Project management for the reparation of an electrical transformer due to the generation of gases inside it.

Equation Chapter 1 Section 1 Trabajo Fin de Grado Grado en Ingeniería. Organización Industrial Project management for the reparation of an electrical transformer due to the generation of gases inside it. Autor: Rafael Alejandro Trucios Morales Tutor: Vicente Gonzalez-Prida Diaz Dpto. Organización Industrial y Gestión de Empresas I Escuela Técnica Superior de Ingeniería Universidad de Sevilla Sevilla, 2024 3 Proyecto Fin de Grado Ingeniería de Organización Industrial Project management for the reparation of an electrical transformer due to the generation of gases inside it Autor: Rafael Alejandro Trucios Morales Tutor: Vicente Gonzalez-Prida Diaz Profesor ayudante doctor Dpto. Organización Industrial y Gestión de Empresas I Escuela Técnica Superior de Ingeniería Universidad de Sevilla Sevilla, 2024 5 Proyecto Fin de Grado: Project management for the reparation of an electrical transformer due to the generation of gases inside it Autor: Rafael Alejandro Trucios Morales Tutor: Vicente Gonzalez-Prida Diaz El tribunal nombrado para juzgar el Proyecto arriba indicado, compuesto por los siguientes miembros: Presidente: Vocales: Secretario: Acuerdan otorgarle la calificación de: Sevilla, 2024 El Secretario del Tribunal 7 Agradecimientos Quiero expresar mi sincero agradecimiento a mi familia, mis padres, mis hermanas, mis abuelos y amigos por su constante apoyo a lo largo de mi vida. Han sido mi roca en lo personal, profesional y académico, y este trabajo es un testimonio de nuestro vínculo y de mi dedicación a lo largo de los años. También quiero reconocer a esos profesores excepcionales que me han motivado y guiado a lo largo de este desafiante pero maravilloso viaje universitario. Su sabiduría y apoyo han sido fundamentales para mi crecimiento académico. Por último, agradezco a todos aquellos que de alguna manera contribuyeron a la realización de este trabajo. Su colaboración y aliento han sido invaluable."A todos ustedes, mi más profundo agradecimiento. Rafael Alejandro Trucios Morales Sevilla, 2024 9 Resumen En este Trabajo de Fin de Grado, abordaremos la gestión de un proyecto concreto relacionado con la reparación de un transformador eléctrico. Además, para respaldar la gestión de dicho proyecto, nos adentraremos en el análisis de sistemas de gestión del mantenimiento, donde seguiremos un procedimiento sistemático para analizar la causa del fallo. En primer lugar, contextualizaremos el ámbito en el que nos desenvolvemos, el sector de las energías, el cual experimenta actualmente un período de expansión y crecimiento continuo. Realizaremos una introducción histórica al proyecto que abordaremos, detallando el problema que nos proponemos resolver. Asimismo, ofreceremos una breve exposición sobre la naturaleza y funciones de los transformadores eléctricos, además de distinguir los diferentes tipos. Se introducirá la problemática asociada a la generación de gases en el interior de los transformadores, abordándola desde un enfoque analítico y propositivo. En segundo lugar, procederemos a la exposición de los conceptos teóricos relacionados primeramente con la gestión de proyectos, una disciplina de gran relevancia en el ámbito de la Organización Industrial. La metodología preconizada por el Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK) en su guía. Ademas de exponer conceptos teóricos sobre la gestión del mantenimiento y los pasos a seguir para realizar un análisis causa raíz para identificar la causa de fallo. En tercer lugar, nos enfocaremos en la aplicación práctica de estos métodos específicamente en una selección de las diez áreas de conocimiento del PMBOK, tales como la Gestión del Alcance, la Gestión del Tiempo, la Gestión de las Comunicaciones y la Gestión de Riesgo. Esta selección se justifica por ser las áreas de conocimiento que habitualmente emplea el Gestor de Proyecto en su ejercicio profesional dentro del proyecto en cuestión. En cuarto lugar, se procederá a la aplicación práctica de los conceptos de la gestión del mantenimiento para llevar a cabo los análisis correspondientes e identificar de esta forma la causa raíz del fallo del transformador que dio lugar a la ejecución de este proyecto. Finalmente, se pondrán en comun todos los conceptos previamente abordados y aplicándos al caso de estudio específico, para exponer los resultados y comentar las soluciones y posibles futuras mejoras para guiar el proyecto hacia su etapa final con éxito. 17 ÍNDICE DE FIGURAS Ilustración 1: Sustainable development goals 5 Ilustración 2: Landscape with a substation of transformers 6 Ilustración 3: Gas-coil substation in the US 7 Ilustración 4: Transformer disassembly on site 8 Ilustración 5: The maintenance framework (Crespo Marquez, 2009) 17 Ilustración 6: Example of a three phase transformer 21 Ilustración 7: Core types 23 Ilustración 8: Conceptual design of the transformer 29 Ilustración 9: Core unstacking process 30 Ilustración 10: Inspections of the coil 31 Ilustración 11: Sizing phase process 32 Ilustración 12: Initial schedule 35 Ilustración 13: April Schedule 36 Ilustración 14: July Schedule 36 Ilustración 15: Initial planning 41 Ilustración 16: Hotspot in the coil 46 Ilustración 17: Insulation piece displaced 47 Ilustración 18: Insulation strip between conductors 48 1 INTRODUCTION. OBJECTIVES his Bachelor's Thesis, titled "Project Management for the repair of an electrical transformer due to the generation of gases inside the transformer," arises from the need to tackle the first project I have had to oversee and manage in my professional career. This project is therefore of great significance for my academic development, particularly after taking the Project Management course and applying its principles in the professional world and also related to the Maintenance Management Systems course, which has provided me with knowledge about asset management for their repairs or preventive maintenance. 0.1 Objective and scope Main Objective: The main objective of this Bachelor's Thesis is to demonstrate the execution of a project from its inception to the delivery of the product and the completion of the project. The various stages that must be faced and their resolution will be shown. For this purpose, the PMI methodology for project management, as detailed in the PMBOK Guide and the Maintenance Magement Model will be applied. Secondary objectives: 1. Application and importance of Project Management: - Demonstrate the real-world applicability of the knowledge gained in the professional field. - Highlight the importance of pursuing a project meticulously and consistently. 2. Problem idenfication and Resolution: - Exemplify the potential problems that arise during the development of many projects and how to address and resolve them to maintain a good relationship between client and provider through the role of the Project Manager. - Manage the project itself, including identifying and repairing failures, investigate gses generation in power transformers, and explaining the context which it is immersed. 3. Project Scope, Communication, Planning and Risk Management: - Meticulously define the project´s scope to ensure that all objectives are met. - Create a detailed schedule outlining the project's timeline and the progress of each activity to ensure alignment with the initial plan, which reflects the client's interests. - Establish a communication plan to maintain strong relationships between the client and the provider. - Identify potential risks to prepare for any challenges that may arise, ensuring effective responses to any issues that occur. T If one does not fail at times, then one has not challenged himself. - Ferdinand Porsche - Introduction. Objectives 2 4. Identify the cause of the failure: - Determine the root cause of the failure, with a focus on addressing the issues related to gas generation that have arisen. 0.2 Document structure This document is divided into nine chapters: Chapter 0. Introduction. Objectives In the introduction chapter, the objective and scope of this work are addressed. It details how the document will be organized and structured to enhance readability. Chapter 1. Project history This chapter outlines the history and context of the project to be addressed, allowing us to understand the framework in which we find ourselves and the direction we are heading. Additionally, it will present a basic understanding of the energy sector in which we are immersed and highlight its significant importance in society. Chapter 2. Theoretical Framework In this chapter, the theoretical concepts of project management, as well as warranty and maintenance management systems, will be discussed. - Project Management We will present the concepts of project management and the importance of the role of the Project Manager, as well as the demanding work they must undertake. The technical terms and the areas that will later be addressed in practice will also be defined. - Warranty and maintenance management A brief introduction will be provided to some necessary concepts for understanding the warranty and maintenance required to comprehend the project we are involved in, as well as to understand the mechanisms for identifying potential causes of failure when a problem arises. Chapter 3. Electrical Transformers In this chapter, we will explain the subject of the project: electrical transformers. We will cover their function, the different types, their uses, and demonstrate the complexity of the manufacturing process. Therefore, they are a common subject for management projects. - Gases generation Additionally, this chapter will present the issue of gas generation in transformers and the failure diagnosis of the transformer we will address. We will conceptually tackle the problem, discussing possible studies and causes related to it. 3 3 Project management for the reparation of an electrical transformer due to the generation of gases inside it Chapter 4. Management Plan In Chapter 4, we will apply the concepts from Chapter 2 to the project, detailing the project's development step by step in chronological order. We will also address the various needs that arise during its execution. Chapter 5. Warranty and reparation process In Chapter 5, we will apply the concepts from Chapter 2 with a focus on the project. We will demonstrate the actions taken to identify the problem and achieve the project's objective. Chapter 6. Results and discussion In this chapter, we will discuss the results obtained, analyze them, and compare them with the initial objectives. Chapter 7. Conclusions and recomendations Finally, in this last chapter, we detail the conclusions reached after the completion of this project, as well as the learnings and objectives derived from it. We will define the lessons learned for future projects. Introduction. Objectives 4 5 1 PROJECT HISTORY y 2050, electricity will be the backbone of our entire energy system. The energy sector is fundamental to the development and progress of modern society. Its importance lies in its ability to drive the economy, improve the quality of life, and facilitate the functioning of virtually all aspects of daily life. From lighting and heating homes to operating industries and essential services, energy is the pillar upon which contemporary societies are built. Currently, the energy sector is undergoing a period of transition and transformation, driven by the growing demand for clean and sustainable energy sources. This transformation is crucial to addressing the challenges of climate change and reducing greenhouse gas emissions. Renewable energies, such as solar, wind, and hydroelectric power, are rapidly gaining ground, replacing fossil fuels and contributing to the creation of a more sustainable and environmentally friendly energy system. This is driven by the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) of the United Nations' 2030 Agenda. SDG 7, in particular, focuses on ensuring access to affordable, reliable, sustainable, and modern energy for all. This goal not only promotes the use of renewable energies but also advocates for improving energy efficiency and expanding clean energy infrastructures and technologies. It also influences the sustainable management of water, SDG 6, as many water treatment and distribution technologies require efficient and reliable energy. Additionally, SDG 12 is related to responsible production and consumption, encouraging the reduction of waste and the use of sustainable energy sources. A key aspect of this is the participation of leading industries in pioneering technologies, enabling a future with sustainable energy for our generation and those to come. [1] Ilustración 1: Sustainable development goals In conclusion, the energy sector is not only essential for the daily functioning of society but also a key driver for sustainable development and the fight against climate change. The transition to cleaner and more sustainable energy sources, in line with the 2030 Agenda, is a crucial challenge that must be addressed with urgency and global commitment. A very important part of achieving these goals is the role of the energy industry. The energy industry not only provides the necessary infrastructure and technology to generate and distribute energy but also plays an essential role in the energy chain. This chain encompasses energy production to its final distribution and consumption, and each link must be optimized to ensure efficiency and sustainability. B Project history 6 In this context, electrical transformers are critical components of the energy chain. Transformers enable the transmission of electrical energy over long distances with minimal losses, adapting voltage levels for different stages of the process, from generation to final consumption. Their proper operation and maintenance are fundamental to ensuring the stability and efficiency of the power supply. Advances in transformer technology, including improvements in their efficiency and durability, are essential to support the growing integration of renewable energy sources and to achieve the sustainability goals set by the 2030 Agenda. Ilustración 2: Landscape with a substation of transformers Given the sector and the context we are in, we can delve into the content of the project and explain the history that has led to the need to manage a repair project for a transformer of these characteristics. Transformer manufacturers maintain a close client-supplier relationship throughout the lifecycle of power transformers, as these are large and significant projects. In most cases, this relationship does not end when the product is delivered to the client, as it does in other sectors. Instead, this relationship remains in force due to contractual matters and product warranties for many more years. In this case, we will discuss a project with a North American client who ordered a power transformer from a well-known transformer manufacturer that has been operating in the sector for many years. One of their factories is located in Spain, and this factory was awarded the project as it was capable of meeting the specific requirements needed for the transformer. 7 Project management for the reparation of an electrical transformer due to the generation of gases inside it The company acquiring the transformer is a multinational corporation engaged in the generation and distribution of electrical energy. It is one of the world's leading energy companies, involved in electricity generation and distribution across 14 countries and employing approximately 9,000 people worldwide. The project involves a substation composed of a 12-unit, 1,196 MW nameplate capacity gas-, coal-, and oil-fired generating station located in the US that needs the project´s transformer. Understanding the client enables us to identify the characteristics of the buyers of these services and thus understand the significance of these projects. Ilustración 3: Gas-coil substation in the US The study transformer was purchased in 2019 for approximately $3.5 million. The manufactured transformer is a Shell type 3 phase GSU transformer with 546 MVA and 138/22 kV. These are very specific characteristics, making the design customized for the client, which posed a significant engineering and manufacturing challenge to execute. The transformer was delivered to the corresponding substation in the US in September 2020. This transformer was designed and manufactured during those years and successfully passed the required tests according to standards, which led to its acceptance and shipment to the US for installation, energization, and operational commencement at the respective substation. The transformer's sales conditions included a warranty of 60 months after it is energized, along with a 3-year extended Active Part Warranty (Core and coils only). Theoretical Framework 16 Tabla 3: Quantitative risks levels  Perform Quantitative Risk Analysis: It involves assessing and quantifying the impact of the identified risks to understand their monetary significance.  Plan Risk Responses: It is the process of identifying and defining the actions to be taken in response to each risk to minimize or control them as much as possible. To determine which measures to adopt and implement, strategies for addressing these risks must first be defined based on their importance. Therefore, risks that negatively impact the project need to be categorized according to TABLA 4. Tabla 4: Risk Rating key - Low: This means that it is acceptable and it is okay to proceed, so you don't need to implement any response, but you have to plan the response. - Medium: ALARP (As Low As Reasonably Practicable) it means that you need to take mitigation efforts to reduce the probability of the risk. - High: Generally unacceptable that´s mean that you need to seek support and plan the response with the rest of the team. - Extreme: Intolerable that´s the most important risk and must place the event or the project on hold before plan the response and implement it.  Implement Risk Responses: It is the process of implementing and putting into practice the actions and measures defined previously to address the project's risks.  Monitor Risks: It is the process of controlling risks throughout the project's development by continuously taking measures and monitoring deviations. 17 Project management for the reparation of an electrical transformer due to the generation of gases inside it 2.2 Warranty and maintenance management aintenance and repair are essential parts and the reason for executing this project. Additionally, they represent another area of knowledge that must be studied: maintenance management and the quality standards of critical assets and products of a manufacturer. Crespo Márquez develop a framework in eight phases which describes how companies can increase effectiveness, efficiency, assessment and continuous improvement in terms of maintenance management (Ilustración 5). The maintenance management framework is put forward as the means for making the whole organization striving towards the same vision, and to encourage the company to plan the maintenance management in strategic, tactical and operational levels, as well as for the entire facility, for the subsystem, and for the individual components. Ilustración 5: The maintenance framework (Crespo Marquez, 2009) The framework consists of eight sequential management building blocks (or phases) and integrates other models and frameworks found in literature. Each block is considered to be a key decision area for maintenance management and tries to balance requirements on effectiveness and efficiency in maintenance with the overall goal to fulfil enterprise objectives. The first three blocks relates to maintenance effectiveness, whereas block four and five relates to efficiency. Blocks six and seven are devoted to maintenance and asset life cycle cost assessment. The eight, and final, block ensures continuous improvement in maintenance management. [4] M Theoretical Framework 18 In this document, we will focus exclusively on Phase 3 since the project was at the stage where the critical asset had just failed, and immediate action was needed to remedy the situation and return to operation. The other phases correspond to different moments in the life of an asset and can be interpreted and developed similarly in other cases. 2.2.1 Root Cause Analysis (RCA) In the Maintenance Management Model (MMM) proposed by this methodology, the section related to root cause analysis is part of the 3rd phase. This phase focuses on effectiveness and immediate intervention on high-impact weak points. This technique arises from the need to minimize the consequences of failure events on safety, the environment, and operations, while ensuring the highest operational reliability. Root Cause Analysis (RCA) is one of the most powerful tools for helping to achieve the goals of minimizing the impact of failures and maximizing the operational reliability of assets [5]. The RCA procedure approaches reliability analysis from a holistic perspective, taking into account the various factors that affect reliability: human, operational, financial, cultural, and organizational. According to Dean, [6] four basic steps should be considered for the RCA process: defining the problem, analyzing the problem, identifying solutions, and implementing them. The following outlines the stages of the RCA implementation process.  Stage 1: Establishment of the natural work team Natural work team, is defined within the context of RCA [7], as a group of people from different functions within the organization who work together for a specified period of time in a collaborative environment, to analyze common problems across various departments, aiming to achieve a common goal. The general characteristics of RCA natural work teams include alignment, coordination, understanding, respect, and trust among the members.  Stage 2: Definition and priorization of problems The first activity to be carried out by the work team is to define and prioritize the existing problems in the area to be evaluated [8]. To define a problem, the following questions should be answered in a structured manner: What? When? Where? Importance? However, at this stage, questions like How? Why? and Who? should not be asked.  Stage 3: Definition and priorization of the failure modes In this stage, the RCA methodology is implemented, and the potential failure modes that caused the problem are identified. Failure modes within RCA are defined as the physical events that lead to the unplanned shutdown (identified problem) [5].  Stage 4: Definition and validation of hypotheses Once the failure modes are defined, the team selects those with the greatest impact (prioritized based on risk) and proceeds to identify different hypotheses for each failure mode to be evaluated. Hypotheses are defined as the possible mechanisms that trigger the failure modes [5]. Once a hypothesis is verified, it typically becomes a root cause. During this stage, the question to answer is: 19 Project management for the reparation of an electrical transformer due to the generation of gases inside it Why do the failure modes occur? The final outcome of the hypothesis definition stage involves validating the most probable hypotheses with evidence and discarding those that are inconsistent.  Stage 5: Definition and validation of root causes Once the hypotheses are identified, the team will define the potential root causes for each validated hypothesis. The methodology suggests identifying and classifying the root causes into three categories [5]: - Physical Root Cause (PRC): Refers to root causes involving materials or tangible things. - Human Root Cause (HRC): Refers to root causes that generate failures due to inappropriate human intervention (human errors). - Latent Root Cause (LRC): Refers to root causes related to deficiencies in management and administrative systems (rules, procedures, guidelines, etc.) or "cultural norms" that allow a failure to occur. To define the different types of root causes, the following question should be answered: Why did the proposed hypothesis occur?  Stage 6: Definition and evaluation of the effectiveness of solutions Solutions to a problem should be designed to prevent or at least reduce both the recurrence and the impact (consequence) of the failure event on safety, the environment, quality, and production [9]. On the other hand, the solution should not only help improve the process reliability but also be justified based on a Cost-Risk-Benefit Analysis. The proposed solutions must meet the following criteria: - Prevent recurrence: o Prevent or mitigate the original problem o Prevent similar problems o Avoid creating additional problems (new failure modes) - Minimize and control: o Minimize the effects and consequences of new failure modes introduced by the proposed solutions o Control the impact of these new failure modes - Meet Goals and Objectives: o Align with the organization’s and the affected area’s goals and objectives. o Maximize business profitability.) Theoretical Framework 20 21 Project management for the reparation of an electrical transformer due to the generation of gases inside it 3 ELECTRICAL TRANSFORMERS n electrical engineering, a transformer is a passive component that transfers electrical energy from one electrical circuit to another circuit, or multiple circuits. A varying current in any coil of the transformer produces a varying magnetic flux in the transformer's core, which induces a varying electromotive force across any other coils wound around the same core. Electrical energy can be transferred between separate coils without a metallic connection between the two circuits. Faraday's law of induction, discovered in 1831, describes the induced voltage effect in any coil due to a changing magnetic flux encircled by the coil. 3.1 Types of transformers There are so many types of transformers that are indispensable components in modern electrical systems. By examining the various types of transformers, we gain insights into their diverse applications and functionality. For example, power and distribution transformers ensure the effective transmission and distribution of electrical energy, while isolation transformers provide safety measures for users and devices. Autotransformers present an efficient alternative for particular applications, and step-up and step-down transformers cater to the voltage needs of various devices. Three-phase transformers enable efficient power distribution in industrial and commercial settings, and single-phase transformers are designed for residential use. In the modern electrical landscape, transformers play a critical role in transmitting, distributing, and utilizing electrical energy. These devices transfer AC power from one circuit to another by altering voltage and current levels. Ilustración 6: Example of a three phase transformer I Advancing a sustainable energy future for all. Electrical Transformers 22 3.1.1 Power transformers Electrical power transformers are electrical devices commonly used in engineering that transforms both the voltage and the current of the electricity flowing through it. It is made up of a coil wrapped around an electromagnet that transfers the electricity. Power transformers are designed to operate at 100% efficiency. Power transformers are meant to handle high voltages and substantial amounts of electrical energy. These transformers transfer power to distribution transformers, so that the distribution transformers can provide small amounts of power to individual users. They are commonly employed in generating stations or transmission substations. Power Transformers using a process called electrical induction transforms the current and voltage of electricity running in it into a current and voltage that works for the specific system it’s helping to run. Although the frequency of the electricity remains the same, it is transmitted at a difference value for both the current and the voltage. Power work together with distribution transformers to regulate power in transmission networks, either increasing or decreasing voltage levels depending on the needs of the consumer. [10] An electrical transformer typically consists of the following parts: 1. The core: This is typically made of laminated iron or steel, and its purpose is to provide a lowresistance path for the magnetic flux. 2. The windings: These are the coils of wire that carry the electrical current. A transformer typically has two or more windings, and the number of turns in each winding determines the ratio of the transformer's primary voltage to its secondary voltage. The windings are also provided with taps or tappings to adjust the output voltage according to the load requirements. The taps are connected to a tap changer, which can be manual or automatic. The tap changer allows changing the number of turns in the windings without interrupting the power supply. 3. The insulation: This is used to separate the different parts of the transformer and to provide electrical insulation between the windings. 4. The housing: This protects the transformer and its components from damage, and also helps to dissipate heat. The core and windings are enclosed in a steel tank, which is filled with oil or gas for cooling and insulation purposes. The tank also acts as a shield against external magnetic fields and mechanical stresses. The tank has bushings on its top or side for connecting the terminals of the windings to the external circuit. The tank also has accessories such as a conservator, breather, radiator, thermometer, Buchholz relay, etc., for proper functioning and protection of the transformer. 3.2 Core types Depending on the construction of its magnetic core, we can categorize transformers into two types: 3.2.1 Shell Type Transformer The core of a single phase shell type transformer is constructed with of three limbs or legs. This design increases the mechanical strength of the core. It also improves the protection of windings from external mechanical shocks. The HV and LV windings are wound around the central limb. The magnetic flux flows through two closed magnetic paths which decrease the core losses and hence increase the efficiency of transformer. So, shell type transformer gives more output compared to similar core type transformer. One of the main benefits we get using shell-type is that the core gives a 23 Project management for the reparation of an electrical transformer due to the generation of gases inside it good support against the electromagnetic forces that can occur between the current carrying conductors during the case of a short-circuit. HV and LV windings are wound longitudinally along the core alternately. The HV coils are sandwiched between two LV coils and there are 2 regulating coils between the HV and LV coils in each phase. Since, both HV and LV coils are wound on the central limb surface, the quantity of conductor required for woundings of shell type transformer is less than that of a similar core type transformer. The requirement of insulation materials is more here as the windings are sandwiched on each other which could give rise to a risk of short-circuit faults. The design of shell-type is a bit complex compared to core-type due to its winding structure. Any defect in the inner windings can only be attended after removing all outer windings hence the winding maintenance jobs are very hard in shell type transformer. Also the complex regulating coils are so hard to manufacture them due to the transpositions of the copper on its. Special fabrication facilities are required for the construction of a shell-type transformer due to its complexity and that leads to increased manufacturing and labour cost. [11] 3.2.2 Core Type Transformer A core-type transformer is a transformer that has a rectangular magnetic core with two limbs and cylindrical concentric windings. The low voltage (LV) winding is placed near the core, while the high voltage (HV) winding is placed outside the LV winding. The core is made of laminated silicon steel sheets to reduce eddy current losses and hysteresis losses. The laminations are insulated from each other by a thin layer of varnish or paper. The core has a rectangular cross-section with two vertical limbs and two horizontal yokes. Core type transformer are economical, easy to manufacture, and efficient for smaller sizes. It also has better cooling efficiency, easier access to windings, lower iron losses, and lower copper losses than other types of transformers. However, it also has higher leakage flux, higher insulation cost, higher risk of inter-turn short circuit, and lower mechanical strength than other types of transformers. It is widely used for power transmission and distribution applications at medium and high voltage levels. [12] Ilustración 7: Core types Electrical Transformers 24 3.3 Gases generation [13] Dissolved gases in transformer oil are related closely to the type of incipient insulation failure in oil-immersible power equipment. For many years the method of analyzing gasses dissolved in the oil (DGA) has been used as a tool in transformer diagnostics. The method has been used for several purposes: to detect incipient faults; to supervise suspect transformers; to test a hypothesis or explanation for the probable cause of failures or disturbances which have already occurred; and to ensure that new transformers are healthy. DGA could also be used as part of a scoring system in a strategic ranking of a transformer population. Dissolved Gases Analysis (DGA) is one of the most effective techniques which can assess the state of oil-paper insulation. As is known, DGA focuses on insulation discharge and thermal faults. In assessing dissolved gases in oil, the rate of increase of different gases during a time interval is the most important indicator of the health of the unit. The actual gas levels may of may not be of consequence for the operation or the health of the transformer. The idea behind the use of dissolved gas analysis is based on the fact that during its lifetime, all oil/cellulose insulated systems generate decomposition gases under the influence of various stresses - both normal and abnormal. The gases that are of interest for the DGA analysis are shown in Tabla. Tabla 5: Dissolved Gases in Mineral Oil-filled Transformers All these gases except oxygen and nitrogen may be formed during the degradation of the insulation. The amount and the relative distribution of these gasses depend on the type and severity of the degradation and stress. In order to properly interpret the results of the gas analysis, it is necessary to determine the gas production rate for the period under consideration, i.e. how much the gas levels have changed over a given time period. The absolute gas levels seldom give a sufficient good basis for the interpretation. 3.3.1 Gas Spectrum – Types of faults  Acetylene (C2H2), is not produced until temperatures close to 1000 ºC. One example is glowing spots due to circulating currents in the core.  Methane (CH4), generally occurs when there are partial discharges or thermal decomposition of the oil. 25 Project management for the reparation of an electrical transformer due to the generation of gases inside it  Ethane (C2H6), results from the termal decomposition of the oil.  Ethylene (C2H4), this gas is usually generated by the thermal decomposition of the oil or the solid insulation.  Hydrogen (H2), it is generated in any incipient fault, both with low and high energy discharges with water electrolysis. In high-energy discharges, the main gases are acetylene and hydrogen in a 1 to 2 ratio.  Carbon Monoxide (CO), this gas can indicate thermal aging or discharges in the solid insulation: paper or cardboard.  Carbon Dioxide (CO2), this gas can indicate thermal aging or discharges in the solid insulation: paper or cardboard. A CO2/CO ratio greater than 11 is indicative of overheating affecting the cellulosic insulation. An increase in the load gives directly an increase in the temperature. A higher temperature gives a higher gassing rate. There are many other factors that are known to influence the gassing rate. However, there is presently no consensus on how the individual factors affect the gassing rate. By knowing the spectrum of gases, we can get an idea of what the problem is and narrow down the search and inspection for possible gas generation issues inside power transformers. In interpreting gas analysis results, relative gas concentrations are found to be more useful than actual concentrations. According to the scheme developed by R.R. Rogers and later simplified by the IEC, three gas ratios define a given condition. [14] The three-ratio version of the Rogers Ratio Method uses the following ratios: - R1 = C2H2/C2H4 - R2 = CH4/H2 - R3 = C2H4/C2H6 The Rogers Ratio Method is for analyzing faults and not for detecting the presence of faults. Although the ratios may not detect the failure directly, they can provide an indication of the problem, making it easier to identify the root cause of the failure. In using these ratios, it is advisable to never make a decision based only on a ratio if either of the two gases used in that ratio is less than 10 times the amount the gas chromatograph can detect. This rule makes sure that instrument inaccuracies have little effect on the ratios. If either of the gases is lower than 10 times the detection limit, it is most likely that the transformer does not have the particular problem that this ratio deals with. When a fault occurs inside a transformer, there will be more than enough gases present to make the ratios valid. Detection limits for the key gases are shown in TABLA 6, this table also provides possible diagnoses based on the values of the three ratios. Project management execution 32 Ilustración 11: Sizing phase process  Core stacking: Stacking the core steel sheets around the core. (Duration: 5 days)  Tanking: Tanking of the middle part of the tank. (Duration: 2 days)  Cleats and Leads: Perform the connection of the cleats and leads and the assembly of the final connections. (Duration: 7 days)  Hot oil treatment: Performing the Hot Oil treatment. (Duration: 4 days)  Final Assembly: Final assembly of accessories and cooling equipment, preparing for the tests. (Duration: 16 days)  FAT: Conducting FATs (Factory Acceptance Tests) according to standards to accept the transformer and verify that the repair has been successfully completed. (Duration: 7 days)  Preparation for shipment: Disassembly of the accessories and preparation of packaging and crates for shipping. (Duration: 21 days)  EXW: Milestone that marks the date when the transformer is ready to be shipped.  Transport to USA  Transportation window: Transport of the transformer by railcar to the Port of Seville (Spain). Loading and shipping of the transformer and its accessories in a geared vessel to Port of Norfolk (VA). Offloading at Norfolk Port and loading onto the railcar. Transport the transformer by railcar, from Norfolk to site, inside the Plant. (Duration: 67 days)  Offloading DDP: Offload the transformer from the railcar and positioning onto the storage yard using jack & slide operations for positioning on the Pad. (Duration: 3 days)  Energization: Final process to energize the transformer and put in operating mode. (Duration: 10 days) These are all the activities required for the process, which will later appear in the schedule and which the transformer must follow to complete the project. 33 Project management for the reparation of an electrical transformer due to the generation of gases inside it 4.2.3 Sequence Activities Sequencing activities correctly is absolutely necessary and essential for the project to proceed continuously without issues. The task of sequencing these activities is done in the same way as identifying and estimating the duration of the activities. The precedence relationship generated by these activities is shown below, indicating which activity precedes which: Activities Precedence 1. Failure report 2. Test on site 1.Failure report 3. Transport to Spain 4. Transportation window 2.Test on site 5. Offloading at factory and movements 4.Transportation window 6. Inspection and Disassembly 7. Previous inspections 5.Offloading at factory 8. Test in factory 7. Previous inspections 9. Untanking process 8. Test in factory 10. Cleats and leads disconnection 9. Untanking process 11. Core Unstacking 10. Cleats and leads disconnection 12. Removal of the active part coils 11. Core Unstacking 13. Phase opening and coils inspections 12. Removal of the active part coils 14. Procurements 15. Insulation 16. Copper 17. Tap changer 18. Core steel 19. Wiring 20. Root Cause Analysis (RCA) 21. Prepare RCA 13. Phase opening and coils inspections 22. Corrective actions 21. Prepare RCA 23. Manufacturing 24. Windings 22.Corrective actions 16.Copper Project management execution 34 25. Groups 24.Windings 15.Insulation 26. Treatments 25. Groups 27. Sizing phase 26. Treatments 28. Core Stacking 27. Sizing phase 18. Core steel 29. Tanking 28. Core Stacking 30. Cleats & leads 29.Tanking 17.Tap changer 31. Hot oil treatment 30. Cleats & leads 32. Final assembly 31. Hot oil treatment 33. FAT 32. Final assembly 34. Preparation for shipment 33. FAT 35. EXW 34. Preparation for shipment 36. Transport to site & energization 37. Transportation window 35. EXW 38. Offloading on pad 37. Transportation window 39. Energization 38. Offloading on pad Tabla 7: Precedence relation By following this sequence, the project can progress smoothly, minimizing delays and maximizing efficiency. Each task is dependent on the completion of the previous ones, ensuring that all necessary steps are completed before moving on to the next phase. 4.2.4 Estimate Activity Durations The duration estimates for the activities are provided by the worker performing the activity or based on historical data and similar activities, with support from other departments such as Planning and Production. The Project Manager (PM) is responsible for monitoring the duration of these activities and addressing any unforeseen issues related to resource availability or delays. The duration of the activities is defined along with the corresponding activity list. Although the duration may vary throughout the development due to unforeseen circumstances or factory congestion. 4.2.5 Develop Schedule After completing the previous processes, we can determine the schedule. To do this, I used a program called Microsoft Project, which helps generate schedules or Gantt charts by inputting the previously mentioned data. It takes into account both the duration and sequence of activities, resulting in the following: 35 Project management for the reparation of an electrical transformer due to the generation of gases inside it Ilustración 12: Initial schedule 4.2.6 Control Schedule During the development of the project, delays or advances in the manufacturing process may occur. These must be recorded and communicated to the client both in meetings and in the monthly progress reports. One way to keep track of time variations is to control the schedule. To do this, the execution status of the project must be monitored as per the initial schedule, but adjusting for deviations, and if necessary, request changes to the project to correct these deviations. An example of this is the variation in both April and July, which will be shown below. Both the deviations and the progress in percentage form of each activity are shown. Project management execution 36 Ilustración 13: April Schedule In April the schedule with the due date of the project can met the delivery date of the project 27th of September, but some activities have been modified. This is one of the important tasks that the project manager must manage to share with the client so that they are kept informed at all times, ensuring that the relationship is honest and positive. Ilustración 14: July Schedule 37 Project management for the reparation of an electrical transformer due to the generation of gases inside it Finally, in July, the schedule was slightly modified, and the delivery date was delayed due to the development of previous activities. This had to be agreed upon with the client, but thanks to the good work that has been done and maintaining the best practices in project management, it was approved by both parties. These best practices in project management, thanks to good communication and planning, allow projects to be fully developed and help maintain good relationships with current and potential future clients. 4.3 Project Communication management 4.3.1 Plan Communication Management Defining the communication plan in a project is crucial not only for the Project Manager but also for the project and the companies involved as a whole. Communication among stakeholders is the fastest and most effective way to convey current events and the actions to be taken. To achieve this, one of the first steps is to identify the project stakeholders. First, there is the company that purchased the transformer and wants it back in operation as soon as possible. Within this company, many parties are interested, including its clients, shareholders, and owners, as well as those responsible for executing the transformer project. On the other hand, there is the manufacturing company, where the senior executives and business line owners are keen on ensuring that all projects are executed well to build trust in their product and maintain customer satisfaction by providing quality and efficiency guarantees. Additionally, the operatives and managers responsible for developing this project are involved, including all departments working together to manage the project, with the Project Manager leading and interfacing with the client.Identificados los stakeholders hay que planificar cuales son las exigencias del cliente en cuanto a la comunicación efectiva entre las partes y que requisitos debe cumplir el fabricante, para ello se debe crear un plan de comunicación contando con los requisitos del contrato y las posibilidades y facilidades del manufacturer. The direct point of contact between the client and the manufacturer is the Project Manager at all times. The Project Manager is responsible for providing all pertinent information and for receiving clients during visits and attending to their calls. Communication must be maintained in various forms. Progress reports should be sent monthly, with the frequency increasing upon the client's request or if issues or conflicts arise. Included in the report and maintain by manufacturer are:  Manufacturing activities  Items delivery  Project planning  Documentation list  Action item register Regarding meetings, the manufacturer has to set up a conference call on a monthly basis depending on the client's requirement to review and comment on the progress report. The client will also come to visit the inspections or corresponding progress points. These include the visual inspection of the disassembly to identify the cause of the failure and the in-person attendance for the final tests before dispatching the transformer. Project management execution 38 4.4 Project Risk management 4.4.1 Plan Risk Management In the context of this project, risks refer to any actions that may hinder the successful development of the project. Therefore, it is an area of project management that must be carefully addressed and planned before starting the project. To plan risk management, a series of processes must be carried out, starting with identifying potential risks, evaluating them to understand their impact on the project, and planning response actions to either mitigate or eliminate these risks. This stage is therefore of great importance in project management, especially considering that this project follows a previous failure that resulted in significant losses and cannot be repeated. Therefore, it is crucial to identify all possible risks. 4.4.2 Identify Risks To identify the risks of our project, we have opted to conduct a brainstorming session among team members, taking into account similar projects already completed. This has allowed us to develop an extensive list of all possible risks to consider.  Delay in delivery date (Planification): It is possible that the transformer is delayed in the delivery date due to poor planning in manufacturing hours, unforeseen events or delays in previous projects.  Lessons learned not implemented in this project (Technical): Possibles failures due to not implement the lessons learned from similar previous project that will improve the manufacturing process and avoid previous error.  Damage in phase flip (Technical): Destruction or damage in the phase doing the flip wrongly with the dumper or by not having implemented the lessons learned.  Core damage during desoldering (Execution): When desoldering the middle part of the tank with the lower part, a spark may occur inside and cause a fire or irreparable damage to the phases.  Risk of not finding the failure (Project): Not finding the cause of the failure when carrying out the disassembly and inspection process and not being able to apply a reparation or explain the problem to the customer.  Possibility of adverse weather condition for port entry (Transport): Bad weather conditions at the port for both pickup and delivery, which could cause a change in the destination port or a delay in transportation dates.  Failure in the FAT´s (Technical): Failures in the final tests due to failure to comply with the conditions included in the contract, generation of gases inside, exceeding the heating temperature or dielectric tolerances. This may be due to failure to solve the existing problem or a new problem occurring. 4.4.3 Perform Qualitative and Quantitative Risk Analysis Consecutively, I have done a qualitative and quantitative analysis of the risks to identify the threats and opportunities and thus identify the strategies to follow to treat each risk and then be able to develop the contingency plan.  Qualitative analysis The qualitative analysis has been made base on TABLA 2 which includes the risk likelihood, 39 Project management for the reparation of an electrical transformer due to the generation of gases inside it severity and the risk level. I have studied the different risks and assessed where each of them is included.  Quantitative analysis It is difficult to calculate the quantitative impact that these risks have, so I have made an estimate of those that were possible to calculate and those that were not possible will be defined later as the project progresses in each of them appear TBD which are the initials of To Be Define. The results of the identification and evaluation of risks and opportunities are shown on the Project Risk Matrix below, TABLA 8 and TABLA 9. 4.4.4 Plan Risk Responses To plan how the project will react if the previously defined risks occur, I have developed a plan for this. I have collected the answers before the risk occurs and then as a contingency plan to deal with these problems. In some cases the answers will arise throughout the project. In TABLA 4 it is also collected the responsible party or department that has to follow the risk and analyze the progress of them. As explain before it´s important to take into account the impact level of each risk to evaluate them and to prepare an succesfull response to those risk which are critical than the others. Project Risk Matrix, in this matrix, all the information about the previously identified risks is collected, making it easier to see both the risks and their importance, as well as the actions to be taken. Tabla 8: Risk Matrix 1 Project management execution 40 Tabla 9: Risk Matrix 2 Thanks to identifying these risks and assessing them, we will be able to plan the project better and prevent possible incidents or effectively and proactively find actions in case they occur. 4.5 Kick Off Meeting (KOM) One of the meetings that take place before starting the project's activities is planning the KOM (Kick- Off Meeting). Kick-Off Meetings are events that take place at the beginning of a new project during which leaders can communicate important details to their entire team. This practice helps ensure that everyone understands expectations and deadlines and ensures that team members use the most productive methods possible to complete their work. However, the project manager has some preparatory work to do beforehand. After completing these processes, we proceed to call the KOM, where stakeholders from both the company and the client will be invited to confirm the objectives and initiate the project execution. The KOM for this project is organized as follows: An introduction must be shown where the PM exposed the Project expectations from the Factory. 1. Introduction - Health & Safety first. - Formal, open and fluid coomunication between factory and customer project team. - No change in scope. - Smooth project execution. - Tight coordination during transport. 41 Project management for the reparation of an electrical transformer due to the generation of gases inside it 2. Scope Complete disassembly, inspection, repair, transportation, and assembly on site. 3. Communication plan Contact details: - Project manager from the manufacturer factory (email and telephone number). Reports and meetings: - Progress report once a month to update activities, planning an status. - Conference call on a monthly basis depending on client´s requirement. The communication plan will be defined in greater detail later. 4. Project timeline The project timeline or schedule is defined in detail in the knowledge area of Project Schedule Management, although an initial version of the planning is introduced in the KOM to provide a general idea of it. Ilustración 15: Initial planning Initial Target Date: 27 September 2024. 5. Transport & Logistic Proposed transportation plan from client´s site to manufacturer factory. - Load the transformer from the storage yard to the railcar using jack & slide operations - Transport the transformer by railcar from inside the Plant to the Veracruz Port. - Loading and shipping of the transformer in a geared vessel to Port of Seville (Spain). - Offloading at Seville Port and loading onto the railcar. - Transport of the transformer by railcar to the Factory. Proposed transportation plan from manufacturer factory to client´s site. - Transport of the transformer by railcar to the Port of Seville (Spain). Warranty and reparation process 48 5.1.6 Step 6: Corrective/Preventive action plan development and implementation  Update manufacture procedure to improve protection of crossover in winding transpositions.  Prepare instructions and training on new procedure. Ilustración 18: Insulation strip between conductors Once the root cause has been identified, and preventive and corrective actions are determined, the transformer repair proceeds to ensure the project is executed safely and efficiently. 49 Project management for the reparation of an electrical transformer due to the generation of gases inside it 6 RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS After completing the entire project, all that remains is to discuss the results obtained through the different processes of project management and maintenance management. Additionally, we will also address the variations that occurred during the project's development, which helped shape its overall progress. In summary, the results obtained during the execution of the project allow us to present the project almost in its entirety, starting from its scope, which is outlined in the following points: - Complete dissasembly of the transformer. - Inspection tests. - Inspections of the coil packages. - Identify the root cause of the failure. - Reparation of the unit. - Routine test & Type test to validate the correct reparation of the transformer. - Shipment the transformer to the factory and back to the substation to energize it. - Required date to energize: September 27, 2024. Regarding the schedule, the necessary activities to fully execute the project have been defined, and the initial planning estimate is outlined in "Ilustración 12." However, a series of unforeseen events have led to slight modifications to the initial plan during the project's development. As a result, at the time of preparing this document, the final schedule is as shown in "Ilustración 14." The entire execution of the project is based on a solid communication plan with the client, which includes: - Sending monthly progress reports. - Monthly call meetings to review open items or discuss the progress report. - Direct communication in case of any issues, questions, or updates. - Attending to client personnel who come for factory inspections or to observe final acceptance tests. Regarding the risk analysis, the project risks have been identified, quantified, and response plans have been developed. A summary of this entire process can be found in the Project Risk Matrix presented in TABLA 8 and TABLA 9. The risk analysis process has been useful in anticipating unexpected events. Despite these events can often be anticipated, they cannot always be completely resolved; however, their impact can be partially mitigated. As it can be appreciated throughout this document, the scope objectives have been met, ensuring that Results and discussions 50 the project is executed succesfully and fulfils all the client's requirements. However, one aspect that has experienced a slight deviation is the contractual energization date, which was initially set for September the 27th. Due to some incidents and delays in manufacturing, as identified in the Project Risk Matrix under item 1, this date has now been set for October the 23rd. The re-arrangement of this date was achieved through negotiations and a strong communication network between both parties, leading to an agreement based on other good practices. Continuing with the project results related to the root cause analysis, it was determined that the cause was a failure in the insulation material at a tap transposition between two conductors of the C regulation phase. This was causing a hot spot that generated gases inside the transformer, which was detected through DGA analysis. After identifying the cause of the failure, corrective and preventive actions were implemented to ensure this problem does not recur, thereby avoiding the additional warranty costs incurred due to the failure. Understanding the root cause and implementing solutions represents progress for future projects of the same type, enabling work and manufacturing to be carried out with greater knowledge, advancements, and reliability. This fosters increased confidence for both the manufacturer and the clients, despite the sensitive nature of having to undergo this process following a machine failure. This confidence and the ability to demonstrate a strong response to problems are integral to the identity of a high-caliber manufacturer. Being able to solve issues alongside its team and add value even after an error in its production chain makes the manufacturer more competitive and ensures it meets the stringent requirements of the energy sector. 51 Project management for the reparation of an electrical transformer due to the generation of gases inside it 7 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMENDATIONS Throughout this project, the knowledge gained from the university degree in Industrial Organization Engineering, as well as the experience acquired during an internship at a power transformer manufacturing company, have become evident. This allowed for the management of a large-scale project, such as the repair of a transformer that failed and was detected through gas generation within it. This work can serve as a foundation for anyone who wishes to understand the importance and functionality of project management and active maintenance management within a sector that is essential for the energy transition and achieving international goals. The document begins with a brief introduction to the sector and the project we will be addressing to provide context for the reader. It continues with a theoretical explanation of the aspects that are later covered within the framework of project management and maintenance management. Following this, it introduces a brief explanation of power transformers, which are the central elements of the project. To address the key factors and objectives that must be considered for the project to succeed, a series of actions have been defined and implemented in the real project. A study was conducted to determine the project's scope, including all activities, requirements, and specifics for which the supplier is responsible. A timeline for the project's execution was prepared to share with the client, ensuring alignment with deadlines, interests, manufacturing capacity, and procurement schedules. Additionally, there was continuous monitoring of the plan, with updates made to stay current with any unforeseen events. A communication plan was also established to ensure smooth, efficient communication between the client and the factory, fostering enough trust to keep all parties informed at all times. Finally, significant emphasis was placed on risk identification and response planning, an essential step that helped prevent potential delays and incorporate lessons learned from previous projects, which contributes to the successful execution of the current project. To encapsulate these aspects of project management, an example of a kick-off meeting, also known as a KOM, is presented, where the initial concepts of each of these areas are discussed. Finally, one of the fundamental phases of maintenance management in a project when a failure occurs has been addressed: methodically and meticulously determining the root cause of the failure to ensure it does not recur in future projects and to control all possible variables. The proposed methodology was followed, successfully achieving the final objective of identifying the root cause and implementing the corresponding corrective and preventive measures in the transformer manufacturing process, as well as repairing the affected unit. In conclusion, this work provides an overview of project management and maintenance management in the energy sector and power transformer manufacturing. It illustrates the steps to be followed to execute projects efficiently and beneficially for stakeholders, bringing the reader closer to reality through a real-life project. The learning that has accompanied me throughout the development of this project has created more References 52 opportunities for improvement and optimization in all processes. The lessons learned from this project can be extrapolated to other projects, which will help avoid repeating the same mistakes or make the execution process smoother. It is crucial to place significant importance on actions to prevent and identify unforeseen events. Another recommendation in the context of maintenance management is to conduct RCM (Reliability-Centered Maintenance) studies [15] which serves as a guide to identifying maintenance activities and their respective frequencies for the most important assets within a production process, commonly known as FMEA (Failure Modes and Effects Analysis) [16] which provides greater insight into the criticality of components and allows actions to be taken to improve this criticality and prevent future failures. 8 REFERENCES 53 Project management for the reparation of an electrical transformer due to the generation of gases inside it [1] U. Nations. [Online]. Available: https://sdgs.un.org/goals. [2] P. Institute, in PMBOK Guide, 2021. [3] PMI, "Knowledge areas," [Online]. Available: https://www.pmi.org/about/what-is-project- management#:~:text=Project%20management%20is%20the%20application,product%2C%20service%2 C%20or%20deliverable.. [4] A. Crespo Márquez y C. A. Parra Márquez, «RCA,» de Desarrollo y aplicación práctica de un Modelo de Gestión del Mantenimiento (MGM), Ingeman, 2015. [5] L. R. and L. K. , in Root Cause Analysis: Improving Perfomance for Bottom Line Results, New York, CRC Press, 2002. [6] G. Dean L, in Apollo Root Cause Analysis a new way of thinking, Texas, USA, Apollo Associated services, 1999. [7] F. D.B, in A comprehensive guide to root cause and program, New York, 1997. [8] C. A. Parra Márquez, «Análisis Causa Raíz,» de Herramienta de optimización del mantenimiento, Mérida, Venezuela, Universidad de los Andes, 2000. [9] W. J, "Failure Modes and Effects Analysis," in Course of Root Cause Analysis, England, The Woodhouse Partnership, 1999. [10 ] R. Hurst, «Electricity Forum,» Electricity Forum, [En línea]. Available: https://www.electricityforum.com/iep/electrical-transformers/electrical-power-transformers. [11 ] "electrical4u shell core," Electrical4U, 26 6 2024. [Online]. 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Glossary 54 GLOSSARY 55 Project management for the reparation of an electrical transformer due to the generation of gases inside it PMI: Project Management Institute 1 PMBOK: Project Management Book 1 SDG: Sustainable Development Goals 3 MW: Mega Watts 5 GSU: Generator Step-Up 5 MVA: MegaVolt Ampere 5 SWOT: Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities, and Threats 15 AC: Alternating Current 20 HV: High Voltage 21 LV: Low Voltage 21 DGA: Dissolved Gas Analysis 23 IEC: International Electrotechnical Commission 24 PM: Project Manager 25 IEEE: Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers 26 PO: Purchase Order 27 RCA: Root Cause Analysis 29 EXW: Ex-Works 30 DDP: Delivered Duty Paid 30