Threads of memory: Reviving the ornament of a dead child at the Neolithic village of Ba‘ja (Jordan)

RESEARCH ARTICLE Threads of memory: Reviving the ornament of a dead child at the Neolithic village of Ba‘ja (Jordan) Hala AlarashiID 1,2 *, Marion BenzID 3 , Julia GreskyID 4 , Alice Burkhardt 5 , Andrea Fischer 5 , Lionel Gourichon 2 , Melissa Gerlitzki 6 , Martin Manfred 6 , Jorune Sakalauskaite 7,8 , Beatrice Demarchi 9 , Meaghan MackieID 7 , Matthew CollinsID 10 , Carlos P. OdriozolaID 11,12 , Jose ´A ´ngel Garrido Cordero 12 , Miguel A ´ngel Avile ´s 13 , Luisa Vigorelli 14,15 , Alessandro ReID 15 , Hans Georg K. Gebel 3,16 1IMF-CSIC, Barcelona, Spain, 2Universite ´Co ˆte d’Azur, CNRS, CEPAM, Nice, France, 3Institute of Near Eastern Archaeology, Free University, Berlin, Germany, 4German Archaeological Institute, Berlin, Germany, 5Department of Conservation–Art History, Stuttgart State Academy of Art and Design, Stuttgart, Germany, 6Landesamt fu¨r Geologie, Rohstoffe und Bergbau (LGRB) im Regierungspra ¨sidium Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany, 7Section for GeoBiology, GLOBE Institute, Faculty of Health and Medical Science, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark, 8Institute of Bioscience, Life Sciences Centre, Vilnius University, Vilnius, Lithuania, 9ArchaeoBiomics, Department of Life Sciences and Systems Biology, University of Turin, Turin, Italy, 10 McDonald Institute for Archaeological Research, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom, 11 Departamento de Prehistoria y Arqueologı ´a, Universidad de Sevilla, Seville, Spain, 12 UNIARQ, Centro de Arqueologia da Universidade de Lisboa, Lisbon, Portugal, 13 Instituto de Ciencia de Materiales de Sevilla, Universidad de Sevilla- CSIC, Seville, Spain, 14 Electronics and Telecomunication Department, Polytechnic of Torino, Turin, Italy, 15 Physics Department, University of Torino and INFN, Turin Section, Turin, Italy, 16 ex oriente e.V., Berlin, Germany *[email protected]sic.es,[email protected]om Abstract In 2018, a well-constructed cist-type grave was discovered at Ba‘ja, a Neolithic village (7,400–6,800 BCE) in Southern Jordan. Underneath multiple grave layers, an 8-year-old child was buried in a fetal position. Over 2,500 beads were found on the chest and neck, along with a double perforated stone pendant and a delicately engraved mother-of-pearl ring discovered among the concentration of beads. The first was found behind the neck, and the second on the chest. The meticulous documentation of the bead distribution indicated that the assemblage was a composite ornament that had gradually collapsed, partly due to the burying position. Our aim was to challenge time degradation and to reimagine the initial composition in order to best explore the significance of this symbolic category of material culture, not as mere group of beads, but as an ornamental creation with further aesthetic, artisanal and socioeconomic implications. The reconstruction results exceeded our expectations as it revealed an imposing multi-row necklace of complex structure and attractive design. Through multiple lines of evidence, we suggest that the necklace was created at Ba‘ja, although significant parts of beads were made from exotic shells and stones, including fossil amber, an unprecedented material never attested before for this period. The retrieval of such an ornament from life and its attribution to a young dead child highlights the significant social status of this individual. Beyond the symbolic functions related to identity, the necklace is believed to have played a key role in performing the inhumation rituals, PLOS ONE PLOS ONE | https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0288075 August 2, 2023 1 / 54 a1111111111 a1111111111 a1111111111 a1111111111 a1111111111 OPEN ACCESS Citation: Alarashi H, Benz M, Gresky J, Burkhardt A, Fischer A, Gourichon L, et al. (2023) Threads of memory: Reviving the ornament of a dead child at the Neolithic village of Ba‘ja (Jordan). PLoS ONE 18(8): e0288075. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal. pone.0288075 Editor: Stefanos Gimatzidis, Austrian Academy of Sciences, AUSTRIA Received: March 28, 2023 Accepted: June 17, 2023 Published: August 2, 2023 Peer Review History: PLOS recognizes the benefits of transparency in the peer review process; therefore, we enable the publication of all of the content of peer review and author responses alongside final, published articles. The editorial history of this article is available here: https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0288075 Copyright: ©2023 Alarashi et al. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited. Data Availability Statement: All relevant data are within the paper and its Supporting Information files. understood as a public event gathering families, relatives, and people from other villages. In this sense, the necklace is not seen as belonging completely to the realm of death but rather to the world of the living, materializing a collective memory and shared moments of emotions and social cohesion. Introduction Adornments are powerful cultural symbols that communicate personality, values, merits, intentions, and artistic tastes through their display on the body [1–7]. Few things are as visually compelling and impactful as the act of marking, dressing, and adorning oneself when it comes to asserting ideas, identities, or positions [5,8,9]. However, expressing individual identity contradicts the definition of the individual as an "active subject establishing dialectical relations with its social and natural environment" [10] (p. 137), and as a social self with shared experiences, memories, and stories [11]. This paradoxical logic is based on the idea that adornments require a pre-existing cultural code to convey their meaning. This code consists of implicit rules and conventions that are understood by the people who create, own, and display them. In this sense, conventionalized adornments transcend individual identity to represent a group of individuals [12], becoming thereby as complex as the concept of identity itself insofar it is "at once both imposed by others and self-imposed" [5] (p. 210). Hence, body adornments, which play an active role in shaping and enhancing the individual character [13,14], express inexorably a shared sociocultural identity. Nevertheless, how should one consider outstanding and unique ornaments, innovative creations that do not resemble any of what have existed before? Wouldn’t their mere recognition as different justification for inclusion in a code of classification; a first step towards normalization? Although the answers to these questions are beyond the scope of this article, they do highlight the complexity and ambiguity of the symbolic functions of ornaments. On the other hand, these aforementioned approaches emphasize the potential that body ornaments possesses for providing insights into the prehistoric communities. Indeed, body adornments within prehistoric societies are no exception to rules and conventions. The use of specific materials and colors to create specific types is a clear indication of how past societies applied and repeated cultural standards, including imitation practices which underline the importance of certain forms [15–18] or raw materials [19,20]. Determining the extent to which an ornamental tradition was conventionalized based on factors such as gender, age, socio-cultural or ethnic background is a challenging task. In fact, investigating these aspects of past preliterate societies largely depends on the funerary record. It also requires identifying and comprehending the material culture that arose from the interplay between the living and the deceased. As some studies have warned, e.g. [21,22], burial rites can be influenced by socioeconomic and political factors, thus diverging from the realities of the living. However, graves serve as a crucial data source for exploring the dialectic relation between individuals and their societies, as well as the broader social structure of prehistoric groups. Indeed, funerary practices provide insights into the interconnectivity of individuals at multiple household, village, and regional scales [23], even when these connections are not readily apparent through material culture. In turn, materials and artifacts uncovered in graves, which are often of a higher quality than those found in non-funerary contexts, enrich our knowledge of the economic, technological and artisanal abilities of these societies. They also provide insight into the breadth and intensity of their exchange networks and cultural interactions. PLOS ONE Reviving the ornament of a dead child at the Neolithic village of Ba‘ja (Jordan) PLOS ONE | https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0288075 August 2, 2023 2 / 54 Funding: - ArchaeologyHub.CSIC 2022 Internal Research Grant (HA) https://archaeologyhub.csic. es/ - H2020 Marie Sklodowska-Curie Actions, grant number 846097 (HA) https://cordis.europa.eu/ project/id/846097 - German Research Foundation (BO 1599/14-1; BO 1599/16-1) (MB, HGG) https:// www.dfg.de/en/ - Franz-and Eva Rutzen Stiftung Foundation (MB) https://www.deutschesstiftungszentrum.de/stiftungen/franz-und-eva- rutzen-stiftung - Junta de Andalucı ´a (Consejerı ´a de Economı ´a, Conocimiento, Empresas y Universidad), under contract P20_01080 (CPO) https://www.juntadeandalucia.es/organismos/ universidadinvestigacioneinnovacion.html The funders had no role in study design, data collection and analysis, decision to publish, or preparation of the manuscript. Competing interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist. In the Near East, funerary rituals and treatment of the dead became clearly identifiable and consistent as early as the Epi-Paleolithic pre-Natufian [24,25] and continued to be evident during the Late Epi-Paleolithic, Natufian culture [26–28]. The complexity increased during the Early Neolithic, reaching a culminant point during the Pre-Pottery Neolithic B as primary burials were opened and re-opened, human remains were manipulated and displaced [29,30], human faces were recreated through skull plastering and paintings [31–33], and in specific contexts, even cremations were practiced [34]. Considering this complexity in context of the establishment of a farming lifestyle, the substantial increase in population size, and the unprecedented intensification of human relationships at various geographical scales [35–37] have led researchers to reflect and model the social organization while exploring patterns of differentiation [38–41], or looking for signs of egalitarian social structures [42–44]. Surprisingly, tackling changes in the social structures during the Neolithization process in the Levant is rarely approached from the individuals’ perspective, as active subjects within their socioeconomic and cultural milieus. The extraordinary treatments given to certain individuals upon their death can be indeed evaluated and compared to detect similarities or patterns of differentiations [6,45]. However, when it comes to performing rituals, it is important to consider the public dimension [38,46–48] and the collectivity, especially in the realm of funerary practices where the potential of reality distortion is high due to emotional charge [49,50], to social or political objectives that need to be achieved [11,22,51,52], or even for the purpose of consolidating and extending socioeconomic networks [53]. The size of the audience gathered for the event of death increases the intensity of these collective moments. The burial construction and how the body was staged inside are actions that encompass ritual performances in which funerary goods play a crucial role. Indeed, for most of the cultures of the world, material culture, in particular those related to face and body adornments, is fundamental in the performance of rituals [14,31,47,54,55]. In this sense, investigating individuals through death rituals and funerary goods is not only about identifying their qualities, status, and identities. It is also a reflection of the impact of death on the living, showcasing the intensity of their expressions and the extent to which they invest in materializing their thoughts and emotions. Drawing upon these approaches, this study explores the significance of an exceptional ornament discovered in grave CG7 at Ba‘ja, a Late Pre-Pottery Neolithic B (LPPNB) village in Southern Levant (Fig 1). Through the use of multiple lines of evidence, our aim is to assist, on the one hand, understanding the ornamental practices at Ba‘ja and their implication in death rituals, and on the other, to evaluate to what extent body ornaments contributed to boosting the technological, economic and social systems of the farming communities at the end of the PPNB in the Levant. Grave CG7 was discovered in the summer 2018, beneath the floor of room CR 36.1 at Ba‘ja (Fig 2). Its excavation has revealed the skeletal remains of an approximately 8-year-old child along with concentrations of beads varying in types, sizes, and colors were found on the chest area and around the neck. Despite the meticulous excavation and careful documentation of the position of the beads (S1 Appendix), organization patterns were only partially detected. During the excavation, it became however obvious that these beads were part of an ornament that has collapsed and disorganized gradually after the decomposition of the body and the associated organic materials (strings, tissues, etc.). In this paper, we demonstrate how it is possible to overcome the effects of time degradation and excavation conditions to unearth and reconstruct a multimillennial creation that have never been attested before in the Levant. The analyses were conducted at two levels. We firstly addressed the morpho-typological diversity of beads, the colors, the raw materials used, the manufacturing schemes, and the patterns of intensity of use, thus providing biographic information about the objects. Then, we used these results, along with data collected during the excavation and a series of morphometric and mathematical estimations, to model the structure of the ornament and the combination of PLOS ONE Reviving the ornament of a dead child at the Neolithic village of Ba‘ja (Jordan) PLOS ONE | https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0288075 August 2, 2023 3 / 54 beads according to the most plausible, objective, and simplest scenario possible. The result of the reconstruction exceeded our expectations. The ornament revealed a complex, imposing and very attractive composition that is worth presenting not only to the scientific community but also to the public. As such, the ornament was physically reconstructed and now on display as part of the permanent exhibition at the new Petra Museum in Southern Jordan since October 2021. The village of Ba‘ja The site of Ba‘ja is located in the Greater Petra Area in Southern Jordan, not far from the wellknown historical city of Petra. It is one of the most important and well-studied LPPNB villages in the Southern Levant. Since 1997, archaeological fieldwork has exhumed in several areas of the site, massive, deep, and complex buildings. These architectural complexes consist of multicellular ground plans topped by a main store and equipped with domestic facilities. Such complexes were considered as household units [56] in which the bodies of deceased were interred as single, double or collective/multiple burials [57] (Fig 2). The intensive fieldwork has therefore produced exceptional data regarding the ritual and symbolic behavior of the inhabitants of Ba‘ja vis-à-vis death. The main occupation of the settlement is dating to the LPPNB [58], most probably between c. 7,400–6,600 cal BCE as indicated by the new radiocarbon dating [45,59]. Despite its small size of only about 1,5 ha, the density of buildings, and the architectural and organizational features of the village among other characteristics led it to be associated with the “mega-sites” phenomenon that flourished at the end of the PPNB [60]. Yet, unlike other contemporaneous villages, Ba‘ja was built in a territorially demanding topographic setting on an intra-mountain plateau (*1180 m a.s.l.) bordered by impressive gorges and vertical rock formations (Fig 2). Even more intriguing is that the access to the village is through a tortuous ascending gorge to the west, Siq al-Ba‘ja [61]. Fig 1. Map showing the location of Ba‘ja and other PPN sites. Most of the sites are mentioned in the text or concerned by the cited bibliography. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0288075.g001 PLOS ONE Reviving the ornament of a dead child at the Neolithic village of Ba‘ja (Jordan) PLOS ONE | https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0288075 August 2, 2023 4 / 54 While most of the deceased were likely buried elsewhere, specific individuals were selected for burial beneath the house floors [57]. Between 2001 and 2021, 15 burials were discovered, with a notably high number of infant burials [45]. Subadults were buried in various types of burials, including single, double, multiple, and collective, while adults were primarily interred in collective burials with few to no grave goods. However, there were two exceptions: a highly elaborate burial of a young man [59], which resembled the construction of grave CG7, and a so-called "trash burial," the only burial discovered outdoors so far. The discovery of the child’s ornament Grave CG7, excavated to the natural soil, is a complex cist-type structure with several covering layers (Fig 2A–2C). A total of ten events, including the construction of the grave, the interment of the child and the deposition of the funerary goods were distinguished (for a complete description of these events, and the plan of the burial refer to [58] figs 4, 5, 6 and table 1). A child, presumably a girl (based on the presence of mental protuberance on the mandible) [45] around eight years of age, was buried on the left side in a fetal position (Fig 2D). Due to the Fig 2. Location of the cist-type grave CG7 at Ba‘ja, Area C, and its progressive excavation stages. Topographic plan of Ba‘ja, the architectural plan of Area C and the location of grave CG7 in Room 36.1. A-C) The grave sealed with different layers of sandstone slabs. D) The child’s skeleton in a crouched position resting on her/ his left side. Photos: A-C: M. Benz; D: H. Alarashi, Ba‘ja N.P. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0288075.g002 PLOS ONE Reviving the ornament of a dead child at the Neolithic village of Ba‘ja (Jordan) PLOS ONE | https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0288075 August 2, 2023 5 / 54 Fig 3. Field pictures showing the densities and areas of distribution of the beads. A) A general view of the damaged skull and upper part of the child’s skeleton with few scattered beads fixed with pins. B) Picture showing the broken engraved ring (to the right) and its connection with disc beads. C) The ring pictured as discovered in a vertical position laying on its edge, with disc beads still stuck to the perforations decorating its surface. D) Increased density of the beads after the removal of the ring and the appearance of a black stone element below the cervical vertebra. E) Beads stuck to the perforation of the black element and appearance of an additional turquoise bead (note the fragmentation and the displacement of the mandible). F) The manubrium bone and a spherical black bead on its upper left. G) Another spherical black bead appeared just after the removal of the manubrium, placed at its upper right. H-K) Increased density of beads alignments in the area between the left clavicula and the left part of the mandible (removed). Photos: A, J, K: M. Benz; B-I: H. Alarashi, Ba‘ja N.P. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0288075.g003 PLOS ONE Reviving the ornament of a dead child at the Neolithic village of Ba‘ja (Jordan) PLOS ONE | https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0288075 August 2, 2023 6 / 54 Fig 4. Diversity of items compositing the ornamental assemblage of CG7. A) Flat beads, B) Tubular cylindrical beads. C-D) Disc beads. E) Tubular shell beads. F) Mother-of-pearl multi-perforated and engraved ring viewed from both faces. G and I) Compact sub-spherical stone beads. H) Double perforated pendant viewed from both faces. Photos: A-E, G-H: H. Alarashi, F: A. Burkhardt, Ba‘ja N.P. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0288075.g004 PLOS ONE Reviving the ornament of a dead child at the Neolithic village of Ba‘ja (Jordan) PLOS ONE | https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0288075 August 2, 2023 7 / 54 poor preservation of bones, the genetic and isotopic analyses failed in providing information regarding the child’s biological identity, dietary habits, or health status. Consequently, we focused on the associated material culture. As mentioned before, the skeleton is very poorly preserved. The right arm was missing, and parts of the skull, mandible, pelvis and feet were severely damaged by post-depositional factors such as the heavy and layers covering the body. However, the preserved skeletal remains were well articulated. Most of them were stained red on their outer surface suggesting that the child either had clothes, or the skin was stained red. The skull was turned on its face. The meticulous excavation revealed more than 2500 beads mostly concentrated in the areas corresponding to the chest and the neck of the child (Fig 3A, 3B and 3D–3K). Observations made during the excavation, drawings of the layers of beads presenting their distribution and relations to the bones, along with elements of comprehension of the discovery are detailed in S1 Appendix. Several series of aligned beads were found below the left side of the neck, clavicula and the upper ribs, indicating that the beads were gathered and organized into several rows (Fig 3D– 3K). Due to gravity, the right side of the ornament had slipped into the area of the neck and the left side of the chest. Some beads were found scattered and isolated due to the heavy damage the right side of the skeleton. The possibility that the beads were simply and randomly deposited on the upper parts of the body can definitely be excluded as series of beads showed repeated patterns of organization and combinations (e.g., after around 10-disc beads, two tubular beads can be found Fig 3J and 3K). These organized portions were observed mainly Fig 5. The results of XRF analyses of a selection of beads found in CG7. Amounts of chemical elements composing the samples and ID of materials. Highlighted elements are typical of the identified stones. Photo: H. Alarashi, Ba‘ja N.P. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0288075.g005 PLOS ONE Reviving the ornament of a dead child at the Neolithic village of Ba‘ja (Jordan) PLOS ONE | https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0288075 August 2, 2023 8 / 54 associated with the left skeletal remains. Such bead arrangements were impossible without a hanging/fastening system. Several questions were formulated straightway during the excavation: were these beads part of the same composition, and if yes, what was the type of ornament in which they were integrated: a necklace, a plastron, a decorated garment? Fig 6. Analyses of thin sections the red stone disc beads from grave CG7. Percentage of the chemical elements based on XRF measurements. Graph: M. Benz, Ba‘ja N.P. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0288075.g006 Table 1. Diversity of raw materials in relation to the typological families of the items discovered in CG7. Materials Beads Double P. pendant Flat ring Total Disc Tubular Flat Spheric Minerals Red calcite 2264*66 7 2337 Turquoise 5 5 Hematite 2 1 3 Marine shells Pinctada sp. 1 1 Tridacna sp. 232 232 Dentalium 1 1 Conus sp. 4 4 Amber Amber 2 2 Total 2273 301 7 2 1 1 2585 Double P. pendant = Double Perforated pendant. *To this should be added over 50 fragments of disc beads (N of the broken beads was not possible to estimate). https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0288075.t001 PLOS ONE Reviving the ornament of a dead child at the Neolithic village of Ba‘ja (Jordan) PLOS ONE | https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0288075 August 2, 2023 9 / 54 Disc beads are by far the most dominant category with at least 2273 specimens (Fig 10). The most common type are regular small circular discs with sub-rectangular profile, made Fig 9. FTIR spectrum. FTIR spectrum in the fingerprint region of the analysed samples compared to standard reference spectrum from different origins (Lebanese amber spectra has been kindly provided by D. Azar). Graph: C. Odriozola Lloret, J. A ´ngel Garrido Cordero, M. A ´ngel Avile ´s. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0288075.g009 PLOS ONE Reviving the ornament of a dead child at the Neolithic village of Ba‘ja (Jordan) PLOS ONE | https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0288075 August 2, 2023 16 / 54 from reddish calcite (Fig 11A–11C). Beads with irregular sub-oval to polygonal shapes, made from turquoise (Fig 11F–11I), were also considered as discs, along with those identified as circular slices of Conus shell (Fig 11D and 11E). The diversity of materials used offers a play of contrasting colors between the dominant red and the white. Calcite disc beads were manufactured according to the general three stages scheme mentioned above. Regarding the shaping stage, we have no evidence for the way the disc preforms were obtained, whether through sectioning long tubular drilled beads into segments (discs), or via shaping by abrasion preforms of discs, one by one, and then drilling and finishing them. The latter procedure is well documented at PPNA (Bangsborg-Thuesen et al., submitted) and PPNB [74] sites in Northern Jordan where stone bead workshops are attested. However, the preforms of stone disc beads remain unrecorded at Ba‘ja. Furthermore, no diagnostic patterns of sectioned discs from long beads [75] were observed for the disc beads from burial CG7. Most of their perforations have a bi-conical section. The cylindrical section is recurrent. We interpret this section as an intentional enlargement of the initial hole, probably made during the threading process of the beads. Intensive use-wear as the cause of this section is excluded as it would be accompanied by a strong rounding of the edges of the perforations, which is not the case. In addition to the standardized size of disc beads (Fig 10), the circularity and roundness degrees are very close to 1 (Table 2), meaning that most of the beads have perfect circular outlines and rounded shapes. When plotted with the diameter, both the circularity and roundness show higher values for smaller beads than for the large ones, as indicated by the trend curves (Fig 12). This is understandable as small diameters could reflect a more intensive finishing process. Compared with the circularity, the roundness values are higher (closer to 1 = more regular). This is also understandable since this value refers to the general shape, which is less directly affected by the final polishing/abrasion of the beads’ outlines. Low values (closer to 0) of circularity and roundness correspond to beads presenting fractures on the outlines or particular shapes (Fig 11C, last 3 Table 2. Metric values of the main beads’ typological families of the child’s burial (only for items GN). Beads Metric data Length Diameter Perforation Circularity Roundness Calcite disc Nb 1492 1492 1492 1492 1492 Maximum 3.67 5.67 2.302 0.908 0.999 Minimum 0.58 3.056 0.944 0.773 0.827 Average 1.423 4.045 1.546 0.890 0.958 Standard deviation 0.347 0.391 0.223 0.012 0.026 Calcite tubular Nb 46 46 46 - - Maximum 10.56 4.45 3.120 - - Minimum 4.63 3.08 1.400 - - Average 7.26 3.802 1.982 - - Standard deviation 1.75 0.299 0.410 - - Shell tubular Nb 126 126 126 - - Maximum 14.24 5.86 3.060 - - Minimum 4.49 2.8 1.240 - - Average 9.34 4.681 2.070 - - Standard deviation 2.27 0.698 0.339 - - For all, the standard deviations (SD) of the diameter and perforation have low values, indicating a standardized diameter and diameter of perforation per type. In the case of disc beads, even the length (= thickness) values are highly standardised (low SD), meaning that their manufacture has required significant control. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0288075.t002 PLOS ONE Reviving the ornament of a dead child at the Neolithic village of Ba‘ja (Jordan) PLOS ONE | https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0288075 August 2, 2023 17 / 54 beads to the right), which might have been produced due to prolongated process of finishing on the same spot. The standardized size and regularity of the shape and outline of the calcite disc beads are consistent features with batch processing, en-masse [74,76] that consists in polishing the series profile of beads strung together. However, experimental work is needed to verify the efficiency of batch grinding using different tools and auxiliar agents (water, abrasive, etc.), and to test which technique provides more qualitative results and regular shapes (batch processing of strung beads or polishing singular beads manually?). The irregular shape of the turquoise beads (Figs 4D,7and 11F–11I) strongly contrasts with those of the calcite disc beads. This is however not specific to this assemblage as all the turquoise beads found at the site, in and outside funerary contexts, have irregular shapes [58,77]. Fig 10. Proportions of length to diameter of beads (GN) according to the typological families and materials. Graph: H. Alarashi, Ba‘ja N.P. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0288075.g010 PLOS ONE Reviving the ornament of a dead child at the Neolithic village of Ba‘ja (Jordan) PLOS ONE | https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0288075 August 2, 2023 18 / 54 Could the quality of the material or the presence of (quartz-like?) inclusions (Fig 11J–11K) have caused technical constraints that made the final stage of the transformation more challenging? While this might be the case, the technological abilities of the bead-makers are not questioned. Instead, it is the degree of their investment in the finishing stage, which is closely linked to the quality, that should be considered. Unlike the calcite disc beads, the turquoise beads have a shiny and smooth surface, with highly rounded edges and complete disappearance of the manufacturing marks, which is diagnostic of intensive wear. The inner surfaces of the perforations also show intense and homogenous smoothing and polish, suggesting a free suspension of the beads, i.e., they were not fixed through knots or stitches. The Conus discs (Fig 11D and 11E) are cut slices corresponding to the largest diameter of the shell whorl and having a missing (removed intentionally?) apex allowing the perforation. The poor preservation did not allow the identification of any manufacture or use-wear traces properly. The study of well-preserved Conus discs found at Ba‘ja in other contexts indicates however that the apex is eliminated by abrasion and the whorl cut by sawing [73]. With a total of 298 specimens, tubular beads are the second important typological family of the assemblage. Two types were roughly distinguished between cylindrical (Figs 13F and 13G and 16E) and “barrel”-shaped (Fig 13A–13E). For many beads the difference is very subtle and depends on the side of the profile we observe. The section is sub-circular to oval. Most of the tubular beads are made from valves of Tridacna shells (Table 2). The other material is the same reddish calcite (Fig 4B) employed for the disc beads. Tridacna fragments were transformed into tubular beads considering the natural alternated opaque/ translucent growth lines, resulting in three general patterns, with horizontal (Fig 13D–13G) being the most common, then oblique (Fig 13C) and longitudinal (Fig 13A and 13B). The length values of these beads are more variable than those of the calcite tubular beads (Fig 10), with a mean value of 8.5 mm and only a few items longer than 10.5 mm (Table 2). The relation between the length and the patterns of alternating bands was examined. A oneway ANOVA attests that there is a statistically significant difference in length (F = 5.381; p [same] = 0.00583) between groups of beads displaying different patterns of bands (growth lines). Results of the Tukey post hoc test (F = 4.576; p[same] = 0.004475) indicate that the beads with longitudinal pattern are significantly shorter (mean L = 7.30 mm) than the beads with horizontal pattern (mean L = 9.72 mm). No significant difference was observed between these latter and the beads with oblique pattern (mean L = 9.13 mm). One interpretation of this relation could be that when the Tridacna fragment was not long enough to provide beads with a horizontal (or oblique) pattern, the material was exploited differently, that is, transformed into beads showing a longitudinal pattern. When the Tridacna beads were arranged within the ornament, the differences in the patterns of their bands might have increased the dynamic and attractiveness of the combination. Longitudinal parallel striations (Fig 14A and 14B) are observed on the surfaces of the beads, indicating their polishing, which generally corresponds to the final stage of the manufacture. Parallel deep striations are also registered on the walls of perforations (Fig 14C). In several cases, these striations are interrupted by the circular concentric striations of the drilling stage, indicating that the perforation took place after the shaping stage of the bead. The outlines of the perforation rims are regular and circular (Fig 14D and 14E), and the perforation walls are marked with parallel concentric regular striations (Fig 14C–14E) typical of fast-drilling techniques such as a bow-drill or a pomp drill. Perforations were made by bidirectional drillings that cross the length of the bead at relatively even distances (Fig 15). Images obtained from micro-CT-scans of two beads, one shorter than the other, show sub-conical sections of the drilling tubes (Fig 15 centre images up and PLOS ONE Reviving the ornament of a dead child at the Neolithic village of Ba‘ja (Jordan) PLOS ONE | https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0288075 August 2, 2023 19 / 54 Fig 11. Diversity of the disc beads and examples of technical and use-wear marks detected on the turquoise beads. A-C) Calcite circular disc beads, note that the last three examples to the right show variation in the degree of circularity due to the finishing process by batch abrasion. D-E) Conus disc beads. F-K) Turquoise beads. J) Zoom of picture H left. K) Zoom of picture I left. Photos: H. Alarashi, Ba‘ja N.P. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0288075.g011 PLOS ONE Reviving the ornament of a dead child at the Neolithic village of Ba‘ja (Jordan) PLOS ONE | https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0288075 August 2, 2023 20 / 54 below), which in fact reflect the shape of the drilling bit used. The alignment of the bidirectional (tubes) drillings is almost perfect, or slightly overlapping. The openings of the drillings (Fig 15, right images up and below) show a rather regular and well oriented trajectory. Images made in a transversal section (Fig 15, left up and below) show the constant regularity of the circular shape of the tubes. These features confirm the application of fast drilling technique of soft materials such as shells or carbonate-based stones that we have reproduced experimentally (Pichon, Alarashi 2018). The alignment of drillings is indicative of experience and skills of the bead-makers. Indeed, turning the bead and drilling it from the opposite side to meet the end of the first drilling perfectly is a complex procedure [78,79]. Moreover, when considered that the beads were first shaped into cylindrical/barrel-shaped volumes and then drilled, as suggested earlier, it might indicate that the artisans were quite confident in their ability to perform the drilling at the end. The same behaviour is documented at the Neolithic site of C¸ayo¨nu¨Tepesi in the Tigris valley, where preforms of cylindrical and flat beads were discovered perfectly polished but not yet drilled (Alarashi, personal observation). While most of the beads show traces of ochre on their surface (Fig 13B–13G), others have also significant amounts inside the perforation (Fig 14C–14E). Ochre residues were also detected on Tridacna beads found in non-funerary contexts [73]. Whether this deposit is due to the use of strings covered with red ochre to thread the beads, to the presence of ochre on the body or clothes of the child, or to other actions related to the funerary event is still an opened question. It is worth mentioning that a lump of red ochre was deposited near the legs of the child in grave CG7. More generally, the use of ochre is attested at the site as powder or liquid spread over collective burials, bones, and artefacts, but also through coloring of human bones, and in one case (CR17:117), through a complete coloring of a cowry shell [58,77]. It is Fig 12. Relation between the diameter of the calcite disc beads and the degrees of their circularity (left) and roundness (right). The closer the degree to 1, the more regular is the outline (circle) and the shape (disc) of the beads. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0288075.g012 PLOS ONE Reviving the ornament of a dead child at the Neolithic village of Ba‘ja (Jordan) PLOS ONE | https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0288075 August 2, 2023 21 / 54 therefore unclear whether the use of ochre on the beads was intentional or as a consequence of the burial rituals. Studies of beads from other burials will possibly help understanding the role played by the ochre into the ornamental practices at Ba‘ja. Finally, Tridacna beads show low intensity of use as indicated by a shallow rounding of the rims of perforations and the intersectional edge between the face of the perforation with the profile of the bead (Figs 13G and 14C–14E). Scratches and/or polish are generally more frequent on the perforation faces than on the bead profile. This is likely due to the friction caused by the bead-to-bead alignment in a chain, and to the friction with the string between them. If these beads were used during a lifetime, the wear was not intense enough to completely erase the technical traces, especially the drilling striations inside the perforations, with their circular continuity being still visible. Calcite tubular beads (Fig 16D and 16E) were manufactured according to the same method as the calcite flat beads. They have use-wear marks on the extremities, evidenced by a partial obliteration of the drilling striations with a polish, or with polish and thinning of the perforation edges (Fig 15F). These marks are known to be produced by a bead-to-bead contact and friction, which is consistent with the chain-like general arrangement of the beads that sometimes results in the extremities of elements into those of their neighbors. The seven beads classified as flat were made of red calcite and have similar sizes (Fig 10). The profile is sub-oval with a lenticular cross-section (Fig 16A and 16C). So far, only one similar calcite flat bead was found at Ba‘ja, in the multiple burial CG9 containing four subadults (F. no. 110825.850). Flat beads with lenticular cross-section made of Tridacna shells were also discovered in both funerary and other contexts at Ba‘ja [73,80]. Use-wear marks are very similar Fig 13. Examples of Tridacna shell beads from grave CG7 showing three patterns of growth lines. A-B) Longitudinal. C) Oblique. D-G) Horizontal. Photos: H. Alarashi, Ba‘ja N.P. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0288075.g013 PLOS ONE Reviving the ornament of a dead child at the Neolithic village of Ba‘ja (Jordan) PLOS ONE | https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0288075 August 2, 2023 22 / 54 to those observed on the extremities of the tubular beads around the perforation edges. These areas show a slightly different hue of red, possibly due to the use wear. Such use-wear color modification is well-known for shell, bone and tooth ornaments [66,67]. It can also occur on different kind of stones, namely soft and hard varieties. The typological family of compact beads is represented by two spherical hematite beads (Fig 17) similar in size (Fig 10). The transversal section is sub-circular, and the color is brownish grey to dark red. This type has one comparable bead from the LPPNB site of Basta, from Loc. B68:13 (F.no. 10835; Hermansen n.d.). More frequent parallels can however be found in the Northern Levant, notably in the Middle Euphrates. One example is quite interesting as it is very similar in shape, size, and color, yet it comes from a PPNA context from Tell Mureybet [81] fig 18.13. Spherical beads made from carnelian and agate were also found in a burial of a child at Tell Halula [64]. Fig 14. Technical and use-wear traces observed on the Tridacna shell beads. A-B) Deep oblique and longitudinal striations of abrasion. C) Parallel striations of abrasion on the perforation face. D) Concentric and regular drilling striations, right arrow. See also the remains of red ochre covering the “walls” of the drilling and inside the concentric striations, left arrow). E) Circular and regular rim of the drilling at the opening (surface of perforation, upper arrow), and at the end (junction, meeting area). See also the concentric regular deep drilling striations (lower arrow). Superficial use-wear is observed by weak and little pronounced rounding of the rims of perforations in C-E. Photos: H. Alarashi, Ba‘ja N.P. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0288075.g014 PLOS ONE Reviving the ornament of a dead child at the Neolithic village of Ba‘ja (Jordan) PLOS ONE | https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0288075 August 2, 2023 23 / 54 The double perforated pendant This exceptional object was found behind the neck of the child with many disc beads above and below it, and with some beads still sticking to the perforations. Because of its position, it was originally designated as a “buckle”, a function that was subsequently confirmed by usewear analysis (see below). This flat, oval-shaped plaque is made of dark-grey hematite and has lateral double perforation (Fig 17A and 17B). While other double-perforated stone objects were found at Ba‘ja, they are primarily made of turquoise [77]. Moreover, none of these artifacts are comparable in terms of the regularity of the shape, size, and quality of finishing, especially given the hardness of the stone used for this plaque. Multidirectional deep striations are observed all over the surfaces of the buckle and of the compact spherical hematite beads. The latter also show impact points and scratches everywhere (Fig 17I and 17J). Despite the density and hardness of the material, the buckle was intensively worn. The surface shows shiny polish (Fig 17A, 17B and 17H), very intensive rounding of the edges, and enlargements of the perforations towards the external edges (Fig 17C–17F) in two opposite directions, as if the perforations were under significant tension. These observations support the hypothesis that this object was used as a “spacer” or “buckle” to hang strings of beads behind the neck. They also argument for a long-time use within an ornamental composition that have provoked similar wear makes. Fig 15. Images obtained from micro-CT scan of two Tridacna beads. The green marks on the central up and below images indicate the transversal sections of the images to the right, while the red marks indicate those to the left. Composition: H. Alarashi, picture acquisition: L. Vigorelli and A. Re. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0288075.g015 PLOS ONE Reviving the ornament of a dead child at the Neolithic village of Ba‘ja (Jordan) PLOS ONE | https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0288075 August 2, 2023 24 / 54 The decorated ring The mother-of-pearl ring is poorly preserved and presents fractures mostly on the decorated parts. Nomenclature and measurement convention are given in Fig 18 and the metric values in Table 3. The ring was found in a vertical position in the grave. Fig 18 presents it in the same orientation as it was found. The hypothetical reconstruction (details are provided in S3 Appendix) of its shape is based on morphometrical analysis of the preserved parts, and on comparisons made with similar items discovered years ago at Ba‘ja (Fig 19) and Basta ([82] figs. 10, 12; [57] fig. 13.3, Hermansen n.d.), although the example from this latter site is much smaller. It is worth noting however that the ring from Basta was likewise discovered with many beads very similar to those of Ba‘ja, all associated with a child (cf. up-cited references). Fig 16. Examples of flat and tubular calcite beads from CG7. A-C) Examples of bi-truncated flat beads with lenticular section. D-F) Examples of tubular calcite beads of a cylindrical type. F) Use-wear observed through erosion of the drilling striation, thinning and fracture of the walls of the drillings due to friction and insertion of the extremity of the neighboring bead into the perforation. Photos: H. Alarashi, Ba‘ja N.P. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0288075.g016 PLOS ONE Reviving the ornament of a dead child at the Neolithic village of Ba‘ja (Jordan) PLOS ONE | https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0288075 August 2, 2023 25 / 54 many rows makes a lot of sense. Their placement between the shoulders and the manubrium bone would allow for adjusting the size of the necklace (for instance reducing the horizontal breadth of the rows). It is not possible to estimate how many strings were introduced inside these beads. At the same time, it is not necessary for the strings of several rows to pass inside the perforation, as the gathering of the rows can be made through simple discrete knots at the level of these beads. While the structure of the necklace that we propose uses the hematite beads to gather the exterior rows (R10 to R4) before reaching the buckle (Fig 22 right), a number of other possibilities can be imagined. For the physical reconstruction, we only gathered two rows in order to avoid damaging the beads, one of them being fragile. The buckle found behind the neck of the child was made from the same dense and resistant hematite as the spherical beads. The intense use-wear that has affected the original shape of the perforation rims on this buckle indicate the tension exercised on each extremity. Hence, it is reasonable to think that the use of such material might have been precisely intended to serve certain functions that other softer beads cannot serve. On the contrary of the previous examples, the tiny four Conus disc beads and the small tusk shell portion can hardly provide a visual effect. Their use within the necklace is likely symbolic. Finally, it should be noted that the horizontal, oblique and longitudinal bands that ornament the Tridacna beads are not correlated to specific emplacement within the necklace. The occurrence of these patterns is most likely the result of a techno-economic processing of Tridacna shell fragments for bead making rather than an aesthetic choice. The weight of the necklace when including the beads, the buckle, and the ring is estimated to an average of 192.23g, a minimum of 159.57g, and a maximum of 226.50g. The weight of Fig 19. A complete example of an engraved mother-of-pearl ring discovered in 2001 in the collective burial of Area D at Ba‘ja. Photo: H.G.K. Gebel; Drawing: B. Winkler. Our reconstruction resulted in quite sophisticated ring (Fig 20), with four symmetrical outgrowths decorated with multiples equidistant perforations. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0288075.g019 PLOS ONE Reviving the ornament of a dead child at the Neolithic village of Ba‘ja (Jordan) PLOS ONE | https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0288075 August 2, 2023 32 / 54 strings (totalling 6 m length) was not estimated as we lack information about their nature and whether or not they were treated by some substance which would influence their weight. The presence of beads showing residues of ochre inside the perforation prevent exclusion of the use of strings stained with red ochre, which might increase the weight of the necklace. In all cases, we assume that if the necklace was only composed of beaded strings, the ring and the buckle (excluding beads made from perishable materials), the total weight might not have reached 500g. Fig 20. Hypothetical reconstruction of the complete shape of the mother-of-pearl ring found in burial CG7. Scans and refitting: H. Alarashi and A. Burkhardt; restoration: A. Burkhardt, drawing of the hypothetical reconstruction: H. Alarashi, Ba‘ja N.P. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0288075.g020 PLOS ONE Reviving the ornament of a dead child at the Neolithic village of Ba‘ja (Jordan) PLOS ONE | https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0288075 August 2, 2023 33 / 54 Fig 21. Manufacture and use-wear traces observed on the mother-of-pearl ring. A) Regular concentric striations inside the perforation. B) Deformation of the rim of the perforation (?) towards the external circumference of the ring. C) Parallel striations of abrasion (removal of the periostracum to reveal the nacre). D) Deep parallel groves made to extract the ring from the shell valve. E) Sawing/engraving marks made to create the outgrowths and provide the curved edges. F) Area between two perforations showing delimited depression and erosion of the nacreous layers (path of a string between these two perforations?). G-H) A disc bead stuck to a perforation of the ring with an unidentified mass (visible in picture H, remains of organic material, string? See also the obstructed perforation in picture E, showing similar material). Photos: H. Alarashi. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0288075.g021 PLOS ONE Reviving the ornament of a dead child at the Neolithic village of Ba‘ja (Jordan) PLOS ONE | https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0288075 August 2, 2023 34 / 54 Discussion The reconstruction of the necklace we propose is based on field documentation obtained during the excavation, in-depth analysis of its constituent elements, and a series of estimations and logical arguments. Although our objective was to follow the simplest and most objective scenario possible, the reconstruction of the necklace turned out to be complex due to key items such as the ring and the large number of beads, among other factors. In other words, our proposition is one among others that are certainly not less complex. In the last few years, Ba‘ja has yielded other spectacular ornaments discovered in children’s graves. While preliminary results indicate that there is a great variability in the arrangement of beads with respect to the types, colors, and materials [6]. Consequently, the resulting ornaments appear to be as complex as the child’s necklace. As for the necklace, reconstructing these other ornaments is crucial in revealing their diversity at Ba‘ja, and in exploring their role in death rituals. Furthermore, revealing these compositions may provide insight into the cultural conventions that guided their conception. Specifically, it would enable exploring at which level body ornamentation was influenced by cultural norms; at the level of bead types, colors, or at the level of the whole ornament (necklace, bracelet, belt, diadem, etc.) and/or who was permitted to wear them? Answering these questions would open up promising avenues for understanding how the society of Ba‘ja was structured and whether there were individual expressions in body ornamentation. The following discussion explores the significance of the necklace within the cultural context of the LPPNB and reveals new aspects regarding the early farming communities that are worth considerations. Beyond symbolism: A spectacular piece of art Before delving or speculating on the meaning behind attributing this necklace to the deceased child, it is worth to contemplate its aesthetic qualities (Fig 23). Fig 22. Structure of the necklace between the ring and the buckle. Left proposition does not include the black hematite beads. The right proposition displays the structure when the exterior rows (R4 to R10) are gathered with the spherical beads. Graph: H. Alarashi, Ba‘ja N.P. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0288075.g022 PLOS ONE Reviving the ornament of a dead child at the Neolithic village of Ba‘ja (Jordan) PLOS ONE | https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0288075 August 2, 2023 35 / 54 In the context of research developing social [83], semantic [84], psychologic and neurological [85,86] approaches to understand the symbolic contents materialized by figurines, engravings, paintings or body ornaments, acknowledging the aesthetic tastes, beauty, radiance, or charm of creations might sound subjective and superficial. However, one should bear in mind that it is through the endless possibilities of material transformation that humans have developed genuine artistic abilities. Here we are not arguing that the artistic dimension of the necklace is autotelic, we do believe that body ornaments have social and cultural functions to accomplish through sets of information they communicate about their wearers (and makers). We are instead questioning, as lately formulated, whether “aesthetic rules were symbolically guided,or directly perceived”, or if there were “a third possibility,wherein perception and conception are brought together in yielding a significative form of art,otherwise seen as an artistic form of signification” [87] (p. 6.) The aesthetic qualities of creations impact our senses and provoke emotions [88,89].Consequently, emotions may play a role in formulating the meanings we attribute to these creations. In other words, the emotional response would be an influential factor that precedes the cultural codes. The necklace, for instance, rivets our visual system and captures our attention, even when taken out of its informative Neolithic context. Its sheer volume when displayed draws our vision as it is indeed a very visible creation with limits spreading inside a 30x30 cm square. Symmetry, defined as “a sense of harmonious,aesthetically pleasing proportionality that embodies beauty” [90] (p. 1592), see also the definition of symmetry in Collins English Dictionary, 2023), was obtained through complex radial curvilinear structure that provides harmony [91] while allowing to explore the creation horizontally, through shapes, colors, and combinations of beads, and vertically, leading inevitably to the mother-of-pearl ring. The shape of the ring displays symmetry too. The distribution and size of its engraved outgrowths as well as the number of holes on each of them are balanced. The shape of beads and the bilaterality of the perforations of the buckle also respect symmetry, not to forget the intriguing divisible number of beads per type that allows almost perfectly even distributions within the rows. Harmony is also about performing strategic distribution of the objects to reveal their beauty and qualities. While post-depositional alteration processes have given most beads a faded appearance, the analysis of the aesthetic nature of the adornment requires an imaginative effort to visualize the original brightness of each of the elements. In this perspective, it is not surprising that the masterpiece of the necklace was the ring, a large extremely delicate item that was skillfully engraved with complex fine motifs reminiscent of lace or filigree. The aesthetic sensibility is indisputable when appreciating how Tridacna beads reveal the beauty of the material and the effects of the alternation of the growth lines between mat and translucent bands. Shaped in different manners to show either horizontal, oblique or longitudinal patterns, these beads also show differences in the width of the bands. Their integration in all the rows not only dynamizes but also complexifies the necklace as it gives the impression that these beads have different morphologies despite having all the same shape. On the other hand, the combinations provide an appealing play of light and color. One should imagine the mother-of-pearl ring in its original state, before its degradation due to time and burial conditions, when it still possessed a shiny nacreous layer that reflected light and iridescenced in several colors at once [92], like nowadays mother-of-pearl jewelry and buttons. It is not surprising that this material was employed as inlays to simulate the eyes of the plastered skulls of the PPNB site of Yiftahel [93]. The milky and shiny surface of the ring contrasted with the dark brownish hematite objects, characterized by their metallic reflection [94]. While light may emanate from the mother-of- pearl and hematite objects, the best representation of color is demonstrated by the ubiquitous red calcite beads, the red being widely acknowledged as the most appealing and easily discernible color among others [95,96]. Finally, this necklace has no parallel in any of the Neolithic PLOS ONE Reviving the ornament of a dead child at the Neolithic village of Ba‘ja (Jordan) PLOS ONE | https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0288075 August 2, 2023 36 / 54 Table 4. Estimations of the total length of the ornament. Type Measured beads (GN) Other beads (GS) Total Length (estimations) Length Total length Estimated total length N Mean Range N Mean s.d. Min. Max. N Mean Range (95%) (95%, mean ±2 s.d.) CDB cal. 1492 1.42 0.347 0.58 3.67 2122.57 772 1098.27 1079.38 1117.17 2264 3220.84 3201.95 3239.74 TB shell 126 9.34 2.274 4.49 14.24 1177.18 106 990.33 944.44 1036.21 232 2167.51 2121.62 2213.39 TB cal. 46 7.26 1.751 4.63 10.25 334.00 20 145.22 129.87 160.56 66 479.22 463.87 494.56 TB resin 1 9.31 0.000 9.31 9.31 9.31 1 9.31 - - 2 18.61 18.61 18.61 Conus d. 4 2.31 0.492 1.91 2.98 9.22 0 - - - 4 9.22 9.22 9.22 ODB tur. 5 2.16 0.575 1.43 2.82 10.78 0 - - - 5 10.78 10.78 10.78 FB 7 6.40 6.404 5.50 7.15 44.83 0 - - - 7 44.83 44.83 44.83 DPP 1 29.13 0.000 29.13 29.13 29.13 0 - - - 1 29.13 29.13 29.13 SB hem. 2 9.34 2.447 7.61 11.07 18.68 0 - - - 2 18.68 18.68 18.68 Dental. 1 6.12 0.000 6.12 6.12 6.12 0 - - - 1 6.12 6.12 6.12 TOTAL 1685 3761.82 899 2243.12 2202.24 2284.00 2584 6004.94 5924.81 6085.07 Total length (in meters) 6.00 5.92 6.09 The estimation are based on the metric data obtained from the GN (Group of Nice) beads, and the estimated length calculated for the non-measured beads (GS: Group of Stuttgart). The estimations were first made per type of beads, then the results summed. C = circular; D = disc; B = bead; T = tubular; O = oval; F = flat; DPP = double perforated pendant; S = spherical; s.d. = standard deviation. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0288075.t004 Table 5. Estimations of‘ the number of beads per type to be integrated according to the lengths of the rows (cm). Separated rows CDB calcite TB shell TB calcite Total Row 1 N 100 24 10 134 Length 142.19 224.22 71.88 438.29 Row 2 N 110 24 10 144 Length 156.41 224.22 71.88 452.51 Row 3 N 110 26 10 146 Length 156.41 242.91 71.88 471.20 Connected rows Right side Left side Total CDB calcite TB shell TB calcite Total CDB calcite TB shell TB calcite Total CDB calcite TB shell TB calcite Total Row 4 connected N 76 13.5 3 92.5 76 13.5 3 92.5 152 27 6 185 Length 108.12 126.13 21.563 255.81 108.12 126.13 21.563 255.81 216.24 252.25 43.125 511.62 Row 5 connected N 91 12.5 3 106.5 91 12.5 3 106.5 182 25 6 213 Length 129.46 116.78 21.563 267.81 129.46 116.78 21.563 267.81 258.92 233.57 43.125 535.61 Row 6 connected N 111 12 2.5 125.5 111 12 2.5 125.5 222 24 5 251 Length 157.91 112.11 17.969 287.99 157.91 112.11 17.969 287.99 315.82 224.22 35.938 575.99 Row 7 connected N 136 10.5 2.5 149 136 10.5 2.5 149 272 21 5 298 Length 193.48 93.427 17.969 304.87 193.48 93.427 17.969 304.87 386.96 186.85 35.938 609.75 Row 8 connected N 156 10.5 2.5 169 156 10.5 2.5 169 312 21 5 338 Length 221.93 93.427 17.969 333.33 221.93 93.427 17.969 333.33 443.86 186.85 35.938 666.65 Row 9 connected N 186 10 2.5 198.5 186 10 2.5 198.5 372 20 5 397 Length 264.61 93.427 17.969 376.01 264.61 93.427 17.969 376.01 529.22 186.85 35.938 752.01 Row 10 connected N 216 10 2 228 216 10 2 228 432 20 4 456 Length 307.29 93.427 14.375 415.09 307.29 93.427 14.375 415.09 614.58 186.85 28.75 830.18 L total necklace 1599.7 1074.4 237.19 2911.3 1599.7 1074.4 237.19 2911.3 3199.3 2148.8 474.38 5822.5 C = circular, D = disc, B = bead, T = tubular, O = oval, F = flat, DPP = double perforated pendant, S = spherical. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0288075.t005 PLOS ONE Reviving the ornament of a dead child at the Neolithic village of Ba‘ja (Jordan) PLOS ONE | https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0288075 August 2, 2023 37 / 54 Levantine ornamental traditions known thus far. The large volume, complex organization, symmetry, harmony, beauty of objects, play of lights and colors are in fact reminiscent of the refined ornaments of the latter urban Mesopotamian and Egyptian societies [97,98]. Wealth and other intangible values The necklace has an undeniable appeal, a glimpse is enough to produce the attraction and contemplation of its attributes. Such a stimulation of curiosity is likely to generate knowledge. In light of other ornaments from Ba‘ja, we suggest that the assembled objects were not selected randomly. The choices of materials, colors, types, and morphologies were meaningful, not only to serve the design and the volume (see above) but also to express intangible values, the most obvious and defendable of them being those of abundancy, diversity, and exclusivity. The abundance of beads composing the necklace, which is a common trait of ornaments found in other burials at Ba‘ja e.g. [6,58], hints to wealth and prosperity. While it is impossible to decipher the symbolic code (growth, fertility, community?) behind abundance, the mere intention to assemble as many as beads as possible, of non-utilitarian yet sought-after items, does express material wealth and access to valuable resources. By material wealth we mean “tangible possessions of value” [99] (p. 295 and references therein). There is no better example to embody this definition as ornaments. Accessibility to wealth is even more strongly signified when, as in the case of the child’s necklace, the ornament is definitely extracted from life circles and deposited in sealed graves. Burying valuable objects such as body ornaments with the deceased may reflect an economic strategy that aims at controlling supplies, thereby at maintaining beads value within living populations. Withdrawing beads from life circulation by hiding or burying them is in fact a universal and intemporal practice, that has been often attested by the discovery of hoards of precious objects [100–102] (usually forgotten by their owners). Some ethnographic examples may illustrate metaphorically the economic interest for beads. For instance, some Krobo people in Ghana believe that specific beads, the old-African powder-glass beads, have spirit and will reproduce in the ground if buried [103]. For other traditional populations such as the Tani and Naga tribes in Northeast India, the sought-after necklaces of glass and stone beads are transmitted over generations as heirloom, and only highly respected individuals are buried with ornaments [104]. Whether the necklace was intended to accomplish an economic objective, to express the esteem to the person of the child, or to provide wealth (or paraphernalia) for the afterlife domain remains an open question. However, we can safely suggest that at least part of the people of Ba‘ja had ensured access to prestigious and valued exotic materials, even if they were later transferred into other realms, beyond life. Adornments with a large number of beads (over 2500) are unprecedented among contemporary Neolithic villages in the Levant. However, they appear more frequent in contexts of hunter-gatherers. Examples of these date from early periods such as the exceptional ornaments found in Upper Palaeolithic burials at Sunghir in Russia [105], those from the Early Natufian culture in Southern Levant [106], and even from the early Neolithic in the Upper Tigris Valley [44]. The lack of similarly abundant beaded ornaments from other farming Levantine known villages may be due to cultural choices where other values prevail over abundance. Preservation issues might also be responsible. Ornamental items were certainly not limited to those that have survived the ravages of time, but likely included organic materials such as seeds, wood, animal skins, feathers, and others (see for example [107,108]), thereby enhancing this impression of abundancy. On the other hand, the opulent character of the necklace reflects diversity and exclusivity, two interdependent and complementary values. Diversity is defined here by the union of elements serving the same purpose (the necklace) yet exhibiting different PLOS ONE Reviving the ornament of a dead child at the Neolithic village of Ba‘ja (Jordan) PLOS ONE | https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0288075 August 2, 2023 38 / 54 visual aspects due to natures or to modifications of their materials. Exclusivity refers to the rare items among the whole group, those limited in number and, thus, not available to everyone. The design of the necklace has precisely succeeded in balancing diversity and exclusivity. While the former requires multiplicity that may emphasize the latter, the latter relies on the singularity that enriches the former. In addition to substantially fulfilling the aesthetic function of the necklace, these values reflect the knowledge, the economic investment, the extended cultural connexions and relationships of at least part of the inhabitants of Ba‘ja. Gathering regions, connecting cultures We identified eight different materials that were transformed, according to our typological classification, into four functional categories and seven morphotypes. In terms of materials, the diversity is illustrated by the use of shells from four mollusc genera (belonging to three different classes: gastropods, bivalves and scaphopods), three types of stones, and a hitherto unprecedentedly identified fossil amber. In the case of shells, at least two species are originally from the Red Sea: Pinctada margaritifera and Tridacna sp. The first provides the nacreous shiny mother-of-pearl while the second offers a thick whitish material exhibiting the growth lines in an alternating opaque and translucent pattern. These shells were exploited as raw materials, which means that their quality was an important criterion of selection, a requirement that is not always guaranteed when gathering shored shells after the death of the animal, as they are exposed to natural damage of sand erosion, weathering, rolling, impacts, etc. [109,110]. In the specific case of Pinctada, the size of the shell was also important to extract large rings as those discovered in Ba‘ja, some measuring over 10 cm [73] fig. 5t, or as the necklace’s ring. In fact, the outermost diameter of the latter, including the external edges of the outgrowths, reaches over 6 cm. However, one should consider that the valve from which this ring was extracted should have been not only large enough to provide a 6 cm diameter, but also to choose the area of the shell where it is sufficiently flat. This makes an estimation of the maximum diameter of Pinctada valve used for the ring of at least 7 to 9 cm. It is worth mentioning that a Pinctada valve shaped into a relatively flat pendant (with two small perforations), with a diameter of over 15 cm was discovered at Basta, meaning that the complete valve was even larger. Considering the size and the quality of the mother-of-pearl, it is hard to defend an acquisition of Pinctada valves through random gathering from shored specimens on the beach. Thus, we suggest that large valves were rather collected from their natural habitat. One should add that access to these molluscs might have been relatively easy as Pinctada margaritifera (and Tridacna (maxima?) live in shallow, and warm, waters of the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aqaba [111–114]. In fact, their over-exploitation and extension in many of their habitat regions today is partly explained by their accessibility [115]. If they were procured from their natural habitat during the Neolithic, one should consider the awareness about this aquatic source, and the know-how related to fishing, cleaning and processing of the material. Three varieties of stones, calcite, hematite, and turquoise were used for the necklace. The red calcite is dominant counting over 99% for the group of stone beads. Physicochemical analysis indicates a quite pure variety of calcite with a CaCO 3 ratio over 91%, with enough presence of Fe 2 O 3 to give the red color. The occurrence of calcite according to this high ratio is so far unknown for the area of Ba‘ja. Instead, several sources of the sedimentary limestone rocks are available (less than 5 km to the north and east of Ba‘ja, [116]). There is a mention of calcite in the Greater Petra Area, between the two contemporaneous sites of Ba‘ja and Basta (Zone 1 according to [117]), yet without precision regarding its color or chemical composition. Red calcite can result from calcite precipitation within sedimentary rocks rich with iron. This PLOS ONE Reviving the ornament of a dead child at the Neolithic village of Ba‘ja (Jordan) PLOS ONE | https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0288075 August 2, 2023 39 / 54 Fig 23. Final physical reconstruction of the necklace, today exposed at the new museum of Petra in Jordan. Note that the use of black foam tubes was intended to substitute the Tridacna and calcite beads which were too poorly preserved to be displayed. For preservation and museology reasons, the physical reconstruction did follow exactly the reconstruction proposed in Fig 22 right. For example, we avoided the path of more than two strings in the perforations of the hematite beads as one of them was fragile. Photo: A. Burkhardt, Drawings: H. Alarashi, Ba‘ja N.P. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0288075.g023 PLOS ONE Reviving the ornament of a dead child at the Neolithic village of Ba‘ja (Jordan) PLOS ONE | https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0288075 August 2, 2023 40 / 54 phenomenon is documented for the Transdanubian Range in Hungary [118] and can be envisaged for the Greater Petra Area when taking into account that this region is part of the Amman-Wadi Es Sir formation (B2/A7), which is a karstic system of silicified limestone [119], fig. 1. That is, red calcite might occur in the region and it potential sources, possibly underground (?), may have been known and exploited by the Neolithic communities. Hematite is a very widespread mineral and occurs in many regions of Southern Levant including the Greater Petra Area [117,120]. It is worth mentioning that iron-based oxides provide red ochre, which is very common at the site and was found in grave CG7, next to the legs of the child. Although we don’t precisely know their chemical composition, the hematite stones and the ochre might pertain to the same geological formations. Whether the red calcite, the hematite, and the ochre were obtained from the immediate vicinity of Ba‘ja or from sources located far away Is still an open question. However, one should keep in mind that Ba‘ja is located in a very rich mineral environment that was exploited for building the dense and complex household units, and for the lithic industries based on a wide range of raw materials such as flint, sandstone, limestone, clay, quartz, quartzite, and marl [58,116,121,122]. It is therefore worth raising the question regarding the exploitation of local resources for bead making activities at Ba‘ja. Turquoise has a narrow distribution in the Levant being limited to mines located in Sinai, at Wadi Magarah, Gebel Adeida and Serabit el-Khadim [123,124]. Although direct historical (epigraphic) evidence of turquoise mining from the Sinai sources are numerous [125], the procurement of the necklace turquoise from these same sources has yet to be confirmed through ongoing geochemical and isotopic [126] characterization of both geological and archaeological samples. Meanwhile, two other potential sources of turquoise should be noted. The first is recorded for the copper mines of Timna in the Negev desert by Mindat.org (https://www. mindat.org/loc-2066.html), the mineral database of Hudson Institute of Minerology, while the second, mentioned by Hauptmann [123], corresponds to turquoise deposits to the East of the Red Sea, in the Tabuk region, Northwest of Arabia Saudi. Whatever was the geological source, the turquoise used for the necklace pertains to an allochthonous origin, meaning that the owners had to invest in one way or another to acquire this valuable material either as raw fragments or as finished or semi-finished beads. Diversity in material choices is finally represented by the use of two fossil amber beads. Badly preserved, it should not be excluded that other amber beads were part of the necklace, although fragments of destroyed beads would probably have been discovered as the excavation was extremely meticulous and sediments systematically sifted. The spectra provided by the FTIR analyses of the two beads are compatible with the features recorded for the amber occurring in Lebanon [71,72]. In fact, the Near East has the oldest amber deposit known worldwide [127], the so-called “Levantine amber belt” [128] dating to the Lower Cretaceous [129]. Extending over 200 km from Southern Lebanon to the Negev desert, several deposits in sandstone and silt formations were recorded. Comparisons between the spectra of the beads and those of the geological references are therefore needed in order to identify the area and distance of the source exploited during the Neolithic. The closest amber spots might correspond to the Barboor deposits (https://www.mindat.org/loc-190761.html) located at least 60 km (up to 110) Northwest of Ba‘ja, on the Western side of the Jordan Valley. The necklace represents a unique and singular entity created through the combination of thousands of entirely shaped elements (except for five tiny shells that might have been modified naturally). In terms of morphotypes, all the beads pertain to a repertoire fundamentally Neolithic, coherent with the LPPNB ornamental spectra e.g. [130–135]. 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