Are E-micromobilities revolutionizing urban transport? A valorization of how culture influences mode of transport choice.

FACULTAD DE TURISMO Y FINANZAS GRADO EN TURISMO ARE E-MICROMOBILITIES REVOLUTIONIZING URBAN TRANSPORT? A VALORIZATION OF HOW CULTURE INFLUENCES MODE OF TRANSPORT CHOICE Trabajo Fin de Grado presentado por Julia Hümpfner, siendo la tutora del mismo la profesora Dra. Dª. Reyes González Relaño. Vº. Bº. del Tutor/a/es/as: Alumno/a: D./Dña. D./Dña. Sevilla. Junio de 2022 GRADO EN TURISMO FACULTAD DE TURISMO Y FINANZAS TRABAJO FIN DE GRADO CURSO ACADÉMICO [2021-2022] TÍTULO: ARE E-MICROMOBILITIES REVOLUTIONIZING URBAN TRANSPORT? A VALORIZATION OF HOW CULTURE INFLUENCES MODE OF TRANSPORT CHOICE AUTOR: Julia Hümpfner TUTOR: Dra. Dª. Reyes González Relaño DEPARTAMENTO: GEOGRAFÍA FÍSICA Y ANÁLISIS GEOGRÁFICO REGIONAL ÁREA DE CONOCIMIENTO: ANÁLISIS GEOGRÁFICO REGIONAL ABSTRACT: E-scooters, e-mopeds, e-bikes, are rising as an alternative more sustainable mode of urban transport, they are expected to have great potential to reduce pollution and to substitute motorized vehicles for short commutes. E-micromobilities are expected to play an important role in tourist destinations fighting massive overcrowding and congestion of existing transport infrastructure. The objective of this paper is to explore a new perspective in the discussion of mode of transport choice by introducing the method of cultural analysis to understand the influence of culture. A survey was conducted in 3 cities (Munich, Seville, Kaohsiung) to analyse university students´ use and perception of urban transport means and explore their acceptance of e-micromobilities as future tourists based on their culture. Despite the cities´ geographic and socio-geographic characteristics there are other factors such as culture that might influence mode of transport choice more. The main results confirm, based on the sample, that sustainable mode of transport choice is positively related to Inglehart´s classification of cultures as modern/postmodern. As such the analysis indicates that respondents in Munich and Seville will be more accepting of e-micromobilities. Future research is recommended. Grado en Turismo Facultad de Turismo y Finanzas – Universidad de Sevilla - 2 - KEY WORDS: Sustainable Non-motorized Urban Mobility; Tourist Movement in Cities; Cultural Dimensions and Values: Theories of Hofstede and Inglehart; Statistical Analysis; Case Study: Munich, Seville, Kaohsiung TÍTULO: ¿ESTÁN REVOLUCIONANDO LAS E-MICROMOVILIDADES EL TRANSPORTE URBANO? UNA VALORIZACIÓN DE LA INFLUENCIA DE LA CULTURA EN LA ELECCIÓN DEL MEDIO DE TRANSPORTE RESUMEN: Los patinetes, motos y bicicletas eléctricas están emergiendo como el medio de transporte urbano alternativo más sostenible. Estudios recientes analizan su gran potencial de uso por su contribución a la reducción de contaminación y como sustitutos de los medios de transporte motorizados para los desplazamientos cortos. Además, las e-micromovilidades tendrán un papel importante en los destinos turísticos que están luchando contra la aglomeración y la congestión de la infraestructura de transporte. Este trabajo tiene como objetivo explorar una nueva perspectiva en el debate de la elección del medio de transporte introduciendo el análisis cultural como variable relevante. Se ha realizado una encuesta en tres ciudades de características diversas (Múnich, Sevilla, Kaohsiung) para analizar el uso y la percepción de la movilidad urbana entre los estudiantes universitarios y explorar su comportamiento, como futuros turistas, hacia las e-micromovilidades en base a su cultura. Los resultados indican que, a pesar de las características geográficas y socio-geográficas de las ciudades, hay otros factores como la cultura que posiblemente influyan la elección del medio de transporte. Se confirma que la elección del medio de transporte sostenible está positivamente relacionada con la clasificación rasgos modernista/postmodernista de la cultura, atendiendo a las teorías de Inglehart. Así, el análisis indica que los encuestados en Múnich y Sevilla aceptarán mejor las e-micromovilidades como medio de transporte para desplazamientos cortos. Se recomienda continuar avanzando en esta línea de investigación. PALABRAS CLAVE: Movilidad Urbana Sostenible y no-motorizada; Desplazamiento de turistas en ciudades; Dimensiones y valores culturales: Teorías de Hofstede e Inglehart; Análisis estadístico; Múnich, Sevilla, Kaohsiung TFG - Grado en Turismo. Are E-Micromobilities Revolutionizing Urban Transport? A Valorization of how Culture Influences Mode of Transport Choice. - I - INDEX 1 INTRODUCTION: TOURISM AND URBAN MOBILITY .......................................... 3 2 OBJECTIVES & METHODOLOGY ........................................................................ 5 2.1 OBJECTIVES ................................................................................................. 5 2.2 METHODOLOGY ........................................................................................... 5 3 TRANSPORT IN ASIA AND EUROPE ................................................................... 9 3.1 CHARACTERISTICS OF URBAN TRANSPORT IN ASIA .............................. 9 3.2 CHARACTERISTICS OF URBAN TRANSPORT IN EUROPE...................... 10 3.3 FUTURE TRENDS OF URBAN MOBILITY: E- MICROMOBILITIES ............. 10 3.3.1 Challenges and Solutions ...................................................................... 10 3.3.2 The Role of Micromobilities .................................................................... 11 3.3.3 The Desirability of E-Micromobilities ...................................................... 12 4 INDIVIDUALS AND THEIR PREDISPOSITION FOR MICROMOBILITIES .......... 13 4.1 CULTURAL DIMENSIONS: BASED ON HOFSTEDE ................................... 13 4.1.1 Innovation and Hofstede ........................................................................ 14 4.1.2 Brand Personality and Hofstede ............................................................ 14 4.1.3 Hypothesis: Micromobilities and Hofstede ............................................. 15 4.2 MODERNIZATION THEORY: INGLEHART .................................................. 15 4.2.1 Sharing Economy and Inglehart ............................................................. 16 4.2.2 Hypothesis: Micromobilities and Inglehart .............................................. 16 4.3 PACE OF LIFE ............................................................................................. 18 4.3.1 Digitalisation and Pace of Life ................................................................ 18 4.3.2 Hypothesis: Micromobilities and Pace of Life ......................................... 18 4.4 FUTURE TOURISTS: GENERATION Z REPLACING MILLENNIALS .......... 19 5 CITIES AND MICROMOBILITIES ........................................................................ 21 5.1 MUNICH ....................................................................................................... 22 5.2 SEVILLE ....................................................................................................... 24 5.3 KAOHSIUNG ................................................................................................ 28 6 CULTURE AND MODE OF TRANSPORT CHOICE ............................................ 33 6.1 DOMINANT MODES OF TRANSPORT ........................................................ 33 Hümpfner, Julia - II - 6.2 CONVENIENT URBAN MOBILITY: THE PUBLIC TRANSPORTATION NETWORK .............................................................................................................. 34 6.3 CULTURE AND SUSTAINABLE MODE OF TRANSPORT CHOICE ............ 37 6.4 E-MICROMOBILITIES AS A MODE OF TRANSPORT ................................. 40 7 CONCLUSION ..................................................................................................... 43 TFG - Grado en Turismo. Are E-Micromobilities Revolutionizing Urban Transport? A Valorization of how Culture Influences Mode of Transport Choice. - 3 - 1 INTRODUCTION: TOURISM AND URBAN MOBILITY Tourism is defined as “the movement of people to countries or places outside their usual environment for personal or business/professional purposes” (World Tourism Organisation, 2022). The tourism activity includes the displacement to the destination, the accommodation at the destination, the activities undertaken at the destination, the return trip to the place of origin and the sharing of memories and experiences after returning to the usual environment. As such, the transport industry is an essential element of the tourism system, it doesn’t just influence how tourists travel to and from destinations but also the way tourists move within a destination. Unfortunately, the latter aspect is getting little attention in the field of research. In the process of building a sustainable tourism industry in cities it is important to achieve sustainable urban mobility, based on alternative and integrated, meaning connected and combinable, transport means (Signorile et al., 2018). One critical issue of tourism mobility in urban destinations is the agglomeration of tourists in the city centres due to the concentration of tourism resources, such as monuments, shops, restaurants, and other infrastructure, in centrical spaces where historically the city was founded. The success and sustainable development of urban tourism in a destination will strongly depend on the accessibility and centrality of its resources (Aranburu et al., 2016). Many tourism destinations are witnessing major impacts caused by the excessive use of private vehicles in the current urban mobility systems and have therefore directed their focus towards micromobilities, referring to means such as walking, cycling and using small electrically powered vehicles, as an alternative mode of transport to solve these issues (Davies et al., 2020). In order to successfully implement sustainable mobility, it is crucial to understand tourists´ propensity to use alternative and integrated modes of transport. A visitor´s attitude towards mobility depends on the cultural context and the strategic policies on mobility observed in their usual environment. The tourists most likely to change are the younger generations and thus the industry should cater to and research should focus on this demographic profile (Signorile et al., 2018). The idea for this bachelor thesis originated from a prior project aiming to explain mode of transport choice in the city of Kaohsiung (Taiwan) using cultural analysis. Brainstorming along this line of thought the main challenge was to identify a concrete context, in which it is possible to relate urban transport, culture and tourism. Finally, the use of micromobilities for tourist mobility in cities connects all these concepts and provides a significant need for investigation. Due to my personal experience living in various cities for long periods of time, I selected 3 cities I am familiar with and that seem interesting for many reasons. Munich, Seville and Kaohsiung are 3 cities that are very different in terms of culture, level of economic development, climate, size and yet similar considering that each one is significant in their country. This paper intends to improve and enhance the approach of the pilot project and its questionnaire and establish a new survey and dataset that permits the comparison between respondents of different nationalities. The work is divided into two parts, theoretical framework and practical approach, where the first is structured as following. Chapter 2 portrays the objectives and methodology of this paper. Then, chapter 3 summarizes the general situation and trends in the transport sector in Asia and Europe. Continuing, chapter 4 discusses cultural theories and concepts and possible applications of these in the case of micromobilities. Next, chapter 5 introduces the three cities of the case study/survey and their most relevant Hümpfner, Julia - 4 - characteristics for the implementation of micromobilities. Having concluded the theoretical part, finally, the practical part is developed in chapter 6. It presents the findings of the survey and evaluates them according to the information detailed in the theoretical framework. Lastly, chapter 7 concludes the work with some final results gained from combining theory and practice. TFG - Grado en Turismo. Are E-Micromobilities Revolutionizing Urban Transport? A Valorization of how Culture Influences Mode of Transport Choice. - 5 - 2 OBJECTIVES & METHODOLOGY 2.1 OBJECTIVES The main aim of this research is to explore a new perspective in the discussion of mode of transport choice in urban surroundings, specifically the use of micromobilities, by introducing the concept of culture and cross-cultural analysis as an influential factor enhancing and complementing those theories based primarily on demographic, socioeconomic and geographic indicators. The research question dealt with in this paper is: “How will university students of different cultural backgrounds (German, Spanish, Taiwanese) accept the implementation of emicromobilities as a new mode of transport in tourist destinations?”. As such the following objectives are formulated. Firstly, this thesis aims to test the existence and importance of the link between cultural aspects on a national level and mode of transport choice on an individual level in the case of university students in three different cities in three different countries. Secondly, considering the relationship between culture and transport use, this paper intends to understand the behaviour towards and use of micromobilities, as tourist mobility in urban destinations, Generation Z will exhibit based on their cultural values. Thirdly, this research will propose a critical assessment of micromobilities as an alternative mode of transport for urban mobility, discussing its implementation and use both from a logistic efficiency perspective as well as from a sustainability perspective. 2.2 METHODOLOGY The methodology used to answer the research question, “How will university students of different cultural backgrounds (German, Spanish, Taiwanese) accept the implementation of e-micromobilities as a new mode of transport in tourist destinations?”, is described both visually in figure 2.2 and in written form in the subchapter below. In the first step, a brief literature review was conducted to complement the knowledge gained from previous projects and to direct the general research idea that was already present at that time. Once the final research question was determined the next phase of in-depth literature research followed, gathering detailed information about the key concepts of cultural analysis from various scientific articles using google scholar as the search engine. Since some concepts of cultural analysis date back to the late 20th century the search was then filtered for articles published since 2018 quoting the original authors who introduced said concepts, selecting those articles that in some way establish a relationship between transport and culture. At the same time, further research was conducted to collect information about the current situation of urban transport in Europe and Asia as well as the trends of urban transport highlighted in scientific articles. Special attention was given to the role attributed to micromobilities as a future mode of transport in this context, its potential and desirability. Since this concept is very recent, the research focused on definition of the concept, service types, growth rates, performance evaluation and the connection to tourism, leisure or culture. This literature research built the foundation of the theoretical framework nevertheless it was not sufficient. In order to better understand the theoretical concepts, interpret and contrast the survey results, in a third step, a descriptive analysis of the three cities of Hümpfner, Julia - 12 - by properly integrating micromobilities and public transport, this combination as a mode of transport can reach a level of access, speed and comfort that may challenge that of cars. It will be a big step towards shifting away from private motorized vehicles (Oeschger et al., 2020). Most types of micromobility are supplied both as private and shared modes of transport. In the case of bicycles, it has always been used as a private mode of transport. Especially for the newer powered section of micromobilities, also referred to as e-micromobilities, this is not the case. In recent years shared micro-vehicle systems for newer modes of transport such as e-scooters and e-bikes as well as prevalent modes of transport such as bicycles have increasingly gained popularity. Amongst the shared micromobility systems research distinguishes between station-based and dockless systems both of which are based on information and communication technologies (Oeschger et al., 2020). The integration of public transport and micromobilities are compatible with both the concepts of shared mobility and mobility-as-a-service. Hence, the implementation of micromobilities can play an important role in achieving sustainable urban mobility. Nevertheless, the use of micromobilities, similar to other modes of transport, isn’t just a question of willingness but also of other external factors such as accessibility, culture, climate and economic development (Noland, 2021) . 3.3.3 The Desirability of E-Micromobilities When considering whether it is desirable to pursue the massive implementation of emicromobilities it is important to consider various factors. Amongst the most pressing issues are firstly, the potential of e-micromobilities within the construct of urban mobility. It is important to understand what this new mode of transport can add to the urban transport system and what shift it could motivate. Micromobilities have the potential to substitute cars, scooters and even public transport in all trips, regardless of the travel purpose, with a distance of less than 8 km. In China, the European Union and the United States of America trips which are less than 8 km account for approximately 50 to 60 percent of all trips (Şengül & Mostofi, 2021). Research has already been able to witness the positive impact of e-micromobilities on citizens´ mobility behaviours. Few studies indicate that car ownership and car dependency have declined comparing younger generations to older generations and that shared micromobility services have become popular among the younger generations. Nevertheless, it is still unclear whether e-micromobility will actually contribute to the sustainability of urban transport (Şengül & Mostofi, 2021). Secondly it is important to consider what role e-micromobilities play with regard to making the urban transport system more sustainable and smarter. Aspects to ponder about range from manufacturing of batteries and vehicles to charging shared-vehicles during the use phase. Research found that personal e-micromobilities outperform shared e-micromobilities, of which shared e-mopeds perform better than shared e-scooters (de Bortoli, 2021). TFG - Grado en Turismo. Are E-Micromobilities Revolutionizing Urban Transport? A Valorization of how Culture Influences Mode of Transport Choice. - 13 - 4 INDIVIDUALS AND THEIR PREDISPOSITION FOR MICROMOBILITIES THE INFLUENCE OF CULTURE All individuals are potential tourists. As such, tourists are often grouped by nationality because different nationalities imply different culture which implies different behaviour and attitudes. As stated at the beginning of this paper, it is crucial to understand tourists´ attitudes towards mobility to be able to successfully implement micromobilities as a mode of transport (Signorile et al., 2018). To do this we use cultural analysis. Cultural analysis is composed of various theories discussing on the one hand, the development of culture in an individual and in society from a theoretical point of view. This approach identifies the different layers of culture that exist, how they are shared among a group´s members and how they evolve over time. On the other hand, dimensions, indicators and models are established to measure cultural aspects and compare societies amongst each other. This practical approach creates a basis of tangible data that can be used to compare societies in various areas of interest, such as consumer behaviour, political affiliations, employee management, etc. 4.1 CULTURAL DIMENSIONS: BASED ON HOFSTEDE Hofstede (2011) defines culture as “the collective programming of the mind that distinguishes the members of one group or category of people from others” (Hofstede, 2011, pg.3). Geert Hofstede has developed a theory that analyses culture using 6 dimensions: power distance, uncertainty avoidance, individualism vs collectivism, masculinity vs. femininity, long term vs. short term orientation, indulgence vs. restraint. Hofstede is by far the most recognized author in this field of study even if his model has encountered a lot of criticism over the years. The dimensions considered most relevant for this research are individualism vs. collectivism and uncertainty avoidance therefore these will be explained in more detail now. Most authors select these two dimensions when studying consumer acceptance of products and services, because these dimensions generally can be helpful to explain how society influences people´s consumption patterns and how open people are to trying new products and services. According to Hofstede (2011) the dimension called individualism vs. collectivism describes “the degree to which people in a society are integrated into groups” (Hofstede, 2011, pg. 11). As the author states, individualist societies are those that promote an ‘I- consciousness’ in its members, meaning everyone is considered an individual themselves with their own opinions which are respected by others. The relationship between members in individualist cultures is less close, people are supposed to be independent and take care of themselves and their immediate family only. On the contrary, collectivist societies are those that encourage ‘We-consciousness’ in its members, meaning everyone is considered part of an in-group, often extended families, in which the most important thing is maintaining harmony. The relationship between members in collectivist cultures is very strong, people are expected to protect each other and oppose other in-groups (Hofstede, 2011). According to Hofstede (2011) the dimension called uncertainty avoidance summarizes “to what extent a culture programs its members to feel either uncomfortable or comfortable in unstructured situations” (Hofstede, 2011, pg. 10). As the theory states, societies with a strong uncertainty avoidance tend to be associated with higher levels of Hümpfner, Julia - 14 - stress and emotionality. People in uncertainty avoiding cultures present a clear need for rules and structure making them more intolerant towards what is new and different. On the opposite side, societies with a weak uncertainty avoidance seem to be related to lower levels of stress and more self-control. People in uncertainty accepting cultures are observed to be comfortable with ambiguity and chaos, making them more openminded and curious about what is new and different. 4.1.1 Innovation and Hofstede In the last decade a number of authors have investigated the influence of culture on innovation, specifically on the entrepreneurial activity and on the acceptance of innovative products. At present research has come to the conclusion that the individualism vs. collectivism dimension has a profound relationship with innovation. The assumptions are that individualistic cultures positively encourage the generation of creative ideas and novel products that will be received open-mindedly by individualistic consumers as those products enable consumers to feel distinguished and special. The same way, collectivism is believed to limit the possibility of innovation because in collectivist cultures individual aspirations are subordinate to the group harmony (Tian et al., 2018). The link between collectivism and innovation is still controversial since there have been some empirical studies showing contradicting findings regarding this negative correlation (Tian et al., 2018). Furthermore, research has found that as uncertainty avoidance increases innovation decreases. In uncertainty avoiding cultures people intend to minimize risk scenarios and unknown situations through formal rules, social norms, bureaucratic procedures, etc. impeding innovation. Whereas uncertainty accepting cultures foster competition and dissent that create a beneficial environment for innovation (Tian et al., 2018). 4.1.2 Brand Personality and Hofstede Brand personality is defined as “the set of human characteristics associated with a brand” (Aaker, 1997, pg. 347). Understanding the way consumers perceive brands and are attracted by certain characteristics rather than others is essential for predicting consumer´s brand choices. Hofstede´s model has been commonly applied in the field of global branding and advertising (Matzler et al., 2016). According to Hofstede´s model individualist cultures value personal beliefs, attitudes and self-concept highly and inconsistency is regarded as a threat to the authentic personality. A consistent person is expected to be mature, dependable and behave with integrity in all facets of his or her life and as such the coherence of an individual´s personality and a brand´s personality is considered very important. On the contrary, collectivist cultures subordinate the individual´s opinions to the in-group´s harmony (Matzler et al., 2016). The same way, uncertainty avoiding cultures highly value brand-self congruity since the selection of brands coherent with their own personality are assumed to decrease the possibility of discrepancies between the provider´s service and the customer´s expectation. Furthermore, in uncertainty avoiding cultures consumers prefer known brands they can easily retrieve information about opposed to uncertainty accepting cultures that are more tolerant to the new and unknown (Matzler et al., 2016). TFG - Grado en Turismo. Are E-Micromobilities Revolutionizing Urban Transport? A Valorization of how Culture Influences Mode of Transport Choice. - 15 - 4.1.3 Hypothesis: Micromobilities and Hofstede Micromobilities, especially all kinds of alternative electric transport, are one of the most promising innovations in passenger transport in the 21st century. Many companies have appeared in cities all around the world in the last decade without precedent offering a range of new services. Applying the findings for innovation and brand personality to the case of micromobilities, the conclusion is that individualist cultures are more likely to accept this service if and when the company transmits trust and reliability to its consumers and is associated with socially favourable values as could be digitalization and sustainability. Even though, uncertainty avoidance generally seems to be a factor impeding the successful implementation of micromobilities, the weight of its impact would be expected to depend on the integration of this new mode of transport into the existing urban transport infrastructure and the information available to consumers. Therefore, I will consider it a secondary factor in this analysis. Figure 4.1 shows the values of the two Hofstede dimensions for the three countries of interest for this paper. Figure 4.1 Comparison Hofstede Dimensions Source: own elaboration based on Hofstede Insights, 2022 According to the values represented in figure 4.1, the following hypothesis regarding the acceptance of micromobilities based on Hofstede´s cultural dimensions is established: German university students will show the highest acceptance of micromobilities, followed by Spanish university students that will show higher acceptance of micromobilities than Taiwanese university students. 4.2 MODERNIZATION THEORY: INGLEHART Ronald Inglehart has developed a theory of modernization and generational change in cultural orientations and values driven by continued economic development. As societies experience economic growth priorities shift from existential security needs towards expressive freedom needs; in industrial societies materialist or modern values are predominant whereas in post-industrialized societies post-materialist or post-modern values are aspired (Beugelsdijk & Welzel, 2018). 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 Individualism Uncertainty Avoidance German Taiwanese Spanish Hümpfner, Julia - 16 - This theory was based on the idea of Maslow´s hierarchy of needs model, from which Inglehart and his co-authors deducted a general principle of the working of the human mind. In a situation lacking both security and freedom people will pursue above all security since it is essential to survival. However, once people feel safe, they will seek freedom which permits them to thrive (Beugelsdijk & Welzel, 2018). Table 4.2 shows a list of attributes associated with modern and post-modern values according to Beugelsdijk & Welzel (2018). In summary, modern values support economic development and concentrate on personal success whereas post-modern values support democracy and strive for quality of life for everyone. Modern/Materialist Values Post-Modern/Post-Materialist Values Authority; Discipline; Hierarchy; Obedience; Self-restraint; Uniformity Autonomy; Creativity; Diversity; Liberty; Morality; Self-expression Table 4.2 Summary of Materialist and Post-Materialist Values Source: own elaboration based on Beugelsdijk & Welzel, 2018 4.2.1 Sharing Economy and Inglehart There is a big variety of programs offered within the sharing economy. The sharing economy, also known as collaborative consumption is an economic model that combines technology, collaboration and an efficient use of resources. For example, Airbnb offers travellers the possibility to share a citizen´s house for the time of their stay instead of renting a hotel room (Davidson et al., 2018). Every program has a different level of mediation by third parties. Programs with lower levels of mediation (websites such as couchsurfing) are usually related to lower transaction costs whereas programs with higher levels of mediation (sharing services such as Bixi) are commonly related to higher transaction costs for the provision of the service. Moreover, there is no universal nature of the programs offered within the sharing economy; some services focus on a specific resource whereas some services highlight the experience of sharing itself (Davidson et al., 2018). Materialist consumers value foremost the ownership and possession of objects and the personal success these objects symbolize; therefore, it would be expected that materialism and sharing were negatively correlated. Nevertheless, research has found that this is not the case. The motives for participating in sharing programs of consumers in economically less developed cultures are linked to perceived utility, a concept comprised by the dimensions: convenience, availability and flexibility. On the contrary, the motives for participating in sharing programs of consumers in economically more developed cultures are related to transformation expectations composed by the dimensions: self, relations, hedonism and efficacy (Davidson et al., 2018). Materialism as defined by Davidson et al. (2018) itself does not impact the willingness to participate but the reasons for participation. The intentions that cause people to participate in sharing programs seem to be adherent to the general values of a society as considered by Inglehart. 4.2.2 Hypothesis: Micromobilities and Inglehart In the case of micromobilities as a mode of transport there are two basic business models, on the one hand companies selling micromobilities for private use and ownership and on the other hand companies selling micromobilities as shared services. TFG - Grado en Turismo. Are E-Micromobilities Revolutionizing Urban Transport? A Valorization of how Culture Influences Mode of Transport Choice. - 17 - The latter would be a service considered within those sharing programs with high level of mediation. Applying the findings for the sharing economy to the case of micromobilities, the appropriate conclusion is that cultures with modern values would accept micromobilities as a shared service if and when it is overall convenient for them whereas cultures with post-modern values would be expected to make use of these services when they are convinced, it is morally acceptable, it represents a way of self-expression and personal transformation or it provides a higher degree of liberty. At this point, the possibility should be proposed that one of the motives for post-modern cultures to accept micromobilities as an alternative mode of transport could be sustainability. Figure 4.2 shows the world cultural map elaborated on basis of the world value survey, reflecting on the x-axis the degree of modernization (survival vs self-expression values) that is of interest for the analysis conducted in this paper. Countries located closer to the y-axis, with negative x-values, demonstrate to have modern/survival values and countries situated further from the y-axis, with positive x-values, present to have incorporated post-modern/self-expression values. On the y-axis the society is described with respect to its authority system; negative scores characterize agricultural societies with traditional values whereas positive scores identify industrialized societies with secular institutions. Countries generally start out close to the x-and-y intercept and move up along the y-axis as they go through the process of industrialisation before they find themselves moving right along the x-axis due to other developments. For European countries it has often been a process of democratisation to impulse this movement. Figure 4.2 World Cultural Map Source: World Values Survey Association, 2022 According to the locations observed in figure 4.2, at approximate x-values of 2.3 (Germany), 1.6 (Spain) and -0.2 (Taiwan), and considering that in general, it can be expected that the usefulness and convenience of e-micromobilities in the early stages of implementation are limited, the following hypothesis regarding the acceptance of sharedmicromobilities based on Inglehart´s modernization theory is proposed: German Hümpfner, Julia - 18 - university students will show acceptance of micromobilities as a service if it were to be recognized and desired by their peers and society, on the counter position Taiwanese university students will show acceptance of micromobilities as a service if it were convenient and efficient for their daily life. Spanish university students could exhibit both modern and post-modern values which is why they could show acceptance of micromobilities for either utility reasons or peer recognition. 4.3 PACE OF LIFE The last and least common concept of cultural analysis I will analyse is pace of life. Pace of life is defined as “the rate, speed and relative rapidity or density of experiences, meanings, perceptions and activities” (Levine & Norenzayan, 1999) of a city. Unlike the previously discussed elements of cultural analysis, this indicator is not measured at national level but at city level and therefore could present differences between cities of the same country (Levine & Norenzayan, 1999). Nevertheless, these are some generic findings for this indicator: individualist cultures, cultures of cold climate and economically productive cultures are characterized to have a faster pace of life (Lippke et al., 2021). A fast pace of life has been associated in research with poor health, increased subjective-wellbeing and life satisfaction as well as higher levels of stress, some of which seem to be quite contradictory and demonstrate the need for further research (Lippke et al., 2021). 4.3.1 Digitalisation and Pace of Life In their research Santarius & Bergener (2020) define the degree of digitalisation as “the nature and duration of digital information and communication technology [ICT] usage” (Santarius & Bergener, 2020) of an individual. As such two theories are proposed; firstly, a higher degree of digitalisation on an individual level should give people the possibility to finish activities in less time and gain more free time, thus implying a deceleration of the pace of life. However, if this new gained free time were to be used for the completion of other activities, then secondly, this should result in a tighter schedule and would imply an acceleration of the pace of life (Santarius & Bergener, 2020). Finally, research has found the latter to be the more accurate assumption. Santarius & Bergener (2020) have encountered a strong correlation in their study firstly between ICT usage and covering free time with the realization of other activities and secondly between ICT usage and the performance of multitasking. These findings indicate that a higher degree of digitalisation for an individual leads to a denser daily schedule and a faster pace of life which in turn is perceived as a more stressful life. 4.3.2 Hypothesis: Micromobilities and Pace of Life In the case of shared-micromobilities the process of subscribing, renting and parking the vehicle usually requires a certain level of digitalisation, especially in the case of nondocked micromobilities. Applying the findings of digitalisation to the case of micromobilities, the conclusion would be that cultures with a faster pace of life would be more likely to accept sharedmicromobilities in their daily life than cultures with a slower pace of life because fastpaced cultures need to work a tighter schedule and cope with a higher level of stress. Table 4.3 shows the ranking of overall pace of life measured in 31 cities in 31 countries all around the world. The data presented in the table below is used as an approximation in the analysis of pace of life and micromobilities. TFG - Grado en Turismo. Are E-Micromobilities Revolutionizing Urban Transport? A Valorization of how Culture Influences Mode of Transport Choice. - 19 - Table 4.3 Pace of Life in 31 countries Source: own elaboration based on Levine & Norenzayan, 1999 According to the data portrayed in table 4.3 the following hypothesis regarding the acceptance of shared-micromobilities based on the concept of pace of life is formulated: German university students will show higher acceptance of shared-micromobilities than Taiwanese university students, that show higher acceptance than Spanish university students. Due to the closeness of Spanish culture to that of Latin American countries the assumption is made that the pace of life in Spain is slower than the pace of life in both Germany and Taiwan. 4.4 FUTURE TOURISTS: GENERATION Z REPLACING MILLENNIALS Research in the last decade has widely discussed the role of Millennials in a global perspective; being the first generation to grow up with the internet and constantly being exposed to ICTs resulted in the development of different general character traits amongst the members of this generation. Millennials are characterized as ambitious, impatient, community-minded, demanding, ethnically diverse, techno-savvy and accepting of diversity (Debevec et al., 2013; Veiga et al., 2017). Millennials and Generation Z are often joint as they are consecutive generations. Generation Z comprises all those born shortly before or after the year 2000, members of this generation are at present ranging from 9 to 25 years old. As of 2020 the members of Generation Z were estimated to account for 40% of the population in the US, Europe and the BRIC (Brasil, Russia, India, China) countries and 10% of the population in the rest of the world (Entina et al., 2021). In the context of tourism Millennials are regarded as one of the most important segments. Despite their financial and time restrictions Millennials are recognized as the customer segment with the strongest potential to cause real disruption to the structure and functioning of the tourism industry. Therefore, research identifies the need to gain understanding of the profile and demands of Millennials (Veiga et al., 2017). Millennials and the members of Generation Z share some characteristics, most importantly technological ingenuity and a sense of comfort in a globalized world. Rank City Country Rank City Country Rank City Country 1 Zurich Switzerland 12 Warsaw Poland 22 Nairobi Kenya 2 Dublin Ireland 13 San Jose Costa Rica 23 Guangzhou China 3 Frankfurt Germany 14 Taipei Taiwan 24 Sofia Bulgaria 4 Tokyo Japan 15 Singapore Singapore 25 Bucharest Romania 5 Rome Italy 16 New York USA 26 Amman Jordan 6 London UK 17 Toronto Canada 27 Damascus Syria 7 Stockholm Sweden 18 Seoul South Korea 28 San Salvador El Salvador 8 Vienna Austria 19 Budapest Hungary 29 Rio de Janeiro Brazil 9 Amsterdam Netherlands 20 Prague Czech Republic 30 Jakarta Indonesia 10 Hong-Kong China 21 Athens Greece 31 Mexico City Mexico 11 Paris France Hümpfner, Julia - 20 - Nevertheless, Generation Z is expected to manifest consumption patterns vastly different to those of Millennials (Entina et al., 2021). Cultural change has found to be determined by generational turnover rather than social influence. As such, the ‘cohort effect’ theory suggests that the social environment shapes a person´s culture and identity during that person´s childhood and adolescence and that eventually during adulthood personal values and attitudes become stable (Kiley & Vaisey, 2020). Generation Z witnessed the global digital revolution characterized by the rapid evolution of the internet, the popularization of social media and the omnipresence of smartphones and tablets. Thus, the members of this generation are strongly guided by morality, ethical behaviour and environmental awareness and are more inclined to take responsibility and contribute towards practical solutions (Entina et al., 2021). Generation Z represents the market of the future and is still susceptible to attitude change provoked by external influences (Kiley & Vaisey, 2020). As this generation continues to grow, taking over larger shares in the overall population, it reinforces its importance for the global economy. If this generation increases its purchasing power it will become more important for industries, such as tourism, to understand their behaviour, values and mentality (Entina et al., 2021; Robinson & Schänzel, 2019). TFG - Grado en Turismo. Are E-Micromobilities Revolutionizing Urban Transport? A Valorization of how Culture Influences Mode of Transport Choice. - 21 - 5 CITIES AND MICROMOBILITIES DEMOGRAPHIC, GEOGRAPHIC AND SOCIOGEOGRAPHIC CHARACTERISTICS The main reason most cities have felt the need to adapt their transport system and add micromobilities as a new mode of transport is urban growth and the consequences of high population density, mainly congestion and pollution (Elmashhara et al., 2022). Nevertheless, not all cities are the same and their characteristics do not facilitate the implementation of micromobilities to the same extent. This chapter is dedicated to an analysis of the three cities of interest in this study. Various aspects will be studied, starting with location, demographics (population, area, population density), tourism influx, climate (average temperature, precipitation, hours of sunshine), and city landscape composed by topography and the built environment. The built environment refers to a mix of components including road infrastructure (street connectivity, bikeway length) and public transportation network, which are the two aspects that will be taken into consideration in this paper. Tourism influx, the ratio of tourists to residents, is a relevant aspect in this context. It has been found that the motivation for e-micromobility use is typically related to tourism and recreational activities and it is only slowly reaching the point where citizens use it on a regularly basis for commuting purposes (Esztergár-Kiss & Lopez Lizarraga, 2021). Thus, tourists are a second target segment for providers of e-micromobilities in cities on top of residents. Furthermore, the use of e-micromobilities by tourists could function as promotion and could help raise awareness for the service in citizens minds. Therefore, a higher number of visitors would likely mean a higher level of usage in the short term, mainly by tourists, and could possibly support the long term success of e-micromobilities, through the promotion gained from tourists´ use. However, tourism influx could not only support the successful implementation of emicromobilties but more so the implementation of e-micromobilities could immensely improve some of the issues caused by the overcrowding of city centres with visitors. Micromobilities could pose a simple way to access urban districts located outside of the usual tourist cluster and disperse the accumulation of tourists throughout the city. This could impulse the decongestion of city centres. Furthermore, several studies analysed the relationship between weather and micromobility usage and conclude that low temperatures, rain and snow are unfavourable and discourage micromobility use. On the contrary, high temperatures and good weather conditions increase the likelihood of micromobility use (Elmashhara et al., 2022; Hosseinzadeh et al., 2021). Moreover, factors such as topography, referring to the existence of hills and slopes, have been found to negatively affect the use of micromobilities. On the contrary the existence of public transport hubs, universities and points of interest in the surroundings of MSS (Micromobility Sharing Systems) stations, as well as bikeways and good street connectivity favour the use of micromobilities (Elmashhara et al., 2022). The tourism sector in cities will be required to adapt its service to the needs of future generations, therefore it is essential to understand these generations behaviour and values (Entina et al., 2021). In the context of urban mobility, it is not enough to simply provide a good transport system to tourists, it is fundamental to be able to promote these systems and attract tourists to make use of them (Signorile et al., 2018). Therefore, it is important for tourist destinations to analyse their strengths and weaknesses with respect to the implementation of micromobilities. Also, it is of great importance to observe the Hümpfner, Julia - 28 - 5.3 KAOHSIUNG Located in the south of Taiwan at 23°N and 120°E, as shown in figure 5.3, Kaohsiung is the second biggest city in Taiwan by population (www.LatLong.net, 2022; World Population Review, 2022c). Figure 5.3 Location of Kaohsiung Source: own elaboration based on Google Maps, 2022b As portrayed in table 5.3 the city registered a total population of more than 2.7 million inhabitants and a population density of 934 inhabitants/km². In the case of Kaohsiung city official tourism statistics do not reflect the exact number of tourist arrivals neither for domestic nor international tourists. An appropriate system for collecting, processing and publishing tourism statistics does not seem to exist. Population (2021) Area Population Density (2021) Approximation: Number of annual tourists (2019*) Kaohsiung 2,744,691 inhabitants 2,938.64 km² 934 inhabitants/km² 3,002,859 tickets (sold at all tourist attractions) 795,992 tickets (sold at EDA World) 733,152 tickets (sold at National Science and Technology Museum) *Measured by the number of visitors that bought a ticket to the main tourist attractions in 2019 Table 5.3 Statistics of Kaohsiung Source: own elaboration based on Kaohsiung City Government, 2022a; Kaohsiung City Government, 2022b; Kaohsiung City Government, 2022c The number of tourists arrivals is estimated based on the number of tickets bought to the main tourist attractions on an annual basis. The main errors of using this data are firstly that residents may also be included in this count and secondly that not all tourists may be included in this count. The tickets sold at the two main tourist attractions range between a little more than 700 thousand to almost 800 thousand tickets in 2019. According to this data tourism in Kaohsiung is rather insignificant. TFG - Grado en Turismo. Are E-Micromobilities Revolutionizing Urban Transport? A Valorization of how Culture Influences Mode of Transport Choice. - 29 - The city´s climate is described as tropical monsoon climate, characterized on the one hand by dry winters and on the other hand by hot and wet summers (Kaohsiung City Government, 2022d). The average temperature of the coldest month, January, is registered to be 19.7°C and the average temperature of the warmest month, July, is estimated to be 29.4°C. The yearly rainfall amounts to approximately 1968.2 mm; during the rainiest period, comprised between May and September, more than 200 mm rainfall per month are recorded with its peak of 512.4 mm precipitation in August, whereas in the dryer months seldomly more than 30 mm rainfall per month are observed. The yearly hours of sunshine on average reach a total of 2,281.8 hours. During the winter months the monthly average of hours of sunshine never drops below 5 hours per day, whereas during the period from May to August it pivots around 7 hours of sunshine per day (Central Weather Bureau, 20226). The topographic map in figure 5.3.1 shows the elevation levels throughout the city. Lower elevations can be observed close to the harbour of the city and along the course of the city´s river, towards the north-east of the city the level of elevation increases. The city exhibits a mountain in its coastline with a peak of approximately 335 metres, other than that the minimum and maximum level of elevation observed in the topographic map of Kaohsiung are 0 metres and 36 metres respectively, therefore the difference in elevation measures 36 metres. The topographic map suggests the existence of smaller slopes rather than hills. Figure 5.3.1 Topographic Map of Kaohsiung Source: own elaboration based on Topographic-map.com, 2022c Regarding the analysis of street connectivity, the analysis will be based on the image shown in figure 5.3.2 taken from google maps. The road network follows the chessboard pattern throughout most of the city, it is difficult to spot where the centrical part of the city is located. Rather than large streets, many small streets make up the city structure. The city is characterized by an incredibly dense road network. 6 Climate data measured in the period 1991 - 2020 Hümpfner, Julia - 30 - Figure 5.3.2 Street View of Kaohsiung Source: Google Maps, 2022c The city of Kaohsiung does not provide a map of bikeways or keep record of the total length of bikeways in the city. However, we can use google maps as an approximation in this analysis. Figure 5.3.3 shows Kaohsiung and all bike-friendly paths highlighted in different shades of green; paths suitable for riding a bike in light-green, bikeways in darkgreen and streets suitable for riding a bike are marked by a green dashed line. The official bikeways are close to none and it can be observed that the majority of the existing road infrastructure cannot be considered suitable for biking. Figure 5.3.3 Biking Infrastructure of Kaohsiung Source: Google Maps, 2022d Figure 5.3.4 shows the public transport network of Kaohsiung City. It is composed of 2 lines of metro, 1 line of tram, furthermore, 1 daily operating ferry line and various lines of city buses (Kaohsiung City Government, 2022b). The metro lines started operations no earlier than in the year 2008 and the tram line is currently still under construction at parts. At present the public transport network provides no more than 3 connecting stations TFG - Grado en Turismo. Are E-Micromobilities Revolutionizing Urban Transport? A Valorization of how Culture Influences Mode of Transport Choice. - 31 - between the metro and tram lines, according to the official map in figure 5.3.4 (Kaohsiung Rapid Transit Corporation, 2019). Figure 5.3.4 Public Transport Network of Kaohsiung Source: Kaohsiung Rapid Transit Corporation, 2022 In conclusion the factors that support the implementation of micromobilities in the city of Kaohsiung are mostly topography. The barriers the city will face are primarily a poor public transport network and lack of bikeways. Kaohsiung is a big city however the yearly tourism influx is not even a third of the city´s population. Tourism is not a factor that will support the massive implementation of micromobilities in Kaohsiung. TFG - Grado en Turismo. Are E-Micromobilities Revolutionizing Urban Transport? A Valorization of how Culture Influences Mode of Transport Choice. - 33 - 6 CULTURE AND MODE OF TRANSPORT CHOICE ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION OF RESULTS The information presented up to this point is a compilation of secondary sources that provide some insight on the different aspects and concepts and their application in current research. In this chapter, we will present the findings of the surveys Mode of transport choice - Munich, Mode of transport choice - Seville and Mode of transport choice - Kaohsiung. The obtainment of primary data can on the one hand, revise the information from secondary sources for the sample collected and test the sample´s representativeness. On the other hand, it can explore a new hypothesis and make an approximation for future research, as a pilot project. 6.1 DOMINANT MODES OF TRANSPORT Reflecting upon the information presented in chapter 3 of this paper, this abstract deals with the dominant mode of transport used by respondents and the people in their surroundings in each of the three cities. Figure 6.1 shows the different modes of transport and the respondents´ personal use, counting only those modes of transport that are used on a regular basis, meaning 3 or more times a week. Figure 6.1 Regular use of Modes of Transport7 Source: own elaboration based on Munich – Mode of Transport Choice, Seville – Mode of Transport Choice, Kaohsiung – Mode of Transport Choice 7 Percentage of the total number of respondents for each city separately, question with multi-choice possibility 0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100% Car Scooter Public Transport Bike On foot Non-motorized transport German Taiwanese Spanish Hümpfner, Julia - 34 - In the case of Munich, the majority of respondents use both public transport (86.7%) and bicycle (66.7%) regularly, only a small minority frequently uses the car (15.6%) for displacements within the city. Looking at the respondents´ environment, most stated that their friends and family use public transport either as their first (53.3%) or second option (31.1%), followed by a significant number of respondents that stated that their friends and family use the car either as their first (33.3%) or second (33.3%) option. More than half of the respondents (55.6%) agree that the social norm of mode of transport choice in Munich is taking public transport. Based on the respondents´ answers it could be interpreted that in Munich amongst the younger generation public transport and bike are popular whereas older generations are still adapting to this shift presenting a stronger connection to car use in comparison. In the case of Seville, the majority of respondents walk (70.3%) regularly but also frequently uses public transport (59.5%) or the car (56.8%) for displacements within the city. Looking at the respondents´ environment, most stated that their friends and family use the car either as their first (70.3%) or second (10.8%) option, followed by a significant number of respondents that stated that their friends and family use public transport either as their first (18.9%) or second (48.6%) option. More than one third of the respondents (37.8%) are uncertain whether or not there is a social norm in Seville regarding the mode of transport, the rest of respondents either believe the social norm is taking the car (29.7%) or taking public transport (24.3%). The survey data implies that in Seville although respondents often walk for displacements the preferred modes of transport are the car and public transport. While younger generations show a weaker tendency for taking the car than older generation it is still very popular. Public transport seems to be the alternative mode of transport that is gaining importance for mobility in Seville for younger generations now. In the case of Kaohsiung, the majority of respondents use the scooter (71.1%) regularly, only about a third of the respondents frequently use one or more alternative modes of transport such as walking (42.1%), cycling (34.2%) or public transportation (31.6%). Looking at the respondents´ environment, most stated that their friends and family use the scooter either as their first (57.9%) or second (21.1%) option, followed by a significant number of respondents that stated that their friends and family use public transport either as their first (15.8%) or second (42.1%) option. The vast majority of respondents (84.2%) agree that the social norm of mode of transport choice in Kaohsiung is riding a scooter. The respondents´ answers lead to believe that in Kaohsiung the habit of riding a scooter is widely spread both among younger and older generations. Respondents that don’t ride a scooter are forced to use alternative modes of transport. Furthermore, this data permits us to reflect upon the information presented in chapter 5 of this paper, about the characteristics of a city that influence the use of micromobilities in general. Based on the cities´ features it would be expected that more respondents in Seville than in Munich or Kaohsiung use micromobilities, meaning walk, ride a bike or take e-micromobilities. Nevertheless, the survey data shows that 84% of the respondents in Munich use one of the 3 types of micromobilities, whereas in Seville and Kaohsiung only 73% and 53% respectively make use of them. This supports the idea that there must be other factors influencing mode of transport choice for respondents, such as culture. 6.2 CONVENIENT URBAN MOBILITY: THE PUBLIC TRANSPORTATION NETWORK Before discussing the influence of culture on mode of transport choice, I would like to analyse the urban transport system as a whole. As mentioned prior to this chapter, micromobilities have great potential as a mode of transport when being integrated into the urban transport network, especially public transport. Thus, with respect to the TFG - Grado en Turismo. Are E-Micromobilities Revolutionizing Urban Transport? A Valorization of how Culture Influences Mode of Transport Choice. - 35 - information provided in chapter 4, this abstract deals with the role of the different modes of transport in the context of urban mobility and furthermore portrays the perception of the public transport network in each of the three cities. In the case of Munich, respondents are more likely to live farther away from the university, more than 15 km (44.4%) or between 6 km and 15 km (31.1%), and still the majority of respondents (75.6%) choose public transport for their commute, taking into account in most cases (70.6% of PT commuters) ride times of more than half an hour. When it comes to displacements for leisure purposes, respondents accept journeys of any distance below 15 km. Between 6 km and 15 km is the most common distance for displacement when taking public transport (50% of PT commuters) and less than 2 km when riding a bike (60% of bike commuters). Respondents taking public transport for their commute estimate their ride time to be between 16 min and 30 min (50% of PT commuters) whereas respondents riding a bike for their commute often only estimate between 5 min and 15 min (40% of bike commuters). The survey responses indicate that the area of movement within the city for respondents is rather big therefore the main mode of transport is public transport. However, for short distances and leisure purposes other modes of transport like the bike are also considered convenient. Thus, it can be concluded from the survey that the tendency to take public transport is stronger when the distance increases. In the case of Seville, respondents either live very close to the university, less than 2 km (43.2%), or farther away, between 6 km and 15 km (24.3%) and accordingly choose their mode of transport. The majority of respondents (45.9%) choose to walk, especially for a short commute, others choose public transport (27%) or taking the car (18.9%), especially for longer commutes. Respondents that choose to walk in most cases (41.2% of walkers) take between 5 and 15 minutes or often (35.3% of walkers) also less. Respondents that take public transport (80% of PT commuters) usually take more than 30 minutes. When it comes to displacements for leisure purpose respondents choose walking (37.8%), taking public transport (32.4%) or the car (21.6%), travelling mostly (59.5%) shorter distances between 2 km and 5 km. Whether taking the car or walking, the time for displacement approximates between 5 and 15 minutes (75% of car commuters, 57.1% of walkers), whereas the ride time when taking public transport mostly estimates between 16 and 30 minutes (58.3% of PT commuters). The survey results let conclude that the area of movement of respondents in Seville is rather limited, but depending on the distance respondents select one or another mode of transport for the commute. It is important to highlight the very dominant role of walking as a form of displacement within the city of Seville. In the case of Kaohsiung, respondents are more likely to live close to the university, less than 2 km (71.1%), and still the majority of respondents (52.6%) choose the scooter for their commute whereas others (39.5%) choose to walk. Indifferent to the mode of transport selected most respondents (63.2%) take into account a ride time or walk time of 5 min to 15 min or less (26.3%). When it comes to displacements for leisure purposes, most respondents (65.8%) stay within a distance of 2 km to 5 km. Typically respondents choose to take the scooter (65.8%) or public transport (21.1%) for their commute. Respondents´ answers indicate that generally ride time when taking the scooter has the tendency to be a little shorter, 5 min to 15 min (64% of scooter commuters), than when taking public transport, 16 min to 30 min (62.5% of PT commuters). The survey results imply that the area of movement of respondents in Kaohsiung is rather small but regardless the main mode of transport is the scooter. For very short distances walking is considered the alternative to taking the scooter but as distance increases it becomes more convenient to take public transport instead however the scooter is always the most popular option. Hümpfner, Julia - 36 - Figure 6.2 shows the different modes of transport and the respondents´ evaluation of the modes of transport with regard to convenience in the context of urban mobility in each of the cities. The question asked respondents to sort the modes of transport from 1, least convenient mode of transport, to 6, most convenient mode of transport. The values of the figure correspond to the mean of each mode of transport for each set of respondents, the highest score is 6 and the lowest score is 1. Figure 6.2 Convenience of Modes of Transport Source: own elaboration based on Munich – Mode of Transport Choice, Seville – Mode of Transport Choice, Kaohsiung – Mode of Transport Choice In the case of Munich, respondents consider public transport to be the most convenient of all modes of transport giving it an average score of 5.13, closely followed by the bicycle with 4.67 and walking with 3.49 on average. In the case of Seville, respondents consider the scooter with a mean score of 4.03, public transport with an average of 3.97 and walking with an average score of 3.92 equally convenient. In the case of Kaohsiung, respondents consider the scooter on average to be the most convenient of all modes with 5.16 average points, followed by public transport with 4.05 and bicycle with 3.68 on average. According to the survey results motorized modes of transport, such as car and scooter, do not play an important role in Munich where public transport and micromobilities, such as cycling and walking dominate. This suggest that, indeed, the more convenient the public transport network is for citizens the more likely they are to combine it with the use of micromobilities. Whereas, in Kaohsiung and Seville these motorized modes of transport do play an important role; especially the scooter is considered very convenient. Although public transport is considered one of the more convenient modes of transport in any of the three cities, the weight varies between Munich, Seville and Kaohsiung. Figure 6.3 shows the respondents´ perception of the public transport network in each of the cities, with regard to 4 key attributes: extension, reliability, frequency, punctuality. Respondents rated these attributes on a 5-point Likert scale. 1 1,5 2 2,5 3 3,5 4 4,5 5 5,5 6 Car Scooter Public Transportation Bike On foot Non-motorized SPANISH TAIWANESE GERMAN TFG - Grado en Turismo. Are E-Micromobilities Revolutionizing Urban Transport? A Valorization of how Culture Influences Mode of Transport Choice. - 37 - Figure 6.2 Perception of Public Transport Network Source: own elaboration based on Munich – Mode of Transport Choice, Seville – Mode of Transport Choice, Kaohsiung – Mode of Transport Choice In the case of Munich, respondents positively highlight the extension of the public transport network with a rating of 4.04, with regard to the remaining attributes respondents perceive the public transport network rather neutral. In the case of Seville, respondents perceive all aspects neither positive nor negative. In the case of Kaohsiung, respondents positively highlight both reliability and punctuality with ratings of 3.61 and 3.71 respectively, however respondents rate extension with 2.71, reflecting a slightly negative tendency. As discussed previously, German respondents reflect the highest use of public transport this makes believe the public transport network in Munich is superior than that in Seville or Kaohsiung. Therefore, considering the use and perception of public transport of respondents, it can be deducted that the most important variables for an effective public transport network are extension and frequency. Not only residents but also visitors contribute to and interact with the urban transport system. With respect to tourist mobility, most respondents (75.6%) believe tourists visiting Munich primarily use public transport and others (17.8%) think tourists move within the city on foot. As for Seville, most respondents (48.6%) think that tourists visiting Seville primarily walk around the city, whereas others (35.1%) believe tourists move around the city using public transport. Some (10.8%) even propose tourists mainly use e-micromobilities when visiting Seville. In Kaohsiung most respondents (42.1%) believe tourists visiting the city foremost use the scooter whereas others (28.9%) think tourists use public transport. 6.3 CULTURE AND SUSTAINABLE MODE OF TRANSPORT CHOICE This abstract deals with the cultural background of respondents, trying to test whether the theories represented in the chapter 5 could be applied for this set of respondents. Even though individualism vs. collectivism and uncertainty avoidance as proposed by Hofstede are considered very relevant for this analysis, the sample could not reflect the same values for the three nationalities as the author himself. The survey data was inconclusive for the Hofstede dimensions. 0 0,5 1 1,5 2 2,5 3 3,5 4 4,5 5 extensive reliable frequent punctual GERMAN TAIWANESE SPANISH Hümpfner, Julia - 44 - The perception of e-micromobilities varies amongst the respondents of the three cities and more importantly the aspects that influence mode of transport choice vary amongst the respondents of the three cities too. Based on the respondents´ perception of emicromobilities and the respondents´ consideration of important aspects for mode of transport choice, as well as other issues analysed beforehand regarding mode of transport choice it can be expected that micromobilities will gain more importance in Munich and Seville than in Kaohsiung. With regard to the limitations of this paper, it has to be recognized that this is merely an exploratory study. It could be observed that secondary data was scarce and not completely accurate for this research. The topic of e-micromobilities is very recent and there is a very limited amount of scientific research and investigation available for consultation. Furthermore, the approach of this study is very unique and innovative; it combines a different set of aspects and includes aspects that most authors do not treat in their research. Thus, it is even more challenging to find scientific research and investigation appropriate and supportive for this paper. With regard to the primary data, it is important to highlight that the sample is reduced in size but sufficient to be taken as a basis for this pilot project that can help test the questionnaire for future research. Thus, this survey can help to reduce respondent/sample bias and errors of interpretation of the results when conducted in the future. Despite the limitations, this paper has given me the possibility to explore this new research approach and find some relevant information justifying future research. Finally, based on the findings of this exploratory study, it is advisable that future studies investigate the influence of cultural values and background on mode of transport choice. As such aspects that should be taken into account are firstly collecting a representative sample, then results could be interpreted with more confidence and certainty. Secondly, it is recommendable to focus the scope of the study more. For example, it seems interesting to reduce the geographical scope and focus solemnly on Europe since in this region e-micromobilities are currently growing rapidly and a great number of cultures can be contrasted. Lastly, another suggestion that could be of interest in further research is to exclusively compare the different types of sustainable modes of transport with the idea to discover the reasons why users prefer public transport, active micromobilities or e-micromobilities. 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Impacts of e-micromobility on the sustainability of urban transportation—a systematic review. In Applied Sciences (Switzerland) (Vol. 11, Issue 13). https://doi.org/10.3390/app11135851 Signorile, P., Larosa, V., & Spiru, A. (2018). Mobility as a service: a new model for sustainable mobility in tourism. Worldwide Hospitality and Tourism Themes, 10(2). https://doi.org/10.1108/WHATT-12-2017-0083 Society of Automotive Engineers. (2022). Electric Scooters and beyond - micromobility risks. Retrieved from: https://www.swissre.com/institute/research/sonar/sonar2021/electric-scooters.html Statistics How To. (2022). Chi Squared Table. Retrieved from: https://www.statisticshowto.com/tables/chi-squared-table-right-tail/ Statistisches Amt München. (2022). Bevölkerung, Fläche und Bevölkerungsdichte am 31.12.2021 in den Stadtbezirken. Retrieved from: https://stadt.muenchen.de/infos/statistik-bevoelkerung.html Sevilla City Office. (2022a). Datos de Actividad Turística Año 2018. 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Retrieved from: https://es-es.topographicmap.com/maps/6oo8/Sevilla/ Topographic-map.com. (2022c). Kaohsiung. Retrieved from: https://en-us.topographicmap.com/maps/dc0p/Kaohsiung/ Tussam. (2022). Red de Líneas. Retrieved from: https://reddelineas.tussam.es/?lang=es# Vázquez-Hisado, J. C. (2018). El proceso hacia la movilidad sostenible en Sevilla: centro histórico peatones y ciclistas. Ciudad y Territorio Estudios Territoriales, 50(196). Veiga, C., Santos, M. C., Águas, P., & Santos, J. A. C. (2017). Are millennials transforming global tourism? Challenges for destinations and companies. Worldwide Hospitality and Tourism Themes, 9(6). https://doi.org/10.1108/WHATT- 09-2017-0047 World Population Review. (2022a). Population of Cities in Germany (2022). Retrieved from: https://worldpopulationreview.com/countries/cities/germany World Population Review. (2022b). Population of Cities in Spain (2022). Retrieved from: https://worldpopulationreview.com/countries/cities/spain World Population Review. (2022c). Population of Cities in Taiwan (2022). Retrieved from: https://worldpopulationreview.com/countries/cities/taiwan World Tourism Organisation. (2022). Glossary of Tourism Terms. Retrieved from: https://www.unwto.org/glossary-tourism-terms World Values Survey Association. (2022). The Inglehart-Welzel World Cultural Map (2020). Retrieved from: https://www.worldvaluessurvey.org/WVSContents.jsp?CMSID=Findings www.LatLong.net. (2022). Latitude and Longitude Finder. Retrieved from: https://www.latlong.net/ Hümpfner, Julia - 50 - Annex Annex I: Survey Mode of Transport Choice (own elaboration) Part 1: General Questions 1. Age: __ 2. Gender: __Female __Male 3. Nationality: __German/Spanish/Taiwanese __Other 4. Are you a university student? __Yes __No 5. Are you studying in your hometown or place of habitual residence? __Yes __No 6. What are the housing conditions of your university accommodation? __I live with my parents __I live in my own apartment/studio __I share an apartment with others __I share a room with others 7. How do you consider your socioeconomic level? __Above the average of my environment __Equal to the average of my environment __Below the average of my environment 8. If you are working, how many hours? __I don’t work __Yes, but I work sporadically, I don’t work on a regular basis. __Yes, up to 10 hours/week __Yes, 11-20 hours/week __Yes, more than 20 hours/week Part 2: Questions regarding mode of transport choice 9. Select all the modes of transport that you regularly use. (regularly = more than 3 times a week) __Car __Scooter __Public Transport __Bike __On foot (more than 20 minutes) __Other non-motorized modes of transport (electric scooter, segway, electric bike, etc.) 10. When moving around the city, is it common that you need to take various modes of transport to get to your destination? (public transport is just considered one mode of transport) __Yes __No 11. Select the modes of transport that your family and close friends frequently use to move around the city. Car Scooter Public Transport Bike On foot (more than 20 minutes) Other non-motorized modes of transport (electric scooter, Segway, electric bike, etc.) Priority 1 Priority 2 12. Which mode of transport do you use to go from your accommodation to class/university? __Car __Scooter __Public Transport __Bike __On foot (more than 20 minutes) __Other non-motorized modes of transport (electric scooter, segway, electric bike, etc.) 13. What is the approximate distance you need to cover to go from your accommodation to class/university? __Less than 2 km __2 km – 5 km __6 km – 15 km __More than 15 km 14. What is the approximate time it takes you to go from your accommodation to class/university? TFG - Grado en Turismo. Are E-Micromobilities Revolutionizing Urban Transport? A Valorization of how Culture Influences Mode of Transport Choice. - 51 - __Less than 5 minutes __5 min – 15 min __16 min – 30 min __More than 30 minutes 15. Which mode of transport do you use to go from your accommodation to leisure areas? __Car __Scooter __Public Transport __Bike __On foot (more than 20 minutes) __Other non-motorized modes of transport (electric scooter, segway, electric bike, etc.) 16. What is the approximate distance you need to cover to go from your accommodation to leisure areas? __Less than 2 km __2 km – 5 km __6 km – 15 km __More than 15 km 17. What is the approximate time it takes you to go from your accommodation to leisure areas? __Less than 5 minutes __5 min – 15 min __16 min – 30 min __More than 30 minutes 18. Do you use any kind of digital application related to transport? __Ride sharing apps __Scooter sharing apps __Public transport apps __Bike sharing apps __Non-motorized modes of transport apps __None 19. What mode of transport do you usually use as a tourist in a different city? __Car __Scooter __Public Transport __Bike __On foot (more than 20 minutes) __Other non-motorized modes of transport (electric scooter, segway, electric bike, etc.) 20. What mode of transport would you ideally like to use as a tourist in a different city? __Car __Scooter __Public Transport __Bike __On foot (more than 20 minutes) __Other non-motorized modes of transport (electric scooter, segway, electric bike, etc.) Part 3: Questions regarding urban mobility and mode of transport perception 21. Sort the following modes of transport according to their convenience in the context of urban mobility in Munich/Seville/Kaohsiung. (range from worst to best) 1 – least convenient 2 3 4 5 6 – most convenient Car Scooter Public Transport Bike On foot Other non-motorized modes of transport (electric scooter, Segway, electric bike, etc.) 22. How do you evaluate the following modes of transport? sustainable comfortable fast hygienic safe none Car Scooter Public Transport Bike Hümpfner, Julia - 52 - On foot Other non-motorized modes of transport (electric scooter, Segway, electric bike, etc.) 23. Sort the following attributes according to the importance they have for your mode of transport choice. (range from worst to best) 1 – least important 2 3 4 5 6 – most important Sustainable Comfortable Fast Hygienic Safe 24. I feel that the public transport network in Munich/Seville/Kaohsiung is… 1 – strongly disagree 2 disagree 3 - neutral 4 - agree 5 – strongly agree Extensive (I can go anywhere in the city) Reliable (I can count on its good functioning) Frequent (I can take it every few minutes) Punctual (I can arrive at my destination on time) 25. Do you feel like there is a social norm established in Munich/Seville/Kaohsiung on which mode of transport is considered the ‘normal’ one to use? If yes, please select the mode of transport considered normal by the population of Munich/Seville/Kaohsiung. __No __Yes, car is the normal mode of transport __Yes, scooter is the normal mode of transport __Yes, public transport is the normal mode of transport __Yes, bike is the normal mode of transport __Yes, walking is the normal mode of transport __Yes, non-motorized modes of transport (electric scooter, Segway, electric bike, etc.) is the normal mode of transport 26. Which mode of transport do you feel that tourists in Munich/Seville/Kaohsiung use most? __Car __Scooter __Public Transport __Bike __On foot (more than 20 minutes) __Other non-motorized modes of transport (electric scooter, segway, electric bike, etc.) Part 4: Questions regarding cultural aspects 27. You are meeting your friends at 5 pm, when do you plan to be at the agreed location? __More than 10 min early, before 16:50 __Up to 10 min early, approximately 16:50-16:59 __On time, 17:00 __Up to 10 min late, approximately 17:01-17:10 __More than 10 min late, after 17:10 28. When you are meeting your friends, how long do you usually wait for them to arrive? __No waiting __Less than 5 min __5 min-10 min __11 min-15 min __more than 15 min 29. Are you a time conscious person? TFG - Grado en Turismo. Are E-Micromobilities Revolutionizing Urban Transport? A Valorization of how Culture Influences Mode of Transport Choice. - 53 - __Yes, I check the time very often __So so, I only check the time when I am on a schedule __No, I seldom check the time 30. In university, what kind of assignments do you prefer? __group work __individual work 31. What kind of task structure do you prefer? __personalized feedback on my work __general feedback 32. Amongst the following items, which do you consider most important? Maintain order in the country Give people more say in important government decisions Fight rising prices Protect freedom of speech Priority 1 Priority 2 33. Amongst the following items, which do you consider most important? Stimulating economic development Securing environmental protection Introducing digitalisation and innovation Diversifying the labour market Priority 1 Priority 2 34. To what level of detail do you plan your freetime activities? __every detail is prepared __a good plan __just a rough idea __no plan at all 35. Do you feel stressed in your daily routine? __Yes, I easily feel stressed __So so, I am doing fine __No, I seldom feel stressed 36. How do you feel about the following statement? Rules should not be broken, even when having good intentions. __Yes, I agree __So so, depends on the situation __No, I disagree