana ‘Pansy’ [307], Vitex agnus-costus [366], Warszewiczia coccinea,Wuonymus japonicus,Wuphorbia milii, Zantedeschia hybrid ‘Florex Gold’, Zinnia elegans [433], Zinnia elegans ‘Dreamland Coral’, Zinnia elegans ‘Dreamland Red’, and ‘Dreamland Yellow ‘ [433]. Lutein epoxide Aglaonema commutatum [366], Anthemis tinctoria,Calendula officinalis, ‘Alice Orange’ and ‘Alice Yellow’ [5], Capsicum annuum [366], Chrysanthemum spp,Chrysanthemum morifolium, Multiplora chrysanthemum, Sunny Orange Chrysanthemum,Chrysanthemum morifolium, ‘Sunny Orange’ [5], Convolvulus scammonia,Cuphea hyssopifolia [366], Gazania spp. ‘Daybreak Orange’ [5], Guzmania hybrid [366], Diplotaxis tenuifolia,Gazania spp. ‘Day Break Yellow’, Hemerocallis disticha,Hibiscus rosa-sinensis,Hibiscus syriacus,Impatiens walleriana,Inulina helenium [427], Lantana camara [366], Malvaviscus arboreus,Mentha ×piperita,Mentha suaveolens [366], Narcissus poeticus ‘Scarlet Elegance’, Narcissus pseudonarcissus ‘King Alfred’, Ocimun basillicum,Phalaenopsis Aphrodite [ 366 ], Pterocaya stenoptera,Russelia equisetiformis [ 366 ], Scaevola aemula,Solanum laxum [366], Solanum lycopersicum,Solanum rantonnetii [366], Taraxacum officinalis,Tecoma capensis, and Tulipa sp. ‘Golden Harvest’. Lycopene Calendula officinalis ‘Alice Orange’ and ‘Alice Yellow’ [5], Begonia cavaleriei,Dimorphotheca aurantiaca,Gardenia jasminoide,Gazania spp. [5], Gazania rigens,Osteospermum ecklonis [5], Rose ‘American Pillar’, Rose canina,Rose moyesii,Rose pomífera,Rose rubrijoli,Rose rubiginosa, and Tagetes erecta.
Foods 2023,12, 4066 38 of 67 Table 3. Cont. Carotenoids Edible Flowers Neoxanthin Allamanda cathartica,Brassica napus [ 5 ], Capparis spinosa,Cosmos bipinnatus,Cyclamen hederifolium,Cyclamen mirabile,Cyclamen persicum [ 438 ], Eschscholzia California,Eustoma, Gentiana lutea [ 5 ], Gerbera jamesonii,Hemerocallis disticha [ 5 ], Hypericum perforatum,Ipomoea sp., Ipomoea nil,Ipomoea obscura,Lilium tigrinum ‘Red Night’, Lotus japonicus [ 5 ], Melampodium divaricatum,Mimulus lewisii,Mimulus cupreus,Mimulus cardianlis,Mimulus verbenaceus,Mimulus bigelovii,Mimulus bicolour,Mimulus torreyvi,Mimulus guttatus,Mimulus kelloggii,Mimulus jungermannioides [ 428 ], Nelumbo lutea ‘American Yellow’, Oncidium ‘Gower Ramsey’, Pyrostegia venusta, wild, old-gold [ 5 ], tangerine and yellow Solanum lycopersicum,Tabebuia chrysantha [5], Tagetes erecta ‘Orange Isis’, Theretia peruviana,Zinnia elegans [433], Zinnia elegans ‘Dreamland Red’, and ‘Dreamland Yellow’ [433]. Phytoene Begonia × semperflorens,Dianthus chinensis,Dimorphotheca aurantiaca,Gardenia jasminides,Gazania rigens,Guzmania hybrid [ 366 ], Hieracium aurantiacum,Impatiens balsamina, Lagerstroemia indica,Lantana camara yellow, red, and white [ 366 ], Lavandula angustifolia [ 366 ], Magnolia grandiflora,Osteospermun fruticosum,Punica granatum,Rosa × hybrida, pink and white [366], tangerine Solanum lycopersicum,Solanum rantonnetii [366], Tagetes erecta yellow and orange [430], Tagetes patula [130], Trifolium cernuum,Zinnia elegans [433], Zinnia elegans ‘Dreamland Red’, and ‘Dreamland Yellow’ [433]. Violaxanthin Agastache foeniculum,Agastache rugosa [425], Aglaonema commutatum [366], Allamanda cathartica,Allium schoenoprasum,Alyssum montanum [366], Anthemis tinctoria, Aphelandra squarrosa,Bougainvillea spectabilis,Brassica napus,Camelia chrysantha [426], yellow and orange Canna indica,Capparis spinosa,Capsicum annuum [366], Celosia cristata [ 35 ], Sunny Orange Chrysanthemum, Multiflora chrysanthemum, Chrysanthemum morifolium, ‘Sunny Orange’ [ 5 ], Cosmos bipinnatus,Cyclamen hederifolium,Cyclamen mirabile,Cyclamen persicum [ 438 ], Diplotaxis tenuifolia,Drymonia spp., Drymonia affinis [ 366 ], Eustoma grandiflorum ‘Azuma-no-yuki’ and ‘Halley Lime’, Dianthus caryophyllus, Gentiana lutea,Gazania spp. ‘Daybreak Orange’, Gazania spp. ‘Day Break Yellow’, [5]Helianthus annuus ‘Sunrich Orange’ [5], Hemerocallis disticha,Hypericum perforatum, Ipomea sp., Ipomea nil,Ipomoea obscura [5], Justicia aurea, red Lantana camara [366], Lilium spp., Lotus japonicus, yellow Lathyrus aphaca,Lilium spp. ‘Conneticut King’ [426], Lilium spp. ‘Montreux’, Melampodium divaricatum,Mentha ×piperita,Mentha suaveolens [366], Mimulus lewisii,Mimulus cupreus,Minulus cardinalis,Mimulus whitneyi, Mimulus verbenaceus,Mimulus bigelovii,Mimulus bicolor,Mimulus torreyl,Mimulus guttatus,Mimulus jungermaniodes [428], Nelumbo lutea ‘American Yellow’, Nicotiana glauca [5], Ocimun basilicum [366], Omcidium ‘Gower Ramsey’, Plantago major,Pterocaya stenoptera,Pyrostegia venusta [5], Senna papillosa [366], yellow Solanum lycopersicum [ 5 ], wild, old-gold, and tangerine Rosa hybrida, ‘Star of Persia’, Scaevola aemula,Solanum lycopersicum,Solanum rantonnetii [ 366 ], Spathiphyllum montanum [ 366 ], Tabebuia chrysantha [5], Tagetes erecta ‘Orange Isis’, Gerbera jamesonii,Tagetes patula ‘Safari Tangerine’ [5], Theretia peruviana,Thumbergia alata,Tropaeolum majus, Verbena ×hybrida [366], Viola tricolor,Viola wittrockiana [307], Zinnia elegans [5], Warszewiczia coccinea,Zinnia elegans ‘Dreamland Coral’, ‘Dreamland Red’, and ‘Dreamland Yellow’ [433]. Zeaxanthin Agastache foeniculum,Agastache rugosa [ 425 ], Allamanda cathartica [ 5 ], Antirrhinum majus ‘Snapdragon’ [ 307 ], Brassica oleraceae,Canna indica [ 5 ], Cosmos bipinnatus,Cucurbita maxima,Crocus sativus,Cucumis sativus var. Anguria, twenty-three Dendranthema grandiflorum [ 110 ], Dianthus caryophyllus,Eustoma [ 5 ], Gaillardia × grandiflora,Gazania spp. ‘Daybreak Orange’, Gazania spp. ‘Day Break Yellow [ 5 ]‘, Gazania × hybrida,Gentiana lutea [ 5 ], Gerbera jamesonii,Helianthus annuus, ‘Sunrich Orange’, Hemerocallis disticha [ 5 ], Hibiscus rosa-sinensis,Hypericum perforatum,Ipomoea sp. [ 5 ], Ipomoea nil,Ipomoea obscura [ 5 ], Lantana camara [ 366 ], Lycium barbarum,Lycoris radiata,Melampodium divaricatum, Momordica charantia,Narcissus poeticus ‘Scarlet Elegance’, Narcissus pseudonarcissus ‘King Alfred’ [5], Nicotiana tabacum [432], Petunia ×hybrida,Pyrostegia venusta [5], Rhododendron mole [ 432 ], Rose moyesii,Rose pomífera,Sandersonia aurantiaca [ 5 ], Senecio scanders, high-pigment 3 (hp3), Solanum lycopersicum,Tabebuia chrysantha [ 5 ], Tagetes erecta [430], Tagetes patula ‘Safari Tangerine’, Theretia peruviana,Tropaeolum majus [5], Viola witrockiana ‘Pansy’ [307], Zinnia elegans [433], Zinnia elegans ‘Dreamland Coral’ [5], ‘Dreamland Red’, and ‘Dreamland Yellow’ [433].
Foods 2023,12, 4066 39 of 67 2. Conceptualization 2.1. Use of Flowers for Therapeutic and Nutritional Purposes throughout History The use of flowers in food and medicine has a long history dating back to antiquity. The earliest records of these uses date back to 4000 BC in Mesopotamian and Egyptian cultures [ 439 ]. An emblematic example of the traditional use of a flower for medicinal purposes is chamomile (Chamomilla recutita L.), whose dried flowers have been used since ancient times to treat menstrual disorders, insomnia, ulcers, haemorrhoids, and other ailments [ 440 ]. Similarly, cannabis (Cannabis sativa L.), known for its soothing and anticonvulsant properties, has been used therapeutically in many cultures. This plant was even included in the British and later American pharmacopoeia but was eliminated in the 20th century because of concerns about the risk of abuse and intoxication [ 441 ]. Similarly, flowers of the Asteraceae family (Achillea millefolium L., Arnica montana L., Bellis perennis L., Calendula officinalis L., Chamaemelum nobile (L.) All., Helichrysum stoechas (L.) Moench, and Taraxacum officinale L.) have been traditionally used in folk medicine for various therapeutic purposes [442]. Around 180 plant species belonging to 97 families have been reported as producing edible flowers [ 3 ]. The use of flowers in gastronomy is documented in various cultures, such as Roman, Greek, Chinese, Indian, and Central European [ 443 , 444 ], where they are used to enhance both the presentation and nutritional value of food. In ancient Rome, several roses were often used in omelettes and purées. In mediaeval France, marigolds were a common ingredient in salads. The stigmas of the saffron flower are one of the most commonly used colouring and flavouring agents in cooking. Similarly, violet petals were used to make sweets and colour sugar, while dandelion flowers were used in drinks and salads [ 12 ]. Furthermore, in the Mediterranean diet, some commonly consumed vegetables are flowers, such as artichokes, capers, broccoli, or cauliflower. Worldwide, edible flowers such as pansy, marigold, borage, nasturtium, mini rose, torenia, mini daisy, cosmos, clitoria, craving, begonia, sunflower, snapdragon, and squash blossom are appreciated and consumed in different countries such as Brazil, the United States, France, Italy, Portugal, China, and Japan [4]. Nowadays, thanks mainly to globalisation, the use of flowers in gastronomy is growing steadily (Figure 1). The inclusion of flowers in the culinary creations of renowned innovative chefs has attracted great attention in this field, leading to the emergence of companies specialising in producing flowers for this booming market [ 445 ]. Although flowers are now widely used as condiments, decorative elements, or for flavouring dishes, their potential as a source of nutrients or other valuable nutritional compounds must be further explored [ 446 ]. It is important to note that although there are several reviews documenting the use of many flowers as food or for therapeutic purposes [ 12 , 444 , 447 ]. To date, no official list of edible flowers has been developed, and no specific legislation on their use and applicability has been established by international bodies such as the FAO, WHO, FDA, or EFSA. As interest in the culinary use of flowers grows, an informed and responsible approach is needed to ensure their safety and sustainably exploit their nutritional and medicinal potential. 2.2. Post-Harvest Treatments Applied to Flowers Thanks to the undoubted increase in demand for edible flowers, there is a growing body of research on how to extend their shelf life and improve their overall quality by enhancing post-harvest treatments [2,448,449]. This could benefit our health and improve their industrial development [ 2 ]. However, nowadays, despite their short life (early petal abscission and discoloration, flower wilt, dehydration, and tissue browning), edible flowers are usually sold fresh and chilled without any other postharvest treatment. In addition to refrigeration, other common post-harvest methods include crystallisation, freeze-drying, sugar canning, and preservation in distillates [4,450].
Foods 2023,12, 4066 40 of 67 Foods 2023, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 51 of 80 Figure 1. Parts of the plant used in food (A) and frequency of use in different dishes (B). 2.2. Post-Harvest Treatments Applied to Flowers Thanks to the undoubted increase in demand for edible flowers, there is a growing body of research on how to extend their shelf life and improve their overall quality by enhancing post-harvest treatments [2,448,449]. This could benefit our health and improve their industrial development [2]. However, nowadays, despite their short life (early petal abscission and discoloration, flower wilt, dehydration, and tissue browning), edible flowers are usually sold fresh and chilled without any other postharvest treatment. In addition to refrigeration, other common post-harvest methods include crystallisation, freeze-dry- ing, sugar canning, and preservation in distillates [4,450]. Several new food preservation technologies have been investigated to increase the shelf life of edible flowers. Among them are high hydrostatic pressure (HHP), irradiation, ultraviolet, ionising radiation, and new packaging alternatives [2,4]. On the other hand, other studies have evaluated how post-harvest treatments can affect bioactive compounds present in edible plants. For example, it has been shown that freeze-drying decreases the loss of carotenoids (in daylilies and marigolds), caffeic acid derivatives, and total phenolics (in purple coneflower) compared to hot-air drying [451–453]. 2.3. Forms of Consumption Edible flowers are mainly used fresh as decoration or a garnish for some meals, such as salads or light curry, adding colour and fragrance. In addition, they are also used for other culinary purposes, such as ingredients in bread, pancakes, sauces, jellies, syrups, vinegar, honey, oils, soups, infusions, flower-scented sugars, candied flowers, cheeses, ice cream, crisps, juices, rice, cakes, butter, pasta, wine, and flavoured liqueurs. Edible flowers can even be consumed dried, in ice cubes in cocktails, directly as vegetables, or in stirfried dishes [3,4,12,454]. The flowers are typically eaten whole, but there are some species of which only some parts are adequate for consumption. For example, some parts of flowers are too bitter, such as the white parts of the roses and the base of the chrysanthemum petals, or too rough, such as some parts of the blueweed (Echium vulgare L.). Other examples of flowers that are not eaten whole include tulips (Tulipa spp.) and chrysanthemums (Chrysanthemum) (only the petals are consumed), daisies (Bellis perennis L.) and garden nasturtium (Tropaeolum majus L.) (only the flower buds), and pumpkins (Cucurbita spp.) (only the tiny and undeveloped fruits with flowers) [12,444]. Information about the use of flowers for food is summarised in Table 1. Figure 1. Parts of the plant used in food (A) and frequency of use in different dishes (B). Several new food preservation technologies have been investigated to increase the shelf life of edible flowers. Among them are high hydrostatic pressure (HHP), irradiation, ultraviolet, ionising radiation, and new packaging alternatives [ 2 , 4 ]. On the other hand, other studies have evaluated how post-harvest treatments can affect bioactive compounds present in edible plants. For example, it has been shown that freeze-drying decreases the loss of carotenoids (in daylilies and marigolds), caffeic acid derivatives, and total phenolics (in purple coneflower) compared to hot-air drying [451–453]. 2.3. Forms of Consumption Edible flowers are mainly used fresh as decoration or a garnish for some meals, such as salads or light curry, adding colour and fragrance. In addition, they are also used for other culinary purposes, such as ingredients in bread, pancakes, sauces, jellies, syrups, vinegar, honey, oils, soups, infusions, flower-scented sugars, candied flowers, cheeses, ice cream, crisps, juices, rice, cakes, butter, pasta, wine, and flavoured liqueurs. Edible flowers can even be consumed dried, in ice cubes in cocktails, directly as vegetables, or in stir-fried dishes [ 3 , 4 , 12 , 454 ]. The flowers are typically eaten whole, but there are some species of which only some parts are adequate for consumption. For example, some parts of flowers are too bitter, such as the white parts of the roses and the base of the chrysanthemum petals, or too rough, such as some parts of the blueweed (Echium vulgare L.). Other examples of flowers that are not eaten whole include tulips (Tulipa spp.) and chrysanthemums (Chrysanthemum) (only the petals are consumed), daisies (Bellis perennis L.) and garden nasturtium (Tropaeolum majus L.) (only the flower buds), and pumpkins (Cucurbita spp.) (only the tiny and undeveloped fruits with flowers) [ 12 , 444 ]. Information about the use of flowers for food is summarised in Table 1. 2.4. Relevant Compounds with an Interest in Nutrition, Health Promotion, and Cosmetics Using flowers as food is not exclusively for aesthetic reasons; the nutritional contribution should also be considered. Flowers provide important elements for nutrition and health. Some flowers contain proteins, fats, carbohydrates, vitamins A, B, C, and E, mineral elements, and bioactives [ 447 ]. The concentration of minerals in flowers is such that, taking into account the Dietary Reference Intakes for an adult for magnesium (375 mg/day), phosphorus (700 mg/day), and potassium (2000 mg/day), it can be concluded that the consumption of some edible flowers could help to meet these daily requirements [ 444 ], although the boiling process of some flowers significantly reduces the mineral concentration [455]. The presence of compounds with nutritional interest differs across floral structures. Pollen has high concentrations of proteins, amino acids, carbohydrates, and lipids, among
Foods 2023,12, 4066 41 of 67 other nutrients. Nevertheless, the amount of pollen in the flower is very small, and in addition, it has a flat taste without individual characteristics. Nectar, which typically has a sweet taste, contains a balanced mixture of sugars (fructose, glucose, and sucrose), amino acids (mainly prolin), proteins, inorganic ions, lipids, organic acids, alkaloids, etc. Lastly, the petals and the rest of the flower may also be significant sources of vitamins, minerals, and bioactive compounds [12,444]. Although before 2000, studies on edible flowers focused mainly on their nutrients, recent research has revealed the importance of studying compounds with bioactive properties. Phenolic compounds (flavonols, flavones, anthocyanins, and phenolic acids) and carotenoids are among the main bioactive compounds. The concentration of carotenoids and phenolic compounds in plants is detailed in Table 2, while the techniques used for quantification are shown in Figure 2. For both carotenoids (60.8%) and phenolics (54.4%), spectrophotometric techniques have been used. In the case of carotenoids, the focus has been on the study of leaves, while phenols have been studied in flowers. In addition, the chromatographic techniques used for carotenoids were mainly RRLC (55.0%) and HPLC (35%), while for phenols, the main techniques were HPLC (44.9%) and UHPLC (28.6%). In addition, information about carotenoids and phenolic compounds present in flowers is summarised in Tables 3and 4, respectively. Foods 2023, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 52 of 80 2.4. Relevant Compounds with an Interest in Nutrition, Health Promotion, and Cosmetics Using flowers as food is not exclusively for aesthetic reasons; the nutritional contribution should also be considered. Flowers provide important elements for nutrition and health. Some flowers contain proteins, fats, carbohydrates, vitamins A, B, C, and E, mineral elements, and bioactives [447]. The concentration of minerals in flowers is such that, taking into account the Dietary Reference Intakes for an adult for magnesium (375 mg/day), phosphorus (700 mg/day), and potassium (2000 mg/day), it can be concluded that the consumption of some edible flowers could help to meet these daily requirements [444], although the boiling process of some flowers significantly reduces the mineral concentration [455]. The presence of compounds with nutritional interest differs across floral structures. Pollen has high concentrations of proteins, amino acids, carbohydrates, and lipids, among other nutrients. Nevertheless, the amount of pollen in the flower is very small, and in addition, it has a flat taste without individual characteristics. Nectar, which typically has a sweet taste, contains a balanced mixture of sugars (fructose, glucose, and sucrose), amino acids (mainly prolin), proteins, inorganic ions, lipids, organic acids, alkaloids, etc. Lastly, the petals and the rest of the flower may also be significant sources of vitamins, minerals, and bioactive compounds [12,444]. Although before 2000, studies on edible flowers focused mainly on their nutrients, recent research has revealed the importance of studying compounds with bioactive properties. Phenolic compounds (flavonols, flavones, anthocyanins, and phenolic acids) and carotenoids are among the main bioactive compounds. The concentration of carotenoids and phenolic compounds in plants is detailed in Table 2, while the techniques used for quantification are shown in Figure 2. For both carotenoids (60.8%) and phenolics (54.4%), spectrophotometric techniques have been used. In the case of carotenoids, the focus has been on the study of leaves, while phenols have been studied in flowers. In addition, the chromatographic techniques used for carotenoids were mainly RRLC (55.0%) and HPLC (35%), while for phenols, the main techniques were HPLC (44.9%) and UHPLC (28.6%). In addition, information about carotenoids and phenolic compounds present in flowers is summarised in Tables 3 and 4, respectively. Figure 2. Study the distribution of carotenoids (A) and phenolic compounds (B) in different parts of the plant using spectrophotometric (ST) and chromatographic techniques (CT). Figure 2. Study the distribution of carotenoids ( A ) and phenolic compounds ( B ) in different parts of the plant using spectrophotometric (ST) and chromatographic techniques (CT). Table 4. Some common phenolics present in flowers. Phenolics Edible Flowers Chlorogenic acid Alyssum montanum,Anthemis tinctoria,Calendula officinalis [101], Campanula portenschlagiana,Carica papaya,Ceiba speciosa [ 279 ], Celosia cristata [ 214 ], Dahlia anemome,Ethlingera elatior,Fragaria × ananassa, Gossypium arboretum [366], Helianthus annuus [456], Heliotropium peruvianum [366], Ixora parviflora, Lycoris radiata,Malus ‘Royalty’ [ 457 ], Malus micromahus ‘Makino’, Malus ‘Pink spire’, Malus ‘Sparkler’, Malus ‘Strawberry Parfait’, Nerium oleander,Pelargonium peltatum,Pterocarya stenoptera [366], Rosa hybrida ‘Scarlet’, Saccharum edule,Solanum laxum,Tecoma stans [ 214 ], Trachelospermum jasminoides [ 366 ]. Caffeic acid Calendula officinalis [ 101 ], Carica papaya,Celosia cristata [ 214 ], Convolvulus althaeoides,Ethlingera elatior, Guzmania hybrid [366], Helianthus annuus [456], Hydrangea petiolaris,Ixora javanica,Lavandula angustifolia,Lycoris radiata,Ocimun basilicum,Pelargonium ×hortorum,Pelargonium peltatum [366], Portulaca oleracea [214], Saccharum edule,Salvia splendens,Trachelospermum jasminoides [366]. Ferulic acid Carica papaya,Catharanthus roseus,Dahlia anemone,Ethlingera elatior,Gardenia jasminoide [366], Helianthus annnuus [456], Ixora javanica,Lycoris radiata,Nerium oleander,Saccharum edule [366].
Foods 2023,12, 4066 48 of 67 2.7.3. Flowers and Dying Fabrics The replacement of synthetic dyes with more natural alternatives in textiles is gaining acceptance to reduce the negative environmental impacts and toxicity associated with the latter. Besides, some natural extracts can exhibit properties (antioxidative, antimicrobial, UV-light absorption, etc.), which can be interesting for developing functional fabrics with added value. The application of natural dyes in the textile industry is gaining popularity due to the increasing awareness of the environmental, ecological, and pollution caused by synthetic dyes. Different conditions of pH, temperature, salt, time, chemical levels, and biomordants have been tested for the dying of wool with rose flowers. As a result, different colour hues were obtained, some with good colour strength. [ 482 ]. Kigelia africana flowers have also been studied as possible materials for the functional colouration of textile materials, with promising results in terms of fastness, colour strength, antibacterial, antioxidant, and UV-protection properties [483]. 2.7.4. Other Potential Uses Waste jasmine flowers have recently been tested to produce bioethanol mediated by immobilised yeasts. Pretreatments that included alkalinisation, heating, and enzymatic hydrolysis were evaluated to favour the accessibility of the carbohydrate fraction, and response surface methodology was applied to assess the interactions of different variables to better understand the bioethanol yield [484]. Saffron purple petals have been evaluated as a possible environmental-friendly additive for bentonite-based drilling fluids, and significant enhanced rheological, filtration, and corrosion protection properties were observed. Drilling fluids are circulated in boreholes to help perform an efficient drilling operation with minimal damage to prospective formations [485]. Porous carbon nanosheets have been obtained from the carbonisation of a paper flower. The materials exhibited interesting properties for their potential use in energy storage and dye removal [486]. 3. Conclusions and Future Recommendations Flowers have played a fundamental role in human culture over the centuries, finding value in both their aesthetic appeal and their nutritional and therapeutic properties. A vivid example of this duality is theprized Tagetes erecta, whose flowers are commercially exploited both for their exquisite ornamental beauty and for their remarkable lutein content, a valuable carotenoids widely used in industry as a dye and as a key component of healthpromoting dietary supplements. In a similar context, the flowers of Renealmia alpinia have emerged as botanical gems, standing out as rich sources of provitamin A carotenoids such as α - and β -carotene [ 9 , 366 ]. This discovery has led to growing interest both in the culinary field, where they are used to enrich dishes, and in the search for health-promoting bioactive compounds [ 3 , 6 , 444 ]. However, it is important to recognise that while flowers offer a wealth of benefits, some of them contain potentially toxic compounds, which means that their use in gastronomy and therapy must be approached with caution. One particularly promising aspect is the medicinal potential of a group of 115 species of flowers, all of which have properties that suggest their usefulness in the treatment of various conditions. This opens an exciting field of research where new molecules may be discovered. However, they can also be used for other purposes at different points in their life cycles, including as phytoremediators [ 480 ], dying agents for textiles [ 483 ], or feedstocks for bioethanol production, among others [ 484 ]. Although recent research on these topics is promising to pave the way for the circular use of flowers to produce sustainable and health-promoting foods, there is still a long way to go. Of course, lifecycle assessments must be performed, and more scientific evidence is required to bridge the gap between traditional uses, safety, and mechanical effects. Some questions remain, such as:
Foods 2023,12, 4066 49 of 67 - How bioavailable are health-promoting compounds from flowers? And how do post-harvest, industrial, or culinary treatments affect such bioavailability? Can ingesting large amounts of flowers significantly raise plasma and tissue levels of healthpromoting compounds? - Can post-harvest, industrial, or culinary treatments make potentially toxic flowers edible? Can biorefinery approaches be used to obtain added-value products from potentially toxic flowers? - What plants can be used for phytoremediation and to provide health-promoting rich flowers without posing health risks due to excessive accumulation of pollutants in edible parts? - What amount of floral waste is necessary for its alternative circular use to be economically viable? How can smaller amounts of waste be used alternatively? - What floral species can be used to cultivate areas with harsh edaphoclimatic conditions and/or enrich biodiversity by attracting pollinators? Author Contributions: Conceptualization, E.C.-C., A.J.M.-M. and M.C.; methodology, P.M.-B.; software, G.M. investigation, M.M. and M.V.; resources, E.C.-C. and A.J.M.-M.; writing—original draft preparation, E.C.-C.; writing—review and editing, E.C.-C.; supervision, A.J.M.-M., I.M.V. and P.R.-S.; project administration, E.C.-C. and A.J.M.-M.; funding acquisition, E.C.-C. and A.J.M.-M. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript. Funding: This research was funded by the Ecuadorian Corporation for the Development of Research and the Academy CEDIA within the CEPRA-XIII-2019-09-Flores Project “Caracterización físicoquímica y pruebas de bioactividad de especies florales andinas con potencial alimenticio y efecto preventive de ciertas enfermedades humanas ”; the Spanish State Secretariat of Research, Development and Innovation (Ministry of Economy and Competitiveness (CaRed, BIO2015-71703-REDT) and the Spanish Ministry of Economy, Industry, and Competitiveness (CaRed, BIO2017-90877-REDT); the Ibero-American Programme for Science, Technology and Development (CYTED, http://www. cyted.org) for the funding of the IBERCAROT network (http://carotenoides.us.es/ref.112RT445) and USFQ-COCIBA grants. Data Availability Statement: The datasets generated for this study are available on request to the corresponding author. Acknowledgments: PMB holds a postdoctoral contract within the framework of the Aid Program for the recruitment, incorporation, and mobility of human capital in R+D+I, an action financed by the Consejería de Transformación Económica, Industria, Conocimiento, and Universidades de la Junta de Andalucía (Ref. POSTDOC_21_00352). Conflicts of Interest: A.J.M.-M. carries out consultancy work for agro-food, cosmetic, and biotechnological companies. The remaining authors declare no conflict of interest concerning this study. References 1. De-Ron, A.; Martínez, A. Geología y Biología; Madrid, España, 2003; ISBN 84-665-1891-6. Available online: https://books.google. es/books?id=D13gGEL1ZhwC&lpg=PA18&dq=c%C3%B3mo%20se%20define%20una%20planta%20ornamental&hl=es&pg= PA18#v=onepage&q=c%C3%B3mo%20se%20define%20una%20planta%20ornamental&f=false (accessed on 8 October 2023). 2. Fernandes, L.; Saraiva, J.A.; Pereira, J.A.; Casal, S.; Ramalhosa, E. Post-Harvest Technologies Applied to Edible Flowers: A Review: Edible Flowers Preservation. Food Rev. Int. 2019,35, 132–154. [CrossRef] 3. Lu, B.; Li, M.; Yin, R. Phytochemical Content, Health Benefits, and Toxicology of Common Edible Flowers: A Review (2000–2015). Crit. Rev. Food Sci. Nutr. 2016,56, S130–S148. [CrossRef] [PubMed] 4. Barros, L.; Sarmento, K.; Bisconsin-Junior, A.; Santos, J.; Magnani, M.; Rodriguez, I.; Rodrigo, N.; Tiengo, A.; Maróstica, M. The Use of Alternative Food Sources to Improve Health and Guarantee Access and Food Intake. Food Res. Int. 2021 ,149, 110709. [CrossRef] 5. Ohmiya, A. Diversity of Carotenoid Composition in Flower Petals. JPN Agric. Res. Q. 2011,45, 163–171. [CrossRef] 6. Pires, T.; Dias, M.; Barros, L.; Calhelha, R.; Alves, M.; Oliveira, M.; Santos-Buelga, C.; Ferreira, I. Edible Flowers as Sources of Phenolic Compounds with Bioactive Potential. Food Res. Int. 2018,105, 580–588. [CrossRef] 7. Del-Rio, D.; Rodriguez-Mateos, A.; Spencer, J.; Tognolini, M.; Borges, G.; Crozier, A. Dietary (Poly)Phenolics in Human Health: Structures, Bioavailability, and Evidence of Protective Effects against Chronic Diseases. Antioxid. Redox Signal. 2013 ,18, 1818–1892. [CrossRef]
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