Facing The (Un)translatable: Philip Ayres' Translations of Spanish Golden Age Poetry

UNIVERSIDAD DE SEVILLA FACULTAD DE FILOLOGÍA MÁSTER EN ESTUDIOS LINGÜÍSTICOS, LITERARIOS Y CULTURALES TRABAJO FIN DE MÁSTER FACING THE (UN)TRANSLATABLE: PHILIP AYRES' TRANSLATIONS OF SPANISH GOLDEN AGE POETRY ALUMNA: Isabel Romero Serrano TUTORA: María José Mora Sena CURSO 2023/2024 2 TABLE OF CONTENTS ABSTRACT ABBREVIATIONS 1. Introduction ..................................................................................................................................................... 1 2. Literary translation in early modern England .................................................................................................. 2 2.1. Translated literature in the English literary polysystem. ...................................................................... 2 2.2. Translation from the Spanish in early modern England: A brief survey .............................................. 4 2.3. Translation, appropriation, and inspiration. ......................................................................................... 8 3. Philip Ayres and his Lyric Poems ................................................................................................................. 11 4. State of the art ............................................................................................................................................... 13 5. Methodology ................................................................................................................................................. 15 5.1. Analysis and categorisation of the translated poems .......................................................................... 15 5.2. Editorial policy................................................................................................................................... 18 6. Textual Corpus .............................................................................................................................................. 20 6.1. The Restless Lover ............................................................................................................................. 20 6.2. A Sonnet. Platonic Love .................................................................................................................... 21 6.3. On a Child Sleeping in Cynthia’s Lap ............................................................................................... 22 6.4. The Fly ............................................................................................................................................... 23 6.5. Love’s New Philosophy ..................................................................................................................... 26 6.6. On Gold .............................................................................................................................................. 30 6.7. A Sonnet. Out of Spanish, from Don Luis de Gongora. On a Death’s-Head, Covered with Cobwebs, kept in a Library, and said to be the skull of a King ......................................................................................... 31 6.8. A Sonnet. On the Death of Sylvia ...................................................................................................... 32 6.9. Leander Drowned ............................................................................................................................... 33 6.10. A contemplation on Man’s Life. Out of Spanish ............................................................................... 34 7. Analysis......................................................................................................................................................... 35 7.1. Titles .................................................................................................................................................. 35 7.2. Poetic structure................................................................................................................................... 37 7.3. Micro-level analysis ........................................................................................................................... 40 8. Conclusions ................................................................................................................................................... 45 9. Bibliography ................................................................................................................................................. 48 APPENDIX ABSTRACT The introduction of the printing press in the 1470s led to the development of one of the richest periods in the history of English Literature, in which translated pieces played a crucial role. Nonetheless, very little attention has been paid to the role of translations from Spanish poetry during the seventeenth century. In this research paper, ten poems translated by Philip Ayres in 1687 from Spanish to English will be edited and analysed with the goal of characterizing his approach to translation and comparing it to the kinds of translation processes that were popular among poets in the seventeenth century. Additionally, this essay aims to contribute to cultural studies in translation, a field that is being given increasing attention in the academic world, and to vindicate for this discipline the place it deserves in literary history studies. The analysis has proved that Ayres followed the translation practices that were advocated by his contemporaries Denham (1614-1669) and Dryden (1631-1700). He sought resemblance on both the level of poetic structures and the semantic content of the poems, therefore achieving a mixture of dynamic and poetic equivalence in most of his translations. ABBREVIATIONS B.C. Before Christ bk. book c. circa ch. chapter d. deceased DLE Diccionario de la Lengua Española etc. etcetera fl. flourished l. line ll. lines n. note OED Oxford English Dictionary sec. section vol. volume 1 1. Introduction Linguistics, literature and culture converge in the study of translation, a bridge between cultural systems that plays a key role in the history of literature and can only be successfully studied as a complex linguistic activity. Nonetheless, research in the field of literary history to date has tended to focus on the emergence of national playwrights and poets rather than the relevance of translation for the development of vernacular literatures. Therefore, the main objective of this essay is to contribute to cultural studies in translation, a field that is being given increasing attention in the academic world, and to vindicate for translation the place it deserves in literary history studies. The introduction of the printing press in the 1470s led to the development of one of the richest periods in the history of English Literature. Texts from the Latin, Italian, French, and Spanish were translated and printed in England and helped shape the English literary models. However, although some research has been carried out on prose fiction and drama in Spanish- to-English translation 1 , few scholars have been able to draw on research into poetry translation from the Spanish during the early modern period. Perhaps the main limitation of this approach is that poetry translation was sparser at the time, and it is also hard to define exactly which poems were translations and which were reelaborations or simply poems that drew inspiration from Spanish models. This is why the work of Philip Ayres, an English poet from Northamptonshire who translated from the Italian, Latin, Spanish and French from 1667 to 1696, proves extremely valuable for the research questions of this work. In 1687, Ayres published Lyric Poems, Made in Imitation of the Italians of which, many are Translations from other Languages, a collection of translated and original texts including ten poems with Spanish sources. By studying Ayres’ work, we can characterize his approach to translation, answering the question of what it meant for a poem to be a translation, paraphrase or imitation of another text, and name the strategies and techniques that were already used by translators in the seventeenth century, as well as comment on the ways in which the poems were modified to suit the sociopolitical and cultural context of late seventeenth-century England. At the same time, this paper also aims to give visibility to Ayres as a Restoration poet and translator whose work has not been given the attention it deserves. 1 See, for example, Ortiz Salamovich, who analyses English versions of Spanish chivalric romance as examples of translation practice in early modern Europe. 2 This essay will begin by providing readers with some theorical framework and a brief survey on translation from the Spanish in early modern England. It will be followed by a section of bibliographical review that aims to set a clear distinction between the kinds of translation that could be found among the works of seventeenth century translators, as well as to shed light on why poetry translation proved so difficult to writers. Then, after briefly presenting the figure of Ayres and his work, a quick overview of the research that has already been conducted about him will be presented. A discussion on methodology will follow, since the main sections of this paper will consist of an annotated bilingual anthology and a translation analysis that will focus on the techniques applied by Ayres to his translation process and the interference of Ayres’ background and context in his writing. Finally, the main findings will be summarized in the conclusion, and the bibliography used throughout the paper will be listed. 2. Literary translation in early modern England 2.1. Translated literature in the English literary polysystem. The history of literature goes hand in hand with that of literary translation. In his Polysystem Theory, Even-Zohar suggested that publications and the literary tradition of any given culture should be regarded as systems that are part of a structure consisting of concurrent nets-of- relations instead of as conglomerates of isolated elements. Accordingly, translated literature cannot be isolated from “original” literature (Polysystem Theory 292). Instead, the variety of roles which are played by translated texts in a given polysystem should be taken into account when studying the history of national literature and the creation of the canon. Translation may either crystallize national norms or, in certain contexts, actively participate in shaping the literary models of a given culture. Even-Zohar suggests that this depends on the position that translated literature maintains in the literary polysystem: if its position is rather central, it will introduce models and features, such as compositional patterns, and set the norms which shape the canon of the host culture. This would happen, for example, in cases of young literatures which benefit from the works that belong to foreign polysystems to elaborate a new repertoire, or when a change of paradigm or relevant historical moment leads to what Even-Zohar refers to as a “literary vacuum” (“The Position of Translated Literature” 48), which would be eventually filled by foreign models and literary works. On the other hand, if translated literature is situated in the periphery of the polysystem, it will be adapted 3 and modelled after the principles that have been set by vernacular literature and, thus, become “a means to preserve traditional taste” (“The Position of Translated Literature” 49). This was also noted by Lambert in “Literary translation. Research issues,” as follows: Literary translation and literary imports in general are goal-oriented activities designed to fulfil a need in the target literary tradition [...] Within this functional research paradigm, then, it is assumed that all translation activity [...] is guided and shaped by such things as the norms, value scales and models which are prevalent in a given society at a given moment in time. (132) Undoubtedly, studying translated texts in a country during a certain period reveals many particularities that are extremely valuable to literary history. The decisions that are taken by the translators, the censorship of certain elements and the addition of cultural references that are included to bring the foreign text closer to its new readers are key to recognising trends and concerns of both writers and readers. Nowadays, translated literature holds an extremely peripheral position in the English literary polysystem and, consequently, translation is sometimes disregarded as a “secondary activity” by scholars (Bassnett 13). However, it is important to note the relevance that translated literature had in England during the Renaissance. According to Coldiron (17), early modern England’s literary polysystem could be considered peripheral within the European literary polysystem. This would mean that it had a “vacuum” that was to be filled with foreign works, following Even-Zohar’s theory and, therefore, situating translated works from early modern England in the centre of the English literary polysystem. Without looking any further, the first book printed in the English language, Recuyell of the Historyes of Troye (printed by William Caxton and, probably, Colard Mansion in 1473) was a translation from Raoul Lefèvre’s Recoeil des Histoires de Troyes. On that account, due to the importance that translated pieces have for the history of English literature, this paper will offer an analysis of these productions from the early modern period that will be grounded on both translation studies and literary studies, in order to complement previous works which have only dealt with vernacular texts. In particular, the present study will focus on translated poems. As Coldiron declared, “any attention to translation soon shows ‘English’ Renaissance poetry to be inseparable from the ‘englished’ poetry generated in translation” (16). 4 Translation’s crucial role in the development of sixteenth‐ and seventeenth‐century literature and culture can hardly be overstated [...] the translation/reprint culture was in no way dull or derivative, but rather was a charged, long‐term site of aesthetic innovation and experiment. Poetic translation obviously brought foreign content into the English literary system, but it also brought foreign aesthetics, foreign forms, foreign habits of style. (Coldiron 16) 2.2. Translation from the Spanish in early modern England: A brief survey Even though most early modern English translations came from the Italian, French or Latin, Spanish prose and drama were quite popular among English writers from the end of the fifteenth century. Central figures such as Spenser or Shakespeare are said to have been greatly influenced by Spanish sources and the traditions found in Spanish Golden Age works, from the chivalric and maurophile romance, to the novella or the picaresque. They are known to have appropriated many of its forms, genres, and plots (Fuchs 3). Moreover, Spanish also became a popular language among the English elite from the end of the sixteenth century, mainly as a means of commerce and diplomacy. Fuchs cites the example of Gabriel Harvey, a Cambridge scholar and a friend of Spenser’s: In his copy of Antonio de Corro’s The Spanish Grammar (1590), Gabriel Harvey noted: “Praecipue Linguae hodiernarum Negotiationum Anglicarum; Francica et Hispanica” [The main languages of today for English commerce are French and Spanish]. Harvey also kept in his Spanish textbook a running list of the best-sellers that he was presumably looking forward to reading in the original once he had mastered the language, many of which he may have first encountered in English translation. (Fuchs 3) The first Spanish to English translation published in England is said to have been The Book of the Ordre of Chiualry, a translation of El libre del Orde de Cavayleria written in 1275 by Ramon Llull, which was translated and printed by William Caxton in 1484. Then, La Celestina, written by Fernando de Rojas in 1499, was translated into English by John Rastell and published anonymously in London in 1525 under the title Calisto and Melebea: A New Commodye in Englysh in Maner of an Enterlude. The most popular literary translations from Spanish into English from that point onwards were works of prose fiction. Among chivalric romances, Amadís de Gaula was translated and published in London by Thomas Paynel in 1568, bearing the title The Treasurie of Amadis of Fraunce (De Pedro Ricoy 664). Anthony Munday is also usually mentioned as a relevant translator of chivalric romances due to his versions of Amadis of Gaule (published in 1590) 5 and Palmerin d’Oliva (1589), although it must be noted that he did not translate from the original sources but used the French editions as source texts instead. As for pastoral narrative, Jorge de Montemayor’s series Los siete libros de la Diana (1559) was entirely translated by Bartholomew Yong and published in London in 1598 under the title Diana of George of Montemayor. Regarding picaresque novels, Lazarillo de Tormes, which was anonymously published in Spain in 1554, was translated by David Rowland and published in London just a few decades later, in 1586, under the name of The Pleasaunt Historie of Lazarillo de Tormes (Davies). That edition included an address to the reader written by the poet George Turberville, in which he did not only mention that the book had originally been written in Spain, but also praised Rowland’s work as a translator and urged the readers to acknowledge his efforts: “The writer meant but well, / and he that tooke the paine, / To turne it to our mother tongue, / the readers thankes would gaine / [...] Let Roulande haue reward for this his taken paine” (Turberville H7v-H8r). Finally, there were also translations of important works on mystical theology, such as Louis of Granada’s Libro de la oración y meditación (1556). An English edition was published in Paris by Thomas Brumeau in 1582, under the name Of Prayer, and Meditation. Later, Saint Teresa of Ávila’s Libro de la vida (1588) was also printed in English in Antwerp in 1611 as The Lyf of the Mother Teresa of Iesus. It had been translated by someone who signed as W.M. and was probably Michael Walpole or William Malone (Spinnenweber 1). These translations were not published in England, most likely due to the religious conflict between England and Spain, as well as the censorship practices of the Tudors, who aimed to suppress seditious, treasonous and oppositional religious writing (Clegg 1). Instead, they were printed in Antwerp and Paris, where publishing was heavily concentrated after the second half of the sixteenth century. As Barbara Fuchs explains in The Poetics of Piracy: Emulating Spain in English Literature (1-12), this explosion in Spanish prose continued throughout the seventeenth century and made it “an irresistible literary source” for early modern England, in spite of the imperial rivalry that existed between the two nations and the deterioration of the political situation between them that took place as a consequence of the Reformation and the Anglo-Spanish War (1585-1604). 6 Consequently, both prose and dramatic Spanish works were consistently translated during the rest of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries in England. Cervantes’ Don Quijote de la Mancha was translated for the first time into English in 1620 by Thomas Shelton (The History of Don-Quichote), shortly followed by Mateo Alemán y del Nero’s Guzmán de Alfarache, which was translated and published by James Mabbe in 1622 as The Rogue. Soon after, Mabbe wrote a new version of La Celestina, published under the name The Spanish Bawd, Represented in Celestina: Or the Tragicke-Comedy of Calisto and Melibea (1631). Finally, Mabbe also translated the Novelas ejemplares by Cervantes, which were published in 1640 as Exemplarie Nouells in Sixe Books. Interestingly, although the literary transmission from Spain into England was undoubtedly relevant for the formation of the English literary canon, only Italy and France’s connections to and from England have been historically recognized in most scholars’ work, while the influence of Spain has been unfortunately disregarded (see Fuchs 5). In terms of Spanish poetry in England and its translation, there is even less groundwork. One of the reasons for this lack of critical attention might be that in comparison to French and Italian poetry, Spanish verse was scarcely translated by English writers during the seventeenth century. There were a few English translators who chose to translate poetry from Spain, such as William Drummond, Thomas Stanley, Richard Fanshawe or Philip Ayres, and in Wilson (47) and Mirollo’s (252-54) work, poets such as Donne, Herbert or Crashaw are proclaimed to have read Spanish poetry. Nonetheless, translations of Spanish poetry during the Renaissance were few, especially compared to those of prose and drama. Del Río argues that the main reason could be the “animosity and fear English people had toward Catholic Spain” (“Fascination and Fear” 123), although the amount of prose and theatre translations that can be found contradicts this opinion, as prose works kept being translated into English even during the years of war between the two countries. Young, on the other hand, states that another reason might be the difficulties that poetry translation entails: Translations of the Spanish poetry of the period, however, are few in number and not well known; they also suffer from the basic impossibility of effectively rendering lyric poetry in another language—especially for the purpose of a critical examination of imagery, versification, and tone. (Young 6) 13 In the preface, he implies that all three kinds of translation processes proposed by Dryden could be discerned among his poems. He mentions that he had tried to translate poems from the Greek as closely to the originals as possible, while he had paraphrased or taken inspiration from the Italian and Spanish sources. Additionally, he admits that he purposely omitted the names of the original authors in some cases and gives two reasons for this: first, that he wanted it to be impossible to distinguish his original poems from the translations and, secondly, that some of the translations were so different from the sources that they did not deserve to be considered pieces written by the original poets. He argues that this kind of practice should not be considered theft, since old poets like Virgil also imitated authors like Homer, and that this art of writing poetry drawing on previous poets is even commended by Horace in his Art of Poetry (A7r). In this paper, only the poems that have been identified as translations from the Spanish will be selected and edited as one anthology. However, before that, an interesting sonnet should be mentioned as well. In a presumable attempt to showcase his abilities in Spanish and prove that he could not only translate from it, but also express himself in the language, Ayres included in Lyric Poems a sonnet called “Soneto Español de Don Felipe Ayres. En alabanza de su Ingenioso Amigo, Don Pedro Reggio, vno de los mayores Musicos de su tiempo” (102). This is a sonnet which seems to have been composed by Ayres himself in Spanish, dedicated to a musician called Pedro Reggio 3 . Even though it contains some errors due to the linguistic interference of his mother tongue, such as the use of “admiration” instead of “admiracin,” the structure and choice of vocabulary proves he had mastered a high level of Spanish proficiency. 4. State of the art Ayres is one of the poets that George Saintsbury included in the second volume of Minor Poets of the Caroline Period, a scholarly edition in which Saintsbury compiles and annotates some of the most representative works by minor figures of the seventeenth century. His aim in putting together this collection was to make up for the “neglect of minorities” that he found in literary history, which he considered “a fatal mistake” (iii). In his prefatory note to the second 3 Pietro Francesco Reggio (1632-1685); an itinerant musician from Italy who travelled across Europe. Although there seems to be no official record of his visit to Spain, the inscription on his tombstone—which says that he toured Spain, Germany, Sweden, and France (Rose 215-126)—and Ayres’ poem indicate that he did spend time in the country. 14 volume, he mentions how only a really small portion of the work of Ayres had been reprinted, as well as how in the twentieth century Ayres was only known for his appearance in Arthur Henry Bullen’s Musa Proterva: Love-poems of the Restoration (1889). He adds that Ayres “is an almost unique example of the Caroline temper prolonged into other days” (iii), since he “maintained the tastes, the traditions, the style even to some extent, of the reign of Charles I” (265). In his chapter on Ayres (263-365), Saintsbury gives a brief introduction to the poet. He also remarks that he had no intention of arguing about the originality or plagiarism found among Ayres’ poems and that he was not keen on looking for the source texts. Then, the introduction is followed by annotated editions of Lyric Poems and Emblemata Amatoria. Saintsbury’s work is the source of inspiration for Mario Praz’s “Stanley, Sherburne and Ayres as Translators and Imitators of Italian, Spanish and French Poets,” an article in which Praz investigates the original sources of some of the texts published by the three Caroline poets. In the second part of his article, Praz gives a list of the verses from Lyric Poems next to their presumed sources and annotates which poems had also been translated by other poets apart from Ayres. Ayres is also one of the protagonists of Hagestad’s thesis Restoration Patronage, as well as del Río’s The Context of Translation: Re-producing Spanish Poetry in Seventeenth-Century England. While Hagestad focuses on the dedications, panegyrics and further addresses to patrons found in the work of English writers in the second half of the seventeenth century, del Río attempts to defend the idea that a mixture of fascination and fear of Spain can be found in the translations made by Stanley, Fanshawe and Ayres. In his thesis, del Río repeatedly suggests that many of the decisions taken by Ayres have a political foundation, such as the fact that Ayres avoided citing the source text author: “perhaps Ayres did not want his English readers to know that the source of his translation combined the three ingredients that caused an English audience the most discomfort about Spain: politics, royalty and religion” (194). On a similar note, in 2019 del Río published an article called “Fascination and Fear: Philip Ayres’ translations of Spanish Verse,” which is based on the same idea. 15 5. Methodology 5.1. Analysis and categorisation of the translated poems The poems studied in this paper have been analysed from an eclectic framework which integrates ideas from literary and cultural studies and work on cognitive linguistics, applied to the translation theory proposed by authors such as Nida, Snell-Hornby, or Molina and Hurtado Albir. First, the poems that Ayres translated from the Spanish have been selected and identified with the help of Remigio Ugo Pane’s English Translations from the Spanish, 1484-1943, as well as the online catalogues of the Royal Spanish Academy and the Biblioteca Digital Hispánica. The original poems have been included in the corpus next to their English translations, to create a bilingual anthology. For the source texts, Spanish editions from the sixteenth or seventeenth centuries have been picked, since they could be considered to be the closer editions to the originals that Ayres must have had access to. The following table presents the complete list of selected poems. Only three of them were presented as translations by Ayres; the notes that Ayres added to the title of those poems have been included in the third column of the table. First line of ayres’ poem Source text: author and first line Note The Birds to wanton in the Air desire Francisco Gómez de Quevedo y Villegas, “Està la Ave en el Aire con sosiego” Chast Cynthia bids me love but hope no more Francisco Gómez de Quevedo y Villegas, “Mandome, ai Fabio, que la amase Flora” Sleep, Happy Boy, there sleep and take thy Rest Francisco Gómez de Quevedo y Villegas, “Descansa en sueño, ô, tierno i dulce pecho” Out of the Wine-Pot cry'd the Fly Francisco Gómez de Quevedo y Villegas, “Dixo a la Rana el Mosquito” “Out of Spanish from Don Francisco de Quevedo” 16 Who'e're a Lover is of Art Francisco Gómez de Quevedo y Villegas, “Qvien nueua Sciencia, i Arte” This Glitt'ring Metal, Dazler of the Eyes Francisco Gómez de Quevedo y Villegas, “Este metal, que resplandece ardiente” This Mortal Spoil which so neglected lies Diego de Saavedra Fajardo, “Este mortal despojo, ò Caminante” “Out of Spanish, from Don Luis de Gongora” Oh Death! without regard to wrong or right Garcilaso de la Vega, “O Hado essecutivo en mis dolores” Tho' Winds, and Seas oppose their utmost Spight Garcilaso de la Vega, “Passando el mar Leandro el animoso” Vile Composition, Earth inspir'd with Breath Juan López de Úbeda, “Ceniza espiritada, vil mixtura” “Out of Spanish” To categorise the poems and select the most relevant features that would be analysed and discussed in this work, the macro-structure of each poem was examined first, followed by the micro-units. This methodology is based on Snell-Hornby’s, who proposed a text analysis for the translation process that is not to be made in parts, but as a whole (28, 35). She argued that even the individual words, which are part of the micro-level analysis, should not be considered as isolatable items, but as part of a continuum: they should be analysed in terms of their relevance and function within the text. In broad strokes, Snell-Hornby suggested that the cultural context surrounding the work ought to be analysed first, followed by the structure of the text and the relationship between the title and the main body. Afterwards, the different strategies and choices made by the translator should be taken into account (69-78). In the case of the poems studied here, the cultural context, which has been briefly presented in previous sections of this paper, is the same for all texts. For the macro-level analysis, the choice of titles will be considered and the poetic structure of each source and target poem will be examined. Then, the most interesting micro-level translation techniques employed by Ayres will be commented on. To name the multiple techniques that Ayres intentionally or unintentionally applied to his translating process, the terminology from Molina and Hurtado Albir’s “Translation Techniques Revisited: A Dynamic and Functionalist Approach” will be followed. 17 In “A Comparative Study of Roy Campbell’s Translations of the Poetry of Federico García Lorca,” Marcia Stephanie Lockett, who undertook a similar study to this one, divided the translated texts from her corpus into three groups, which she referred to as “classes.” Class 1 comprised word-for-word prose translation of the poems; Class 2 included “line-for-line” translations (Lockett 34) with close correspondence to the linguistic content of the originals and, finally, Class 3 was integrated by “re-creations” (Lockett 25) or less faithful imitations. These three classes were analysed from the perspective of the translator’s aim. Poems from Class 1 had been translated with the intention to create texts that would show readers the words chosen by the original author, while those from Class 3 aimed to make the target readers’ experience as similar as possible to the source readers’. Now, while the translator’s aim can usually be situated in a continuum that is delimited by these two options and goes from formal equivalence to dynamic equivalence (Nida 159), Lockett suggested extending it to include poetic equivalence as well. She argued that this third kind of equivalence is what the translator tries to achieve when imitating a poem and giving the “poetic message” priority over the linguistic meaning. This third kind of equivalence is relevant to Ayres’ case, since none of his translations are written in prose. Instead, he sought resemblance on both the level of poetic structures and the semantic content of the poems. This is to say, he tried to imitate metre and rhyme, even if it meant employing translation techniques that would usually be considered “unnecessary” (e.g. omission or addition of lexical or grammatical units). Due to the fact that none of the texts from our corpus are a word-for-word translation, Lockett’s classification does not apply to this study. Nonetheless, Ayres’ translations could be situated in the continuum suggested by Lockett, which, in turn, can also be connected with the three kinds of translation proposed by Dryden, as shown in the following figure: This will be relevant for our conclusions. Nonetheless, since all three kinds of translation are present in each poem to a certain degree and most of the poems in our corpus are a mixture of paraphrase and imitation, the results of our analysis will be organized in different subsections, 18 instead of following a division in classes as the one suggested by Lockett. Each subsection will focus on one aspect from the theoretical framework that can be used to elucidate the reasons why Ayres made the decision to employ certain translation techniques. 5.2. Editorial policy The texts have been catalogued and edited with the primary objective of providing modern readers with a corpus that reproduces the original texts as closely as possible, which is why spelling, capitalisation and punctuation have been replicated after the chosen copy texts. Each poem is preceded by a table which offers basic information on the Spanish source text. In particular, the tables indicate the following: original author, title of the book where the source text can be found, year of publication and editor. Then, in terms of the layout, the target and source texts have been presented in two parallel columns. Whenever possible, the stanzas of both texts have been aligned, with the aim of making it clearer to identify the parts of the target text that resemble the ideas from the source text, and the lines or stanzas that have been created from scratch by Ayres. In terms of the changes and emendations made, the spelling has been subjected to the smallest amount of modernization necessary to avoid confusion. In this matter, early modern printing types like the long -s have been regularised. For example, “reſted” has been rendered “rested” (text 6.3, l. 5). “&c.” has also been rendered “etc.” (text 6.4, l. 13) for ease of reading. Furthermore, italics have been eliminated when they were simply used to mark proper nouns, like in “Cynthia” (text 6.2, l. 1), but have been maintained when they serve other purposes, such as to mark the refrain in poem 6.4 “The Fly.” Next, the texts have been annotated. Although most of the notes refer to the target texts, there are a small number of them which have been added to the source texts due to their interest for the analysis. Two kinds of footnotes can be discerned in this work: glosses, which clarify the meaning of obsolete words, and cultural notes, which provide readers with background information necessary to fully grasp the meaning of the text. Cultural references have been annotated, given their interest for the process of translation, as well as obscure senses of words which could lead to confusion. 19 Lastly, there are two poems, “The Fly” (6.4) and “Love’s New Philosophy” (6.5), which had already been published in Poems by several Hands, and on several Occasions Collected by N. Tate in 1685. The changes between these versions of the poems and those published in Lyric Poems will not be annotated in the footnotes, due to space and time limitations. However, the most pertinent changes will be commented on the analysis and the 1685 versions of the poems will be included in the appendix section of this work. 20 6. Textual Corpus 6.1. The Restless Lover Original author Francisco Gómez de Quevedo y Villegas Reference El Parnasso español: monte en dos cumbres dividido, con las nueve musas castellanas (González de Salas, ed.) Year of publication 1648 Page 219 (wrongly marked as 216 in the edition printed by Diego Diaz de la Carrera in 1648 that is available in the library of the Real Academia Española) The Restless Lover Amante sin reposo The Birds to wanton in the Air desire; Està la Ave en el Aire con sosiego, The Salamander4 sports himself in Fire; En la Agua el Pez, la Salamandra en Fuego, The Fish in Water plays, And of the Earth, I el Hombre, en cuyo ser todo se encierra, Man ever takes possession at his Birth: Està en sola la Tierra5. 5 Only unhappy I, who born to grieve, 5 Io solo, que naci para tormentos, In all these Elements6 at once do live: Estoi en todos estos Elementos. Grief does with Air of Sighs my Mouth supply, La boca tengo en Aire suspirando, My wretched Body on cold Earth does lye, El cuerpo en Tierra está peregrinando, The Streams which from mine Eyes flow Night and Day Los ojos tengo en Agua noche i dia, 10 Cannot the Fire which burns my Heart allay. 10 I en Fuego el coraçon, i la Alma mia. 4 Salamander An amphibian that was widely thought to be resistant to fire and associated with said element. This belief originates from Egyptian hieroglyphs, as well as Aristotle’s works. He suggested that salamanders had such thick skin, that fire could not penetrate through it (Browne 153-154; Scanlan bk. 25, ch. 46). His words were seconded by Pliny the Elder, who declared that these animals lived in fire and were able to extinguish flames thanks to their cold skin (Rackham 413). As can be seen, the relationship between this animal and fire was known both among Spanish readers (l. 2 of the source text), as well as among English readers. 5 Està en sola la Tierra In one of the original manuscripts this line appears as Està sobre la tierra (Alonso Veloso 631). Some scholars argue that the similarity between that version and the Italian per terra, as well as multiple other analogies like the reference to the four elements, evidence that Quevedo imitated Groto’s composition “Stato infelice.” However, Ayres’ version has more in common with Quevedo’s than with Groto’s, so there is no doubt that his poem is a translation from the Spanish. 6 all these Elements Air, fire, water, and earth integrate the set of the four basic elements that classical philosophers thought the Universe was made out of. They appeared first in Empedocles’ works and came up repeatedly in Ancient Greek cosmology texts, such us Aristotle’s. According to Empedocles, these elements would merge to form sensible objects due to an external force, love, while they would be pulled apart by its antithesis, strife (Barbosa de Castilho 915; Kingsley and Parry). The elements appear constantly as a motif in literature, as can be seen in Spenser’s Sonnet 55, ll. 5-8 or Donne’s “The Dissolution,” ll. 9-10. In this case, it is a word-for-word translation of the Spanish todos estos Elementos (l. 6). 21 6.2. A Sonnet. Platonic Love Original author Francisco Gómez de Quevedo y Villegas Reference El Parnasso español: monte en dos cumbres dividido, con las nueve musas castellanas (González de Salas, ed.) Year of publication 1648 Page 213 A Sonnet. Platonic Love7 Amor, que sin detenerse en el affecto sensitivo, passa al Intelectual Chast Cynthia bids8 me love, but hope no more, Mandome, ai Fabio, que la amase Flora, Ne’er wish Enjoyment, which I still have strove I que no la quisiese; i mi cuidado, T’ obey, and ev’ry looser Thought reprove; Obediente i confuso i mancillado, Without desiring her, I her adore. Sin desearla, su belleça adora. 5 What Humane Passion does with Tears implore, 5 Lo que el humano affecto siente i llora, The Intellect Enjoys, when ‘tis in Love Goça el entendimiento, amartelado With the Eternal Soul, which here does move De el espiritu eterno, encarcelado In Mortal Closet9, where ‘tis kept in Store. En el claustro mortal que le athesora. Our Souls are in one mutual Knot combin’d, Amar es conocer virtud ardiente; 10 Not Common Passion, Dull and Unrefin’d; 10 Querer es voluntad interessada, Our Flame ascends, That smothers here below: Grosera i descortès caducamente. The Body made of Earth turns to the same, El cuerpo es tierra i lo serà i fue nada; As Soul t’ Eternity, from whence it came; De Dios procede a eternidad la mente, My Love’s Immortal then and Mistress too. Eterno amante soi de eterna amada. 7 Platonic love According to Neoplatonism, a philosophy based on the ideas of Plato, love was considered a “spiritual impulse, which edifies and completes the lover” (Dawson 132). This concept of love used to refer exclusively to the affection between men (Dawson 134). However, during the 15th century, this philosophy was reformulated to reaffirm women as rational lovers as well. As depicted in Quevedo’s and Ayres’ texts, the heterosexual version of Platonic love celebrated the female mistress while simultaneously denigrating sexual intercourse and physicality (Dawson 136). 8 bids Commands, enjoins, orders, tells with authority (OED v.1 10.b), equivalent to the Spanish mandome (l. 1). 9 Closet A private or secluded room; an inner chamber which was often reserved for prayer (OED n. 1.a), not to be mistaken with a cabinet. Used by Ayres as the equivalence to claustro (l. 8). 22 6.3. On a Child Sleeping in Cynthia’s Lap Original author Francisco Gómez de Quevedo y Villegas Reference El Parnasso español: monte en dos cumbres dividido, con las nueve musas castellanas (González de Salas, ed.) Year of publication 1648 Page 284 On a Child Sleeping in Cynthia’s Lap A una niña mui hermosa, que dormia en las faldas de Lisi Sleep, Happy Boy, there sleep, and take thy Rest, Descansa en sueño, ô, tierno i dulce pecho, Free from the Passions which disturb my Brest; Seguro, ai cielo!, de mi enojo ardiente, Yet know ‘tis Innocence that thee has freed, Mostrandote dichoso i inocente, And lets thee sleep so quiet on this Bed. Pues duermes i no velas en tal lecho. 5 Thy wearied Limbs have sweetly rested here, 5 Bien has a tu cansancio satisfecho, If with less Sun, in a more happy Sphere; Si menor Sol, en mas hermoso Oriente, Whilst in Despair my Soul afflicted lyes, En tanto que mi espiritu doliente, And of meer Envy to behold thee, dyes. De invidia de mirarte està deshecho. Dream, thou enjoy’st more true Felicity, Sueña, que goças de el maior consuelo, 10 Than lavish Fortune can bestow on thee; 10 Que la Fortuna prodiga derrama; That thou, amidst such Pretious Gems, art hurl’d, Que el precio tocas, que enriquece al suelo: Are able to enrich th’insatiate World: That thou, the Phoenix shalt transcend in Fame, Que habitas Phenix mas gloriosa llama, Who sleep’st, and risest, in a Purer Flame10; Que tu eres Angel, que tu cama es cielo, 15 That thou’rt an Angel, Heav’n’s that Lap I view, I nada serà sueño en esta cama. Yet all this while, it is no Dream, but true. 10 the Phoenix ... Flame In classical mythology, the Phoenix was a sacred legendary bird which was mentioned by Herodotus in his stories (Godley 359). It was said to look similar to an eagle and come from Arabia. According to the legend, the Phoenix would burn his father in the temple of Helios, in Egypt, and then bury him in a myrrh egg so that it could rise again. In other versions, the bird would burn itself and, therefore, it would sleep among flames, before being reborn and rising once again (OED phoenix n.1 1). In a third version of the tale the Phoenix dies and releases a worm that turns into a new Phoenix under the sun (Smith). 29 55 That, all things like Effects produce: Bien puede en mi cadena I readily can prove El ser con el no ser, a un mismo punto A Paradox in Love, Estar, por mi mal, junto, And my Conclusion hence deduce; Pues muero al gusto, estoi vivo a la pena, Cold Cynthia to my Zeal yields no Return, 65 I ansi es verdad, Inarda, quando escrivo, 60 Though Ice her Heart, she makes my Heart to burn. Que io soi, i no soi; i muero, i vivo. Whilst in this Torment I remain, Es doctrina engañosa, It is no Mystery Dezir algun Mortal de aqui adelante, To be, and not to be31; Que de si semejante I dye to Joy, and live to Pain. 70 Sus effectos produce qualquier cosa, 65 So that, my Fair, I may be justly sed, Pues Inarda, en mi dulce desconsuelo, To be, and not to be, Alive and Dead. Fuego produxo, siendo toda ielo. No ia en naturaleça El uso vuelve a la costumbre amada; 75 Ni ia la pena usada Pierde de su rigor, i su aspereça: Pues quanto mas me dura mi tormento, Mas su dureça, mas su pena siento. No es ia verdad, que el Todo 80 Es maior que la parte, que en si sella, Pues por estraño modo Io estoi todo en Inarda, i toda ella Està en mi coraçon, dandome guerra, I cierro amante a quien en si me cierra. Now, go, my Song, yet shun the Eyes 85 Cancion de penas mias, Of those ne’er felt Love’s Flame, Huie de el hombre bruto, que no ama. And if my Cynthia blame Pero si Inarda llama 70 Thy Arguments as Sophistries, Tus Argumentos hoi Sophisterias, Tell her, this is Love’s New Philosophy, Dila, que la Arte, que publicas nueva, Which none can understand, but such as try. 90 No se puede entender, sino se prueva. 31 To be, and not to be In his work Metaphysics (bk. 4, sec. 1003a), Aristotle affirmed that it is impossible for any being to be and not to be at the same time. 30 6.6. On Gold Original author Francisco Gómez de Quevedo y Villegas Reference El Parnasso español: monte en dos cumbres dividido, con las nueve musas castellanas (González de Salas, ed.) Year of publication 1648 Page 106 On Gold Al Oro considerandole en su origen, i despues en su estimacion This Glitt’ring Metal, Dazler of the Eyes, Este metal, que resplandece ardiente, In so small Bulk, where so much Mischief lyes, I tanta invidia en poco vulto encierra; Disclaims the Earth, when it has pass’d the Fire, Entre las llamas renunciò la tierra, And then no longer owns the Rock for Sire. Ia no conoce al risco por pariente. 5 When coyn’d, it boasts of Pow’r Omnipotent; 5 Fundido ostenta braço omnipotente, Which Monstrous Birth the long scorn’d Mountains sent: Horror, que a la Ciudad prestò la Sierra, ‘Tis Bane of Peace, ‘tis Nourisher of War; Descolorida Paz, preciosa Guerra, And o’er the World does spread its Venom far. veneno de la Aurora, i de el Poniente. With Confidence this bold Usurper can Este en dineros asperos cortado, 10 Hold Competition with its Former, Man: 10 Orbe pequeño, al hombre le compite Man whose sublimer Soul should upward soar, Los blasones de ser Mundo abreviado. Yet for a God can his own Works adore Laws are remiss when Thou the Pow’r dost git, Palida lei, que todo lo permite, All Vices thou unpunish’d dost permit; Caudal perdido, quanto mas guardado, 15 Torrent of Mischiefs, Source of Ills the worst! Sed que no en la abundancia se remite. The more we drink of thee, the more we thirst. 31 6.7. A Sonnet. Out of Spanish, from Don Luis de Gongora. On a Death’s-Head, Covered with Cobwebs, kept in a Library, and said to be the skull of a King Original author Diego de Saavedra Fajardo Reference Idea de vn principe politico christiano Year of publication 1642 Page 753 A Sonnet. Out of Spanish, from Don Luis de Gongora32. On a Death’s-Head, Covered with Cobwebs, kept in a Library, and said to be the skull of a King Ludibria mortis33 This Mortal Spoil which so neglected lies, Este mortal despojo, ò Caminante, Death’s sad Memento, now where Spiders weave Triste horror de la Muerte en quien la Araña Their Subtil34 Webs, which Innocence deceive, Hilos anuda, i la Inocencia engaña, Whose Strength to break their Toyls cannot suffice. Que à romper lo sutil, no fuè bastante. 5 Saw it self Crown’d, it self Triumphant saw, 5 Coronado se viò, se viò triunfante With Mighty Deeds proclaiming its Renown; Con los trofeos de una i otra hazaña, Its Smiles were Favours, Terrour was its Frown, Fabor su risa fuè, terror su saña, The World of its Displeasure stood in Awe. Atento el Orbe à su Real semblante. Where Pride ordaining Laws did once preside, Donde antes la sobervia, dando leyes 10 Which Land should Peace enjoy, which Wars abide. 10 A la Paz, i à la Guerra, presidia, There boldly now these little Insects nest; Se prenden oi los viles animales. Then raise not, Kings, your Haughty Plumes so high, Que os arrogais à Principes, o Reyes? For in Death’s cold Embraces when you lye, Si en los ultrajes de la Muerte fria Your Bones with those of common Subjects rest. Conmunes sois con los demas Mortales. 32 from Don Luis de Gongora Ayres mistakenly attributes the poem to Góngora (1561–1627), one of the most influential Spanish poets of the era. In his edition of Obras poéticas, bk. 3—a compilation of Gngora’s works— Foulché-Delbosc (131) lists a series of poems doubtfully attributed to Góngora that he decided not to include in the book, and Saavedra Fajardo’s sonnet is mentioned as well. 33 Ludibria mortis Latin for “the playthings of death.” 34 Subtil Fine or delicate (OED subtle adj. 8.a), but also skilfully made or designed (OED subtle adj. 5). 32 6.8. A Sonnet. On the Death of Sylvia Original author Garcilaso de la Vega Reference Garcilasso de la Vega natural de Toledo principe de los poetas castellanos (Thomas Tamaio de Vargas, ed.) Year of publication 1622 Pages C8v-D1r A Sonnet. On the Death of Sylvia Soneto XXV Oh Death! without regard to wrong or right, O Hado35 essecutivo en mis dolores, All things at will thy boundless Rage devours; como sentì tus leies rigurosas! This tender Plant thou hast cut down in spight, cortaste el arbol con manos dañosas And scatter’d on the Ground its Fruit, and Flowers. i esparziste por tierra fruta i flores 5 Our Love’s extinct that with such Ardour burn’d, 5 En poco espacio iazen los amores, And all my Hope of future Pleasure dyes; i toda la esperança de mis cosas, Nature’s chief Master-piece to Earth’s return’d, tornadas en cenizas desdeñosas, Deaf to my Passion, and my grievous Cryes. i sordas a mis quexas i clamores. Sylvia, the Tears which on thy Sepulchre, Las lagrimas que en esta sepultura 10 Hereafter shall be shed, or those now are, 10 se vierten oi en dia, i se vertieron, Thô fruitless, yet I offer them to thee, recibe, aunque sin fructo allà te sean. Until the coming of th’ Eternal Night36 Hasta que aquella eterna noche escura Shall close these Eyes, once happy with thy Sight, me cierre aquestos ojos que te vieron, And give me Eyes with which I thee may see. dexandome con otros que te vean. 35 Hado In classical mythology, an unknown and impersonal power that predetermines the course of events and the destiny of all humans and gods alike (see DLE hado) which is usually referred to in English as “destiny” or “fate.” From the 8th century B.C. on, the Fates were personified as three very old women in mythology and were in charge of determining the individual’s moment of death (Britannica). Ayres has translated it as “Death” (l. 1). 36 Eternal Night The use of the “eternal night” as a metaphor for death finds it roots in Latin poetry, such as Catullus’ poem 5 from Carmina, which ends with nox est perpetua una dormienda (“we must sleep through a perpetual night,” as translated by Burton). 33 6.9. Leander Drowned Original author Garcilaso de la Vega Reference Garcilasso de la Vega natural de Toledo principe de los poetas castellanos (Thomas Tamaio de Vargas, ed.) Year of publication 1622 Pages D2r Leander37 Drowned Soneto XXIX Tho’ Winds, and Seas oppose their utmost Spight, Passando el mar Leandro el animoso38 Joyn’d with the Horrour of a dismal Night, en amoroso fuego todo ardiendo, To keep his word the brave Leander strove, esforçò el viento, i fuesse embraveciendo Honour his Convoy, and his Pilot Love; el agua con un impetu furioso: 5 He long resists the envious Billows Rage, Whose Malice would his generous Flame asswage; 5 Vencido del trabajo presuroso At last, his weary Limbs o’ercome with Pain, contrastar a las ondas no pudiendo: No longer could the mighty Force sustain; i mas del bien que alli perdia muriendo, Then Thoughts of losing Hero made him grieve, que de su propia muerte congoxoso. 10 Only for Hero could he wish to live. With feeble Voice, a while to respite Fate, Como pudo esforçò su voz cansada, He with his Foes would fain capitulate: 10 i a las ondas havlò desta manera, Whilst they against him still their Fury bend, (mas nunca fue su voz dellas oida) Nor these his dying Accents would attend. Ondas, pues no se escusa que io muera, 15 Since to your greater Powers I must submit, dexadme allà llegar, i a la tornada Ye Winds and Seas, at least, this Prayer admit; vuestro furor essecutad en mi vida That with my Faith I may to her comply39, And at return let me your Victim dy. 37 Leander Leander of Abydos, a figure in Greek mythology. Leander was said to be a young man who would swim across the Hellespont (now the Dardanelles) to meet his lover, Hero of Sestos, while she held a torch to guide him. One stormy night, the wind extinguished the torch and Leander drowned under the rolling waves. The next morning, upon seeing his lifeless body on the shore, Hero leaped into the sea and drowned herself. The story was narrated by Ovid in his Heroides, Virgil in his Georgics and Musaeus is his poem Hero and Leander (Britannica). 38 Passando el mar Leandro el animoso In later editions of the poem, Garcilaso’s sonnet is preceded by the inscription “Imitacion de Marcial” (see de Castro 55). This refers to the poem being an imitation of Martial’s epigram number XXVb (“Cum peteret dulces audax Leandro amores”), found in the “De spectaculis liber” section of his Epigrams. Marcial’s epigram was very popular among Spanish writers, as it was also imitated by Gutierre de Cetina (“Leandro, que de amor en fuego ardia”), Fernando de Herrera (“Cuando el osado Leandro”) and even by Montemayor, in book VIII of Diana (“Hero de una alta torre lo mirava”) (Praz 429). 39 comply to accommodate to her desires or wishes (OED v.1 3.a). 34 6.10. A contemplation on Man’s Life. Out of Spanish Original author Juan López de Úbeda Reference Cancionero general de la doctrina cristiana Year of publication 1579 Pages 135v-136r A Contemplation on Man’s Life. Out of Spanish Soneto a la pompa del hombre Vile Composition, Earth inspir’d with Breath, Ceniza espiritada, vil mixtura Man, that at first wert made of Dust and Tears Hombre de poluo y lagrimas formado And then by Law Divine condemn’d to Death; A la mesma miseria subjetado When wilt thou check thy Lusts40 in their Carreers? De que te ensoberueces vil criatura? 5 Change all thy Mirth to Sorrow, and repent, 5 Deshaz la rueda abaxa tu locura That thou so often didst just Heav’n offend, Vomita el ayre de que estas hinchado, Deplore thy precious Hours so vainly spent, Que vn poco de poluo eres, que hollado If thou wilt ‘scape such Pains as have no end. Seras de todos en la sepoltura. The gaping Grave expects thee as its right, Y el cuerpo delicado que regalas 10 ‘Tis a straight place, but can contain with ease, 10 Quanto tu mas le curas mas te atiza Honour, Command, Wealth, Beauty, and Delight, Y essos tus ojos que te engañan tanto. And all that does our Carnal Senses please. Tus vanos pensamientos y tus galas Only th’immortal Soul can never dye, Tu y ello y quanto tienes soys ceniza Therefore on that thy utmost Care employ. Vasura, y podricion, lloro y quebranto. 40 Lusts Pleasures (OED n. 1.b). 35 7. Analysis 7.1. Titles Titles are paratextual elements. As Gérard Genette maintained in Seuils (1987), in the publishing world, texts do not exist by themselves. Instead, their presence in our hands is dependent on a series of paratextual elements that surround the text and prolong it (Genette and Maclean 261). In the case of titles, they may have different goals or functions, such as giving clues about possible connotations or simply informing about the kind of text that they precede. Moreover, they do not only depend on the contents of the text per se, but they also maintain an intertextual relationship with other titles. If a text comprises a single chapter inside of a book or is part of a collection, for example, its title will likely be connected to those of the rest of the texts from the book or collection. In the following table, the titles of both the source and target poems can be found. Nr. Source Target 6.1. Amante sin reposo The Restless Lover 6.2. Amor, que sin detenerse en el affecto sensitivo, passa al Intelectual A Sonnet. Platonic Love 6.3. A una niña mui hermosa, que dormia en las faldas de Lisi On a Child Sleeping in Cynthia’s Lap 6.4. Letrilla Bvrlesca V The Fly. Out of Spanish from Don Francisco de Quevedo 6.5. Nueva Philosophia de Amor, contraria a la que se lee en las Escuelas Love’s New Philosophy 6.6. Al Oro considerandole en su origen, i despues en su estimacion On Gold 6.7. Lvdibria Mortis A Sonnet. Out of Spanish, from Don Luis de Gongora. On a Death’s-Head, Covered with Cobwebs, kept in a Library, and said to be the skull of a King 6.8. Soneto XXV A Sonnet. On the Death of Sylvia 6.9. Soneto XXIX Leander Drowned 6.10. Soneto a la pompa del hombre A Contemplation on Mans Life. Out of Spanish 36 “Soneto XXV” and “Soneto XXIX” (6.8, 6.9), by Garcilaso de la Vega, were titled after the poetic form they adopt, followed by a number that indicates the order in which they appear in Thomas Tamaio de Vargas’ edition of Garcilasso de la Vega natural de Toledo principe de los poetas castellanos. However, since Ayres did not translate the rest of the texts by Garcilaso, he had to change the titles of both poems, due to the fact that these numbers became inconsistent out of context. In the case of “Soneto XXV,” he maintained the reference to the type of composition “A Sonnet,” but added a brief summary of the text: “On the Death of Sylvia.” For “Soneto XXIX,” the title chosen by Ayres, “Leander drowned,” provides readers with the tragic denouement of the poem. Another similar case is “Letrilla Bvrlesca V,” which Ayres named after the main character of the poem, “The Fly.” In this case, he also mentioned the fact that the text was a translation from the Spanish, as well as the original author, Don Francisco de Quevedo, in the title. On other occasions, Ayres offered what would be considered a faithful translation, especially in those cases where the original titles were dedications or referred to the protagonists of the poems. “The Restless Lover” is a translation of “Amante sin reposo” (6.1), and “On a Child Sleeping in Cynthia’s Lap” is a translation of “A una niña mui hermosa, que dormia en las faldas de Lisi” (6.3), although it must be noted that una niña was generalized as “a child,” and that the name of “Lisi” was changed to “Cynthia.” He also maintained “On Gold” as a translation of Al Oro (6.6), even though he omitted the second part of the title from the source poem. Similarly, only the first part of “Nueva Philosophia de Amor, contraria a la que se lee en las Escuelas” (6.5) was included in the target title as “Love’s New Philosophy.” The case of “Amor, que sin detenerse en el affecto sensitivo, passa al Intelectual” (6.2) is quite interesting, because the title in Spanish gives a brief explanation on the kind of love that the poem explores, while Ayres decided to be more straightforward and simply state the name of that type of love: “Platonic Love.” He also mentions the fact that it is a sonnet. For “Soneto a la pompa del hombre” (6.10), on the other hand, Ayres does not indicate that it is a sonnet, although he does mention that his text is a translation from the Spanish and gives an alternative description of the contents of the poem: “A Contemplation on Mans Life.” Lastly, “Ludibria Mortis” (6.7) makes for quite a curious case. Unlike the other texts, this one was not part of a compilation or book of poems. It appeared at the end of Idea de vn principe politico christiano (1642), a book written by Saavedra Fajardo in which he included emblems and essays on the qualities that a prince or governor should have. Each emblem was presented 37 as an engraving followed by a short text in prose, except for “Ludibria Mortis,” which was followed by a sonnet. Ayres must have found it in a book that included Saavedra Fajardo’s poem among texts by other authors, because he incorrectly named it as “A Sonnet. Out of Spanish, from Don Luis de Gongora.” Then, the English title follows as: “Covered with Cobwebs, kept in a Library, and said to be the skull of a King,” which could be considered a description of the engraving and analysed as a kind of compensation strategy. 7.2. Poetic structure Apart from the number of connotations found in poetic texts, as mentioned above (2.3), another reason why poetry is usually considered to be more difficult to translate than prose is the set of structural norms that is inherent to this kind of text. The conventions found in the source system may not be the same as the ones commonly used in the target system, and the translator has to choose between ignoring the poetic structure, trying to select a form that works as an equivalent or imitating the source structure, even if it may seem foreign to the target readers. Sometimes, translators sacrifice poetic structure in order to prioritize meaning or provide target readers with what is considered to be a more faithful translation of the original. This is the kind of translation that Lockett grouped in her first class of poems, made out of word-for- word prose translations. While word-for-word or literal translations are generally said to be more faithful by monolingual readers, even though the notion of literal meaning is questionable in itself (see 7.3.2), prose translations of poetry are not as common as one would expect. Instead, this is accepted “only when it serves a particular, usually non-poetic, purpose” (Lockett 32). In fact, most poem translations attempt to provide the target reader with a similar aesthetic experience to the one provided by the source text. This is the case of Ayres’ translations, which are all written in verse. However, the way he approached the structure of each source poem and transferred it to English was not the same in every case. In some of his translations, Ayres managed to produce versions which maintained the same number of lines as their source: “The Restless Lover” (6.1), “A Sonnet. Platonic Love” (6.2), “A Sonnet. Out of Spanish, from Don Luis de Gongora” (6.7), “A Sonnet. On the Death of Sylvia” (6.8) and “A contemplation on Mans Life. Out of Spanish” (6.10). Among these poems, a madrigal can be found (6.1.), as well as a series of sonnets. Both of these forms 38 originated in Italy and entered the Spanish and English literary polysystems through translations, but were adapted differently in each system to suit the particular needs of each language and literary history. “The Restless Lover” and its source text, “Amante sin reposo,” are Italian madrigals. A madrigal is a poetic form that originated in Italy in the late fifteenth century as a type of secular and polyphonic song. It evolved throughout time, and eventually became a form characterised by the combination of hendecasyllabic and heptasyllabic lines. Even though it did not always follow the same rhyme pattern, some of the strictest theorists would argue that a proper madrigal should use rhyming couplets, e.g. AABBCCDDEE (Alonso Veloso), which is in fact the scheme followed by Quevedo in “Amante sin reposo,” as well as by Ayres in his translation. In terms of the metre, nonetheless, “The Restless Lover” is made out of decasyllabic lines and follows a regular rhythmic pattern in iambic pentameter. Regarding the sonnets, the Spanish version of this stanza is made of fourteen lines, usually containing 11 syllables each, and is divided into two quatrains with the rhyme scheme ABBA ABBA, followed by two tercets which could rhyme in different ways but are usually written with crossed rhyme (CDC DCD). In England, the most popular variation of the Italian sonnet since the Elizabethan era was the Shakespearean sonnet, made out of three quatrains (ABAB CDCD EFEF) and a final couplet (GG). The metre used was typically the iambic pentameter (Spiller 167). “Ayres loves the sonnet,” declared Saintsbury (266) and, indeed, the number of sonnets included in Ayres’ anthology proves this form had a strong tradition in the Spanish system and hints at the admiration that Ayres might have felt for this kind of verse. The fact that he himself wrote a sonnet in Spanish for his book (see section 3) supports this idea. This might be the reason why he decided to maintain the form of most of the original sonnets and even attempt to imitate the original rhyme scheme in some cases, as seen, for example, in the first two quatrains of “A Sonnet. Platonic Love” (6.2) or “A Sonnet. Out of Spanish, from Don Luis de Gongora” (6.7), which rhyme ABBA ABBA. In spite of this, he does make adjustments and exceptions in the rhyming pattern, which sometimes does not match either the typical Spanish or Shakespearian sonnet. See, for example, the two tercets of “A Sonnet. On the Death of Sylvia” (6.8.), which rhyme EEF AAF. In terms of the line length, all of these sonnets seem to adhere to the Shakespearean form, comprising 10-syllable lines, written in iambic pentameter. 45 These are the first stanzas of the two different versions of “The Fly”: Thus from the Wine-Pot cry'd the Fly, To the Frog of the Pool who sat croaking by, Rather than lead such a Life as thine, I'd be stop'd in a Cask, and dye in Wine. (1685 version) Out of the Wine-Pot cry'd the Fly, Whilst the Grave Frog sate croaking by, Than live a Watry Life like thine, I'd rather choose to dye in Wine. (1687 version) As can be seen, even though both target texts imitate the source poem in a similar fashion, by paraphrasing the main ideas and including additions—like “Grave” (l. 2 of the 1687 version) or “in a Cask” (l. 4 of the 1685 version) —, Ayres managed to maintain a much more regular rhythmic flow in his 1687 version. Furthermore, there are two striking occasions in which the 1685 versions of the poems included references added by Ayres which were suppressed or changed in the 1687 versions. Firstly, ll. 47-48 of the 1685 version of “The Fly” read: “To be stopt in a Cask thou would'st never repine, / As Clarence the Peer was in Muscadine.” This refers to George Plantagenet, Duke of Clarence (1449-1478), who was said to have been drowned in wine in the final stages of the Wars of the Roses (Britannica). In the heated political climate of James II’s reign, the allusion to this episode of dynastic strife might have appeared imprudent, and the reference was changed to Anacreon’s death. Secondly, in l. 40 of the 1685 version of “Love’s New Philosophy,” Ayres made a reference to the Civil War, which was eliminated later. 8. Conclusions Even though Philip Ayres omitted the names of the authors of several of the source texts that inspired his Lyric Poems, “because most of those nameless Pieces may more properly be said to be mine, than the Authors, from whom I only took the Hints of them” (A6v), and in spite of the creative decisions that he took during his work process in order to attain poetic equivalence, the ten poems presented in the form of a bilingual anthology in this paper cannot be considered anything other than translations. As has been argued here, Spanish poetry was scarcely translated into English during the seventeenth century, and even today remains the kind of text that translators find the hardest to work with. This has to do with the difficulty that translating poetry entails, due to the set of structural norms that lie behind any poem. Rhythm, metre, rhyme, and poetic language, which 46 is full of connotations, imagery and obscure meanings, combine to create a challenge for the translator, who is usually forced to sacrifice the structure or deviate from the original meaning to create a translation that lives up to the readers’ expectations. This is also why poetry is sometimes said to be untranslatable, which is, nonetheless, an affirmation that has been questioned by many scholars and professionals. Philip Ayres proves to be a poet who avoids literal translation and instead aims at maintaining the poetic structure and rhyme scheme of his source texts as much as possible, while providing readers with a series of poems that fit the rhythmic flow of the English language. He takes on the challenge of translating poetry by employing techniques that we can currently give a name to, such as omissions, additions or compensations. This way, he is capable of paraphrasing the source lines and create new poems from the same base ideas, while sometimes also maintaining the original structure, as he did in the case of most of the sonnets. Nonetheless, in many other cases he goes beyond the objective of maintaining a similar poetic structure and makes what we could consider unnecessary additions and shifts of perspective that would situate his poems half-way between Nida’s dynamic equivalence and Lockett’s poetic equivalence. Even if some of his contemporaries asserted that deviating too much from the original text would lead into a worthless translation, as Dryden affirmed in his preface to Ovid’s Epistles, Ayres includes ideas of his own in his translations. Due to the interference of his own context and background, as well as his intention of appealing his English readers, he omits certain Spanish expressions, like the “ctedra de prima” and includes new cultural references in his poems, such as the stanza dedicated to the Tories. We could argue that his decisions were not necessarily grounded on the “fear” that he presumably might have felt for Spain, as del Río suggested in his work, but instead on his intention of orienting his translation to the target system and providing his readers with a poetic and aesthetic equivalent to the Spanish source poems. His abilities and linguistic limitations may also have played a part in the results, since he may not have been capable of imitating the structure of certain poems, simply because of the difficulty of the task. Furthermore, most of the poems that were translated by Ayres were, at the same time, inspired or based on Italian poems and literary models. The madrigal, the sonnet, and the canzone are all Italian stanzas that entered the Spanish and English literary polysystems through translations from authors such as Groto, whose poems were imitated by Quevedo, for 47 example, in the cases of his poems “Amante sin reposo” (6.1) or “Nueva Philosophia de Amor” (6.5). As this essay aims to defend, the history of literature goes hand in hand with that of literary translation, and the work of translators like Ayres has been essential for English literary culture to develop and become what we now know. Therefore, this kind of analysis should not be limited to translation classes, where it can be used to explore the limits of the translation process and the techniques historically used by poetry translators. It also has a number of implications for lessons on cultural studies and, ultimately, it can be of interest to any reader who is keen on learning how another English reader, from a different era, interpreted and transferred a poem into their language. A further, longer study could provide a more in-depth analysis of Ayres’ translations to determine how Spanish and English traditions merged together to form his poems. The work of other minor poets and Spanish translators from the early modern period could also be usefully explored in further research. Furthermore, the issue of the poetic equivalence theory proposed by Lockett is an intriguing one which could be explored in more depth in the future as well. 48 9. Bibliography Alonso Veloso, María Jos. “Los madrigales de Quevedo.” Bulletin hispanique, vol. 114, no. 2, 2012, pp. 621-644. DOI: 10.4000/bulletinhispanique.1386. Accessed 23 May 2024. Ayres, Philip. 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Text Analysis in Translation: Theory, Methodology, and Didactic Application of a Model for Translation-oriented Text Analysis. Amsterdam: Rodopi, 1991. Oroz Reta, Jose and Manuel A. Marcos Casquero, editors. Etimologías. Madrid: Biblioteca de Autores Cristianos, 2004. Ortiz Salamovich, Alejandra. “Amadis de Gaule (V-VIII), 1598-1694.” Los libros de caballerías en Inglaterra 1578-1700. Salamanca: Ediciones Universidad de Salamanca, 2020, pp. 163-177. Oxford English Dictionary. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1992. Pane, Remigio Ugo. English Translations from the Spanish, 1484-1943: A Bibliography. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, 1944. https://ia801402.us.archive.org/15/items/in.ernet.dli.2015.178322/2015.178322.Englis 61 My Soul's with her who rules my Fate; Or have its wonted Influence on Snow: Yet still my Organs move, a Proof to give, By your relentless Heart is this exprest, 30 That Soul and Body can divided live. 30 Your Eyes are Suns, the Fire is in my Brest. When Soul and Body separate, That then the Life must dye; This too I must deny, My Soul's with her, who rules my Fate. 35 Yet still my Organs move a Proof to give, That Soul and Body can divided live. Remove the Cause, Effects will cease; Remove the Cause, th'Effects will cease . This was an Axiom too, This is an Errour too, Which to my Grief I find untrue. And found by me untrue; Cynthia robs my Soul of Ease: 40 My Fair when near disturbs my Peace, 35 Yet when this fair Disturber of my Peace But when she's furthest off, no Tongue can tell Is farthest from me, then my Pains encrease. The raging Pangs of Love my Heart does feel. All Creatures Love not their own Kind, I this new Axiom try: 45 And that all fear to dye By Nature; a Mistake I find: For I, a Man, do a Fierce Creature love, And such, I know, that will my Murd'ress prove. In Love, Extreams themselves are joyn'd, Here two Extreams are eas'ly join'd, Joy and Sorrow of my Breast 50 Joy and Grief in my Brest, Together stand possest, Which give my Soul no Rest; 40 And vex with Civil War my Mind. Both to torment me are combin'd: Thus when I view the Source of all my Wrong, For when I view the Source of all my Wrong, I sigh my Musick, mix with Tears my Song. I sigh my Musick, mix with Tears my Song. 55 That, all things like Effects produce: I readily can prove A Paradox in Love, And my Conclusion hence deduce; Cold Cynthia to my Zeal yields no Return, 62 60 Though Ice her Heart, she makes my Heart to burn. Whilst in this Torment I remain, Whilst in this Torment I remain, To be and not to be It is no Mystery 45 No longer is a Mystery; To be, and not to be; I dye to Joy and live to Pain. I dye to Joy, and live to Pain. Thus, without Paradox, I may be said 65 So that, my Fair, I may be justly sed, To be and not to be, alive and dead. To be, and not to be, Alive and Dead. Now, go my Song,—yet shun the Eyes Now, go, my Song, yet shun the Eyes 50 Of such as never felt Love's Flame: Of those ne'er felt Love's Flame, And if my Cynthia blame And if my Cynthia blame Thy Arguments as Sophistries, 70 Thy Arguments as Sophistries, Tell her, this is Love's new Philosophy, Tell her, this is Love's New Philosophy, Which none can understand but such as try. Which none can understand, but such as try.