A ten-year literature review of Entrepreneurship Education in Higher Education: Entrepreneurship and Sport Sciences, a gap to fill?

Title: A ten-year literature review of Entrepreneurship Education in Higher Education: Entrepreneurship and Sport Sciences, a gap to fill? Authors: Ana Naia, FMH, Technical University of Lisbon, Lisbon, Portugal Carlos Januário, FMH, Technical University of Lisbon, Lisbon, Portugal Virgínia Trigo, ISCTE – Lisbon University Institute Rui Baptista, IST, Technical University of Lisbon, Lisbon, Portugal Contact information: [email protected], [email protected]; +351964157708 Abstract The present research aims to analyze entrepreneurship education in higher education developments in the last 10 years in what concerns to educational product and process and to justify the importance of promoting entrepreneurship education in Sport Sciences undergraduate courses. Several trends and improvements emerge in this 10-year literature review reflecting the increasing expansion of the field. However some gaps still exists, such as main focus on business and engineering fields and lacking uniformity in the programs and methods proposed. Due to complementarities between Sports and Entrepreneurship a specific context was analyzed and it was shown that Entrepreneurship can occur in all areas and Sport Sciences students can benefit of this interaction. Our study contributes to theoretical development providing an overview of the current state of the field, highlighting main trends and gaps, opening avenues of research, such as the case of Sport Sciences and a new concept is proposed, of job-innovators. Introduction Entrepreneurship education has evolved and it’s clear the enormous proliferation of courses in business schools in the early 1970s, since the first entrepreneurship course was proposed in 1947 (Vesper & Gartner, 1997; Klofsten, 2000; Solomon et al, 2002; Katz, 2003; Kuratko, 2005). Entrepreneurship education can be part of the solution to face new demands and new challenges and we believe that entrepreneurial competences should be part of the curriculum of higher education in all areas. In Portugal there is no tradition in teaching Entrepreneurship, and although entrepreneurship courses start to appear, is not yet a common practice in Sport Sciences. Our research problem was the absence of a curriculum that promotes entrepreneurship education in Sport Sciences undergraduate courses, in a specific context, and according to actual trends, we consider that a major flaw. Through a 10-year literature review in the field of entrepreneurship education in higher education, based on published articles in leading journals in the areas of Business, Management and Entrepreneurship in the context of Higher Education, and content analysis, we are going to identify main gaps, and then justify the importance of promoting entrepreneurship education in Sport Sciences undergraduate courses. Gorman, Hanlon and King (1997) have conducted a ten-year literature review of entrepreneurship education (1985-1994) and although Kuratko (2005) mentions some articles of the “New Millennium”, we didn’t find any article which focuses in the last ten-year literature review. This paper is organized as follows: First we present the 10 year literature review in entrepreneurship education in higher education. Second we justify the importance of promote entrepreneurship education in Sport Sciences, in a particular context. Third we conclude and discuss the implications and limitations associated with our findings, providing suggestions for future research. Entrepreneurship Education: a 10-year literature review Methodology Data and Procedures Papers selected for our study were restricted to those published in leading journals specialized in Business, Management and Entrepreneurship in the context of Higher Education. Most of these journals were chosen because they are representative of entrepreneurship education studies in Higher Education. Our study is limited to the last ten years and our search is limited to the internet available issues. We conducted two searches for articles about entrepreneurship education in Higher Education from the last 10 years: 1) in leading journals: Journal of Business Venturing (2000-2011), Academy of Management Learning & Education 2002-2010), Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice (2002-2011), Entrepreneurship & Regional Development (2000-2011), Journal of Small Business Management (2001-2011), Small Business Economics (2000-2011), International Entrepreneurship Management Journal (2005-2011), International Small Business Journal (2000-2011). 1) in b-on database, thereby adding new journals to the initial research - but limited to the articles found - (Technology Analysis & Strategic Management, International Journal of Business and Globalization, International Journal of Entrepreneurship and Small Business, Industry & Higher Education, Journal of Business Economics and Management, Journal of European Industrial Training, Journal of Enterprising Culture, Comportamento Organizacional e Gestão, Journal of Small Business, Enterprise Development and European Journal of Engineering Education and Journal of European Industrial Training). We look for the following keywords in the title and articles abstract: “entrepreneurship education”, “educating entrepreneurship”, “teaching entrepreneurship”, “entrepreneurial university”, “entrepreneurship faculty” and “academic entrepreneurship”. The searches retrieved 41 journal articles with the distribution shown in Table 1. Table 1. Distribution of the journal articles Data analysis Articles were first categorized according to focus (empirical or descriptive/theoretical), such as Gorman, Hanlon and King (1997) in their ten-year literature review. They were then further organized in three different categories according to their content: Educational Process (models and methods, theories and competencies, materials); Educational Practice (presentation, analysis and evaluation of entrepreneurship programs; influence of entrepreneurship education (and other factors) in venture creation or start-up intentions); Framework and conceptual evolution (current state of the field in different countries; categorization and boundaries of entrepreneurship education and related concepts). Gorman, Hanlon and King (1997) also grouped their articles by content, however just one of the groups is similar (educational process), probably due to the different purposes and organization of the articles. The next section will outline the results of this review. First we analyze briefly the research methods, the data/sample, and the definitions of entrepreneurship education used in all articles reviewed. Then we present the articles main findings organized in the three categories: Educational Process, Educational Practice and Framework and Conceptual Evolution. Research methods From the articles analyzed, sixteen are empirical and eighteen are descriptive/conceptual. As regards the research methodology, six studies used qualitative methodology, such as content analysis (Katz, 2003; Bechard, 2005; Redford, 2006; Pittaway & Cope 2007; Yusof & Jain, 2010) and Systematic Literature Review (SLR) (Pittaway & Cope 2007). Journal Nº articles Journal of Business Venturing 4 Academy of Management Learning & Education 7 Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice 1 Entrepreneurship & Regional Development 2 Journal of Small Business Management 1 Small Business Economics 1 International Entrepreneurship Management Journal 9 International Small Business Journal 1 Technology Analysis & Strategic Management 2 International Journal of Business and Globalization 1 International Journal of Entrepreneurship and Small Business 1 Industry & Higher Education 3 Journal of Business Economics and Management 1 Journal of Enterprising Culture 2 Comportamento Organizacional e Gestão 1 Journal of Small Business and Enterprise Development 1 European Journal of Engineering Education 2 Journal of European Industrial Training 1 Eight studies used quantitative methodology, such as statistical techniques (Klofsten & Jones- Evans, 2000; Lena & Wong, 2003; DeTienne & Chandler, 2004; Lee, Chang & Lim, 2005; Solomon, 2007; Edelman, Manolova & Brush, 2008; Rodrigues, Raposo, Ferreira & Paço, 2010; Teixeira, 2010; Kirby & Ibrahim, 2011; Liñán, Rodríguez-Cohard & Rueda-Cantuche, 2011; Dutta, Li & Merenda, 2011; Sánchez, 2011; Giacomin, Janssen, Pruett, Shinnar, Llopis & Toney, 2011 ). One study (Heinonen, Poikkijoki & Vento-Vierikko, 2007) employed a mixed-methods approach. The remaining pieces did not specify the methods used. In what concerns to the research methods most frequently used, there is a balance between quantitative and qualitative methodologies. In the articles reviewed qualitative methodologies through content analysis have been used to analyze a variety of documents (papers, courses, interviews….) and most quantitative methodologies through different statistical techniques have been used to analyze surveys. This trend is consistent with the suggestions of Gartner, Bird and Star (1992) that emphasize the importance to open the array of methodologies used to study entrepreneurship, bucking the trend of using quantitative methods rather than the qualitative to study this phenomenon. There are also some improvements comparing to the last ten-year literature review of entrepreneurship education (Gorman, Hanlon, & King, 1997) in what concerns to the use of pre- and post-testing, in the use of theory to derive study hypotheses and in the description of the research sample. Data/Sample Studies that follow a qualitative approach, usually analyze different documents and studies that follow a quantitative approach analyze surveys. In this topic we are going to focus on the targeted groups for those surveys. Several countries appear, where USA is no longer the main focus that now extends to Europe and Asia: USA (Lee, Chang & Lim; 2005; DeTienne & Chandler, 2004; Dutta, Li & Merenda, 2011; Giacomin, Janssen, Pruett, Shinnar, Llopis & Toney, 2011); Singapore (Lena & Wong (2003); Korea (Lee, Chang & Lim; 2005); China, India and Belgium (Giacomin, Janssen, Pruett, Shinnar, Llopis & Toney, 2011); Greece (Papayannakis, Kastelli, Damigos & Mavrotas, 2008); Finland (Heinonen, Poikkijoki & Vento-Vierikko, 2007); Switzerland and Ireland (Klofsten & Jones-Evans, 2000); Netherlands (Bonnet, Quist, Hoogwater, Spaans & Wehrmann, 2006); Egypt (Kirby & Ibrahim, 2011); Spain (Liñán, Rodríguez-Cohard & Rueda-Cantuche, 2011; Sánchez, 2011; Giacomin, Janssen, Pruett, Shinnar, Llopis & Toney, 2011); and Portugal (Rodrigues, Raposo, Ferreira & Paço , 2010; Teixeira, 2010). Lee and Rhoads (2004) and Solomon (2007) analyze National Surveys of colleges and universities in USA and Klandt (2004) analyze a survey of 49 entrepreneurship professorships of German-language countries while Bager (2011) analyzed entrepreneurship camps in Denmark. As regards the distribution of the samples according to area of knowledge most studies still focus in economics/business (Lena & Wong, 2003; DeTienne & Chandler, 2004; Lee, Chang & Lim, 2005; Rodrigues, Raposo, Ferreira & Paço, 2010; Kirby & Ibrahim, 2011; Liñán, Rodríguez-Cohard & Rueda-Cantuche, 2011; Dutta, Li & Merenda, 2011) and in engineering (Klofsten & Jones-Evans, 2000; Lena & Wong, 2003; Bonnet, Quist, Hoogwater, Spaans & Wehrmann, 2006; Papayannakis, Kastelli, Damigos & Mavrotas, 2008; Rodrigues, Raposo, Ferreira & Paço, 2010). However there is a growing trend to include other areas, and there are studies that focuses in all scientific disciplines and subjects (Teixeira, 2010; Sánchez, 2011; Giacomin, Janssen, Pruett, Shinnar, Llopis & Toney, 2011). Definitions of entrepreneurship education In most articles analyzed, there is a lack of an agreed-upon definition of what entrepreneurship education is. Across the 41 pieces of literature we reviewed, only three provided specific definitions for the term entrepreneurship education (Poikkijoki and Vento- Vierikko, 2007; Solomon, 2007), or reflections about the concept (Fayolle and Gailly, 2008). According to Poikkijoki and Vento-Vierikko (2007) it refers to activities aimed at developing enterprising or entrepreneurial people and at increasing their understanding and knowledge about entrepreneurship and enterprise (p.22) and Solomon (2007) presents a definition of Shepherd and Douglas (1997): The essence of entrepreneurship is the ability to envision and chart a course for a new business venture by combining information from the functional disciplines and from external environment in the context of the extraordinary uncertainty and ambiguity which faces a new business venture. It manifests itself in creative strategies, innovative tactics, uncanny perception of trends and market mood changes, courageous leadership when the way forward is not obvious and so on. What we teach in our entrepreneurship classes should serve to instill and enhance these abilities. An explicit technical and consensual definition of the concept was not found, which led to a variety of concepts to designate this phenomenon: “entrepreneurship education”, “educating entrepreneurship”, “teaching entrepreneurship”, “entrepreneurial university”, “entrepreneurship faculty” and “academic entrepreneurship”. Each author defines the concept used in the article and provides definitions that are situated in specific contexts, in the light of other definitions, usually from entrepreneurship. Fayolle and Gailly (2008) aware of this gap, analyze several definitions of entrepreneurship education, referring that entrepreneurship definitions have been applied to entrepreneurship education, according to different settings and that this is not a problem. They even suggest that entrepreneurship programs should focus on a clear concept of entrepreneurship, what would help to clarify the entrepreneurship education definition. They argue that the main problem is the lack of a precise definition of entrepreneurship as teaching field, more than the number of existing definitions, where philosophical conceptions about teaching, the role of teacher and the role of students should be clarified in each course. Framework and conceptual evolution Table 2. Journal articles about framework and conceptual evolution As regards to entrepreneurship education structure, Katz (2003) developed the most comprehensive chronology of entrepreneurship education where it’s clear the enormous proliferation of entrepreneurship education courses in business schools in the early 1970s, since the first entrepreneurship course was proposed by Myles Mace at Harvard University in 1947. He concluded that in the USA, the field has reached maturity in business schools; outside business schools demand is growing: entrepreneurship offerings continue to grow in other areas and if new approaches are developed there, business schools are not likely to know, much less to benefit. In a similar vein, Kuratko (2005) refers that there are more than 2,200 courses at over 1600 schools, 277 endowed positions, 44 refereed academic journals, the number of special issues dedicated to entrepreneurship have increased and more than 200 centers. Although the demand and the supply of entrepreneurship faculty have increased during last nine years, reflecting the progress in the field, one could think that the field is well established in what concerns its institutionalization, however there has been no mandate from the American Authors Year Journal Purpose Focus Finkle & Deeds 2001 Journal of Business Venturing To examine if the field of entrepreneurship is moving toward or has been institutionalized as part of the curriculum and research within schools of business and management during the years 1989-1998. Empirical Katz 2003 Journal of Business Venturing To analyze the chronology and intellectual trajectory of American entrepreneurship education 1876-1999. Klandt 2004 Academy of Management Learning & Education To analyze the status of the implementation of professorships in the field of entrepreneurship at universities in German-language countries. Bechard 2005 Academy of Management Learning & Education To take stock of the education preoccupations that animate research on entrepreneurship focusing in the context of higher education. Kuratko 2005 Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice To understand trends and challenges in entrepreneurship education for the 21st century. Descriptive Redford 2006 Comportamento Organizacional e Gestão To make a national survey about entrepreneurship education in Portuguese universities to understand the development of this field in 2004/2005. Empirical Pittaway & Cope 2007 International Small Business Journal To explore different themes within entrepreneurship education using the method of systematic literature review (SLR) and to map out the field of entrepreneurship education thematically. Solomon 2007 Journal of Small Business and Enterprise Development To provide an overview of the current state of entrepreneurship education in the USA for the years 2004-2005. Yusof & Jain 2010 International Entrepreneurship Management Journal To delineate the boundaries of universitylevel entrepreneurship. Assembly of Collegiate Schools of Business for the incorporation of entrepreneurship into the curriculum of all accredited schools (Finkle & Deeds, 2001). Kuratko (2005) also emphasizes the importance of entrepreneurship educators to prepare the future attempting to respond optimally to the challenges of 21st century, expanding their pedagogies to include new and innovative approaches. In this line of thought and regarding new millennium, where technological progress and its application to teaching is one of the main trends, Solomon (2007) found that the use of technology has increased and the Internet is playing a major role in providing entrepreneurship education and he emphasizes the need to focus in the quality of the content presented, rather than quantity and style. In what concerns to the German-speaking Europe, Klandt (2004) conclude that entrepreneurship education is growing, where entrepreneurship business formation is institutionalized and more and more universities offer programs on that topic. As regards Portugal, Redford (2006) found two trends in entrepreneurship education: the teaching of entrepreneurship subjects at different institutions and the development of entrepreneurship centers. During academic year of 2004/2005 27 courses were taught in Portugal, reflecting the progress in this area, in a country where entrepreneurship is not culturally rooted. Regarding the systematization of theoretical and conceptual knowledge Bechard (2005) highlights four preoccupations: 1) with the social and economic roles of entrepreneurship education; 2) with the systematization of entrepreneurship education; 3) with the content matter to be taught and how this content should be delivered; 4) with considering the needs of individual students. Pittaway and Cope (2007) through a literature review emphasize some issues: entrepreneurship education has had an impact on student propensity and intentionality; lack of consensus on what entrepreneurship or enterprise education actually is; the work that has been carried out usually is conducted in isolation from other important work and areas. Yusof and Jain (2010) argue that an entrepreneurial university is a university that practices academic entrepreneurship and academic entrepreneurship facilitates and encourages university technology transfer between the university and the industry. Educational practice Table 3. Journal articles about educational practice Authors Year Journal Purpose Focus Klofsten & Jones- Evans 2000 Small Business Economics To examine the activities of academics involved with industry within two European countries: Sweden and Ireland. Empirical Lena & Wong 2003 Journal of Enterprising Culture To investigate the relationship between new venture founding and attitude towards entrepreneurial education. Lee & Lim 2005 International Entrepreneurship Management Journal To identify the differences in the impact of entrepreneurship education between U.S. and Korea. Gruner & Neuberger 2006 Journal of Business Economics and Management To give an insight into the problems authors have encountered since they began developing a curriculum for entrepreneur education at University of Stuttgart. Descriptive Bonnet , Quist, Hoogwater, Spaans & Wehrmann 2006 European Journal of Engineering Education To show that is possible to combine entrepreneurship, sustainability and project education successfully in a subject for undergraduate engineering students. Heinonen, Poikkijoki & Vento-Vierikko 2007 Industry & Higher Education To gain a deeper understanding of the entrepreneurship-directed educational approach in a program targeted to natural science students. Empirical Papayannakis, Kastelli, Damigos & Mavrotas 2008 European Journal of Engineering Education To present the experience of the National Technical University in Greece introducing entrepreneurship education in engineering curricula. Descriptive Barbosa , Kickul & Smith 2008 Journal of Enterprising Culture To give an example of an entrepreneurship education program that incorporates the role of entrepreneurial cognition and risk-taking as students critically examine their intentions and then transform them in actions. Rodrigues, Raposo, Ferreira & Paço 2010 International Journal of Entrepreneurship and Small Business To identify the factors that contribute the most to the intention to start up a business; to identify the profile of student who is a potential entrepreneur. Empirical Teixeira 2010 Industry & Higher Education To examine the attitudes of higher education students in Portugal with regard to new venture creation; to evaluate which factors influence their attitudes. Kirby & Ibrahim 2011 International Entrepreneurship Management Journal To compare British and Egyptian Business studies students in terms of their entrepreneurial tendencies and, in an attempt to explain their performance, their brain dominance. Liñán, Rodríguez- Cohard & Rueda- Cantuche 2011 International Entrepreneurship Management Journal To provide empirically-based suggestions for the design of improved entrepreneurship education initiatives. Dutta, Li & Merenda 2011 International Entrepreneurship Management Journal To enhance the understanding of how prospective entrepreneurs benefit from specialized entrepreneurship education combined with a diversified educational experience. Sánchez 2011 International Entrepreneurship Management Journal To test the effect of entrepreneurship education programs on the entrepreneurial competencies and intention of students to start a business. Giacomin, Janssen, Pruett, Shinnar, Llopis & Toney 2011 International Entrepreneurship Management Journal To examine if there are differences among American, Asian and European students in terms of entrepreneurial intentions, dispositions, motivations and perceived barriers for business start-up. Bager 2011 International Entrepreneurship Management Journal To explore and conceptualize the rapidly expanding camp phenomenon in the entrepreneurship teaching field. as intrapreneurs. In what concerns to their competences, all can be maximized through the introduction of Entrepreneurship Education in their curriculum, increasing their innovation, proactiveness and risk taking, becoming better professionals. Table 5. Competences and employment of Sport Sciences students of FMH Entrepreneurial skills are very important in a knowledge-based society and if universities want to survive, they must become entrepreneurial improving their educational offer in order to reduce the gap that sometimes exists, between professional and academic world. Higher education institutions should reflect about the type of curriculum and competences that are offering and the major concern should be not only to create job-seekers and jobcreators (Miclea, 2004; Schulte, 2004), but above all, job-innovators. This concept of jobinnovators is transverse both to job-seekers and job-creators concepts and it seems to be appropriate to meet the needs of a knowledge-based society because there is an increasingly need of professionals who innovate inside their workplaces, whether they work for others (job-seekers), also known as intrapreneurs, or for themselves, creating their own venture (jobcreators), also known as entrepreneurs. Degrees Competences and employment Type of work E N T R E P R E N E U R S ? I N T R A P R E N E U R S ? Sports Management Competences: understand the economics of sport; apply the information systems to sport organizations; plan, manage and track projects directly or indirectly related to the world of sport; contextualize marketing tools to the world of sport; apply the various management paradigms in different organizational contexts in the world of sport. Selfemployment & work for others Employment: Sportive Director, Technical Secretary, Sportive Technician of Autarchy, Sport facilities Director, Operations Manager, Sport events Manager, Sportive Societies Administrator, Product Manager, Commercial Manager, Human resources Manager, Marketing Manager, Adviser and Researcher. Exercise and Health Competences: Assessment, prescription and implementation of exercise programs including the use of different equipment settings and methods; stimulation of teams and initiatives related with the promotion of physical activity. Employment: Fitness Instructor. Sports Coaching Competences: Organizing and managing the training process; analysis of the process of Management and Administration of Sports System; coach education; organization and evaluation of sports events. Employment: Coach and Sport animator. Physical Education Competences: management of teaching and learning; participation in school; promotion of the relationship between school and community; professional development and research. Work for others (schools) Employment: Physical Education Teacher. Conclusion Our research problem was the absence of a curriculum that promotes entrepreneurship education in Sport Sciences undergraduate courses, in a specific context, and according to actual trends in entrepreneurship education, we consider that a major flaw. Through a 10-year literature review in the field of entrepreneurship education in higher education, based on published articles and content analysis, identifying some gaps, we’ve decided to justify the importance of promoting entrepreneurship education in Sport Sciences undergraduate courses. Several trends emerge in this review that reflect the increasing expansion of the field: the use of both quantitative and qualitative methodologies instead of just quantitative; target groups from different countries where US is no longer the main focus that now extends to Europe and Asia; although most studies still focus in economics/business and engineering, other areas of knowledge are included; an increasing use of internet to teach entrepreneurship; focus on the practice and know-how skills, more than in the transmission of knowledge; appeal to active participation of the learner and multidisciplinary; teaching entrepreneurship as a method and the use of camps. Several programs with positive results were present and suggestions shared, reflecting different experiences in a variety of contexts; however is still lacking uniformity in the programs offered, what is in line with Gorman, Hanlon, and King (1997). A variety of methods or models were proposed, based on different approaches, where an appeal for more theory in entrepreneurship courses is made, as well as a review of entrepreneurship textbooks. The development of certain competences is highlighted (cognition, affection, conation, hard facts (“know-what”), soft conviction (“know-why”), opportunity identification, manage the emotions of learning from failure). Gorman, Hanlon, and King (1997) also emphasyze the increasing interest on attributes and skills, active participation and practice related with venture development. Fayolle and Gailly (2008) make an important contribution developing a conceptual framework to improve the design and evaluation of entrepreneurship teaching programs, filling some gaps related with the systematization of the field. The findings show that there are some improvements comparing to the last ten-year literature review of entrepreneurship education (Gorman, Hanlon, & King, 1997), especcialiy in what concerns to the research methods (use of pre- and post-testing, the use of theory to derive study hypotheses and the description of the research sample). However much remains to be done in order to fulfill some gaps, such as: main focus on business and engineering fields and lacking uniformity in the programs and methods proposed. Sports and entrepreneurship have much in common and both can influence and maximize the effects of each other. A specific context was analyzed and it was shown that Entrepreneurship can occur in all areas and Sports Science students can benefit of this interaction and their competences can be maximized through the introduction of Entrepreneurship Education in their curriculum. The concept of job-innovators was proposed and seems to be appropriate to meet the needs of a knowledge-based society, where entrepreneurship education is no longer a matter for debate. In what concerns to implications, we consider that our study contributes to theoretical development providing an overview of the current state of the field highlighting main trends and gaps, opening avenues of research, such as the case of Sport Sciences. It has also practical value in that the findings push forward the need to develop a new curriculum in Sport Sciences. Several limitations have to be kept in mind when considering the findings and conclusions of this paper. Organizing the search as we did, we know we eliminated a wide variety of studies and articles that address issues related with entrepreneurship education. Our categories of analyses fit our purposes but may have left behind important issues. Suggestions for future research emerge from limitations and gaps found in the articles reviewed. Our findings appeal to more research in order to standardize programs and methods, as well as to review textbooks, to create programs that focus on practice and competences development and, to study other areas besides business and engineering. The literature review seeks to advance the theoretical field emphasizing other areas of knowledge that can benefit from the inclusion of the concept of entrepreneurship in their curricula, such as Sport Sciences and, a new concept is proposed, of job-innovators. References Aronsson, M. (2004). "Education Matters - But Does Entrepreneurship Education? An interview with David Birch". Academy of Management Learning & Education, 3(3), 289-292. Bager, T. (2011). "The camp model for entrepreneurship teaching". International Entrepreneurship Management Journal, 7(2), 279-296. Barbosa, S. D., Kickul, J., & Smith, B. R. (2008). 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