Regional variations in entrepreneurial cognitions: Start-up intentions of university students in Spain

- 1 - Regional Va ia ions in En ep eneu ial Cogni ions: S a -Up In en ions o Uni e si y S uden s in Spain F ancisco Liñán†, Da id U bano‡ and Ma ibel Gue e o§ † Uni e si y o Se ille. A . Ramón y Cajal, 1, 41018-Se ille (Spain). Tel.: +34.954554487. Fax: +34.954551636. Email: [email p o ec ed] ‡ Au onomous Uni e si y o Ba celona. Bella e a, 08193-Ba celona (Spain). Tel.: +34.935814298 Fax: +34.935812555. Email: [email p o ec ed] § Au onomous Uni e si y o Ba celona. Bella e a, 08193-Ba celona (Spain). Tel.: +34.935811209. Fax: +34.935812555. Email: [email p o ec ed] - 2 - Regional Va ia ions in En ep eneu ial Cogni ions: S a -Up In en ions o Uni e si y S uden s in Spain F ancisco Liñán†, Da id U bano,‡ and Ma ibel Gue e o§ † Economic Depa men , Uni e si y o Se ille, Se ille, Spain;‡ § Business Economic Depa men , Au onomous Uni e si y o Ba celona, Ba celona, Spain; Regional Va ia ions in En ep eneu ial Cogni ions: S a -Up In en ions o Uni e si y S uden s in Spain Abs ac Empi ical esea ch has ecen ly paid conside able a en ion o he ole o en i onmen al ac o s in explaining egional a ia ions in en ep eneu ial ac i i y. Howe e , cogni i e models ha e no usually included hese ac o s in hei analyses. The e o e, he main objec i e o his s udy is o iden i y some o he en i onmen al cogni i e elemen s ha may explain egional di e ences in s a -up in en ions. Thus, an En ep eneu ial In en ion Model is de eloped, heo e ically based on he Planned Beha iou App oach, Ins i u ional Economic Theo y, and Social Capi al Theo y. The empi ical analysis is ca ied ou using s uc u al equa ion echniques o e a sample o 549 las -yea uni e si y s uden s om wo Spanish egions (Ca alonia and Andalusia). Resul s con i m ha alua ion o en ep eneu ship in each egion helps explain egional di e ences in en ep eneu ial in en ions. As expec ed, social alua ion o he en ep eneu was highe in he mo e de eloped egion (Ca alonia), posi i ely a ec ing pe cei ed subjec i e no ms and beha iou al con ol. In Andalusia, he in luence o pe cei ed alua ion o he en ep eneu in he close en i onmen was mo e impo an , a ec ing a i ude owa ds he beha iou and subjec i e no ms. These esul s explain some o he di e ences in he pool o po en ial en ep eneu s in each egion. They also jus i y he need by public-policy decision-make s o p omo e mo e posi i e en ep eneu ial alues in ela i ely backwa ds egions. Keywo ds: Regional Va ia ions, En ep eneu ial Cogni ions, S a -Up In en ions, Spain  Co esponding au ho . Email: da id.u [email protected] - 3 - 1. In oduc ion Qui e ecen ly, Mi chell, Buseni z, Bi d, Gaglio, McMullen, and Mo se (2007) p esen ed some cen al ques ions in En ep eneu ial Cogni ion Resea ch in he special issue o he jou nal En ep eneu ship: Theo y and P ac ice. They sugges ha u u e en ep eneu ship esea ch should be cen ed on social cogni i e ca ego ies (pe son, con ex , cogni ion and mo i a ion). In he las ew yea s, he conce n abou unde s anding he key elemen s in ol ed in he en ep eneu ial p ocess has no ably g own. In pa icula , many s udies ha e ocused on en ep eneu ial cogni ions, de ined by Mi chell e al. (2002) as he knowledge s uc u es ha people use o make assessmen s, judgmen s, o decisions in ol ing oppo uni y e alua ion, en u e c ea ion, and g ow h. In his sense, he e is e idence indica ing ha he cogni i e le el is in luenced by indi idual pe cep ions owa ds en u ing, oge he wi h pe sonal, sociological and en i onmen al a iables. Thus, an oppo uni y o be e unde s and en ep eneu ship is examining hose deep belie s ha a e behind he cogni i e s uc u es, en ep eneu ial a i udes, en ep eneu ial in en ions and en ep eneu ial ac ions (K uege 2007). A numbe o en ep eneu ial models ha e ied o iden i y he main elemen s in ol ed in en ep eneu ial ac ions, bu hey su e om di e en limi a ions. Some o hem did no include demog aphic a iables (K uege , Reilly and Ca s ud 2000). O he s ha e no conside ed en i onmen al ac o s ha play a ole in en ep eneu ship (Gnyawali and Fogel 1994; Da idsson and Henkson, 2002). Ne e heless, empi ical analysis ega ding hose en i onmen al o ins i u ional ac o s ha may be explaining en ep eneu ial a ia ions be ween coun ies is la gely lacking. Empi ical e idence ega ding egional di e ences is somewha s onge , bu heo e ically na owe (Delma and Da idsson 2000; Ro e oss and Kol e eid 2005). On he o he hand, se e al s udies ha e used business and enginee ing uni e si y s uden s as hei a ge popula ion, conside ing hem as po en ial en ep eneu s (Tkache and Kol e eid 1999; Lu hje and F anke 2003). In his con ex , he main objec i e o his pape is o iden i y some o he en i onmen al elemen s ha may explain egional di e ences in s a -up in en ions. This a icle de elops an en ep eneu ial in en ion model analyzing he mo i a ional ac o s sus ained by he planned beha iou app oach (Ajzen, 1991); some p oposi ions o he ins i u ional economic heo y (No h 1990, 2005) and also some in luences om social capi al esea ch (Ande son and Jack, 2002, Liñán and San os 2007). Some o hese en i onmen al ac o s explaining egional di e ences in s a -up in en ions could be social clima e and indi idual-pe cep ion di e ences. In his sense, his pape ollows No h’s (1990) ideas ega ding in o mal ac o s –a i udes, belie s, alues-, because he o mal ac o s –no ms, egula ions- a e b oadly equi alen in all Spanish egions (Vaillan and La uen e 2007). O cou se, he e may be di e ences wi h espec o some speci ic o mal s uc u es, such as inancing, ad ising o some o he o m o help o po en ial and nascen en ep eneu s. Bu , since en ep eneu ship p omo ion is widely accep ed by policy- make s in he wo egions s udied, we do no expec hese di e ences o be la ge. Besides, his pape is an explo a o y s udy cen ed on he ole o sha ed cogni i e alues in explaining he indi idual’s en ep eneu ial in en ion. The e o e, we will concen a e ou analysis on he cogni i e pe spec i e and will conside only an in o mal ins i u ional poin o iew. - 4 - To achie e his objec i e, he empi ical analysis ca ied ou has consis ed o s uc u al equa ion models, wi h pe cep ions -and pa icula ly in en ion- as dependen a iables. Da a ha e been collec ed h ough an en ep eneu ial in en ion ques ionnai e (EIQ) on 549 las -yea uni e si y s uden s om wo Spanish uni e si ies loca ed in di e en egions. The Au onomous Uni e si y o Ba celona (UAB) om Ca alonia, and he Uni e si y o Se ille (USE) om Andalusia, we e selec ed o he compa ison aking in o conside a ion hei egional di e ences. On he one hand, Ca alonia is loca ed in he No heas egion o Spain, i s GDP pe capi a was 26124 eu os in 2006, and 18.7% o new Spanish en e p ises we e c ea ed in his egion. On he o he hand, Andalusia is loca ed in he Sou h, i s GDP pe capi a was 17250 eu os, and 14.5% o new Spanish i ms we e c ea ed he e. Despi e hese di e ences, bo h egions sha e impo an simila i ies. Ca alonia has a popula ion o 7.1 million inhabi an s, whe eas in Andalusia i is almos 8.0 million. Bo h o hem ha e di e si ied p oduc i e s uc u es, wi h mo e han 3 million employed people each. Social di e ences be ween hese wo egions a e also subs an ial. Ca alonia has a epu a ion o ha ing a ha d-wo king popula ion, en ep eneu ial spi i and a dynamic economy. On he o he hand, Andalusia is seen in he es o Spain as cha ac e ized by a elaxed cul u e, enjoying adi ions and olklo e. This has o en been associa ed wi h i s lowe le els o en ep eneu ship and economic de elopmen . The esul s o his esea ch may be impo an in helping public- policy decision-make s imp o e he cogni i e en i onmen al ac o s ha a ec s a -up in en ions. Following his in oduc ion, he pape is s uc u ed in ou addi ional sec ions: heo e ical amewo k, me hodology, esul s, and discussion and conclusion. 2. Theo e ical amewo k The en ep eneu ial in en ion has been conside ed as he key elemen in unde s anding he new- i m c ea ion p ocess (Bi d 1988). In his sense, en ep eneu ial esea ch has been conduc ed ollowing wo main lines: he pe sonal cha ac e is ics o ai s o he en ep eneu ; and he in luence o con ex ual ac o s in en ep eneu ship. F om his las ins i u ional app oach, some en ep eneu ial models wi h a cogni i e basis eme ged o explain his phenomenon (Mi chell e al. 2000): he En ep eneu ial E en (Shape o and Sokol 1982) and he Theo y o Planned Beha iou (Ajzen 1991) appea ed as he main heo y-d i e models. They ha e been widely adop ed by en ep eneu ial in en ion esea ch o analyze po en ial en ep eneu s. Shape o’s model ocuses on he phenomenon o he en ep eneu ial e en , which is condi ioned by pe cep ions o desi abili y ( he indi idual alue sys em and social sys em ha he indi idual is pa o ) and easibili y ( inancial suppo and would-be pa ne s). These pe cep ions a e he p oduc o cul u al and social en i onmen s and hey de e mine pe sonal choice (Shape o and Sokol, 1982). This model was used o adap ed empi ically by K uege , Reilly and Ca s ud (2000), Pe e man and Kennedy (2003) and o he s. On he o he hand, Ajzen’s (1991) model explains how he cul u al and social en i onmen a ec s human beha iou . I is based on he indi idual’s in en ion, which is he esul o h ee de e minan s: a i ude owa ds he beha iou , subjec i e no ms and pe cei ed beha iou al con ol. Much esea ch has ound empi ical suppo o his heo y in he a ea o en ep eneu ship (Kol e eid 1996; Tkache and Kol e eid 1999; - 5 - K uege , Reilly and Ca s ud 2000; Liñán, 2004; Fayolle and Gailly 2005; Veciana, Apon e and U bano 2005). F om his poin o iew, s udies e eal ha bo h models o e lap in wo elemen s: Shape o’s cons uc o pe cei ed en u e desi abili y is e y close o Ajzen’s de e minan s o a i ude owa ds he beha iou and subjec i e no ms; and pe cei ed en u e easibili y p oposed by Shape o is simila o Azjen’s pe cei ed beha iou al con ol (K uege and B azeal 1994) and also close o he idea o pe cei ed sel e icacy (Bandu a 1997). Fo his eason and based on his e minology, K uge and B azeal (1994) cons uc ed he En ep eneu ial Po en ial Model ha has been widely used elsewhe e (C an 1996; Wals ad and Kou ilsky 1998; Veciana, Apon e and U bano 2005; Gue e o, Rialp and U bano 2007; and o he s). Ne e heless, bo h app oaches ha e been widely used o s udy en ep eneu ship, and some s udies ha e ied o compa e hei ela i e explana o y s eng hs (K uege , Reilly and Ca s ud 2000). Resul s ha e always been consis en wi h he applicabili y o he heo y o planned beha iou . Ne e heless, some con lic s ha e a isen om di e ences in measu es used, as he e a e no s anda d measu emen ins umen s o en ep eneu ial in en ion and i s an eceden s (A mi age and Conne 2001; Liñán and Chen 2009; Thompson, 2009). Exogenous o demog aphic a iables, on he o he hand, ope a e indi ec ly on in en ions, only i hey change he decision make ’s a i udes (K uege 2000). The e o e, i is no s ange ha some o hese models do no include hem (K uege , Reilly and Ca s ud 2000). Simila ly, he inclusion o en i onmen al ac o s in hese in en ion models is s ill a e. Rele an en i onmen al ac o s include legal, ins i u ional and socioeconomic condi ions, en ep eneu ial and business skills, inancial o non inancial assis ance, and o he addi ional elemen s depending on he coun y (Gnyawali and Fogel 1994; Da idsson and Henkson 2002). In his con ex , based on hose an eceden s and he weake e idence abou he a ia ions be ween coun ies o egions (Delma and Da idsson 2000), an En ep eneu ial In en ional Model is de eloped o unde s and he egional a ia ions o en ep eneu ial cogni ion in Spain. This model is in eg a ed by h ee ypes o ac o s: he mo i a ional ac o s, he en i onmen al ac o s, and si ua ional ac o s (con ol a iables), as explained below. 2.1 Mo i a ional Fac o s Based on he planned beha iou app oach, i could be a gued ha indi iduals ake hei decision o c ea e a new en e p ise based on h ee mo i a ional ac o s: hei a i udes owa ds he beha iou , hei pe cei ed beha iou al con ol, and he subjec i e no ms (Ajzen, 1991; Liñán, 2004). The a i ude owa ds he beha iou e e s o he a ac i eness o he p oposed beha iou o deg ee o which he indi idual holds a posi i e o nega i e pe sonal alua ion abou being an en ep eneu (Ajzen 1991, 2002; Kol e eid 1996). In his sense, he a i ude owa ds he beha iou is an impo an elemen conce ning he pe cep ion o desi abili y ha a ec s en ep eneu ial in en ion. The second mo i a ional ac o is pe cei ed beha iou al con ol; ha is, he pe cei ed easiness o di icul y o becoming an en ep eneu (Ajzen 1991). The - 6 - impo ance o his a iable in he new- i m c ea ion p ocess esides in i s p edic i e capaci y, as i e lec s he pe cep ion ha he indi idual will be able o con ol ha beha iou (Ajzen 2002). In his line, his elemen could be in luenced by di e en p ocesses, such as enac i e mas e y, ole modelling, social pe suasion, and judgmen s (Bandu a 1997). Se e al esea che s ha e used di e en cons uc s o measu e i , such as Boyd and Vozikis (1994) and Zhao, Hills, and Siebe (2005). These mo i a ional elemen s ha e been cons an ly suppo ed by se e al empi ical s udies (Kol e eid 1996; K uege , e al. 2000; Fayolle and Gailly 2005). Al hough some esea che s ha e conside ed his concep as simila o sel -e icacy, Ajzen (2002) speci ies ha i is a wide cons uc , since i encompasses sel -e icacy and pe cei ed con ollabili y o he beha iou . H1a. A i ude owa ds he beha iou has a posi i e impac on en ep eneu ial in en ions independen om he egional con ex H1b. Pe cei ed beha iou al con ol has a posi i e impac on en ep eneu ial in en ions independen om he egional con ex On he o he side, subjec i e no ms measu e he pe cei ed social p essu e om amily, iends o signi ican o he s (Ajzen 1991) o pe o m he en ep eneu ial beha iou . I e e s o he pe cep ion ha ‘ e e ence people’ may o may no app o e o he decision o become an en ep eneu (Ajzen 2001). In gene al, hese no ms end o con ibu e mo e weakly o in en ion (A mi age and Conne 2001) o indi iduals wi h s ong in e nal locus o con ol (Ajzen 2002) han o hose wi h a s ong ac ion o ien a ion (Bagozzi 1992). In he en ep eneu ship li e a u e, se e al s udies ound no signi ican di ec ela ionship be ween subjec i e no ms and en ep eneu ial in en ion (Au io, Keeley, Klo s en, Pa ke and Hay, 2001; K uege e al., 2000). Social capi al li e a u e inds e idence indica ing ha hese no ms a ou ably a ec he a i ude owa ds he beha iou and he pe cei ed beha iou al con ol (Sche e , B odzinsky and Wiebe 1991; Coope 1993; Ma hews and Mose 1996; Kennedy, D ennan, Pen ow, and Wa son, 2003; Liñán and San os 2007). Thus, ou second se o hypo heses is: H2a. Subjec i e no m has a posi i e impac on he a i ude owa ds he beha iou independen o he egional con ex H2b. Subjec i e no m has a posi i e impac on he pe cei ed beha iou al con ol independen o he egional con ex . 2.2. En i onmen al Fac o s Acco ding o he Social Lea ning Theo y, en i onmen al ac o s ha e a g ea in luence o e lea ning and highe cogni i e p ocesses (Bandu a 1977). Thus, beha iou s would be he esul o en i onmen al s imuli. En i onmen al ac o s, acco ding o No h (1990, 2005), include bo h o mal and in o mal elemen s. And bo h o hem may play a ole in he con igu a ion o en ep eneu ial in en ions. Howe e , his pape ocuses on he analysis o he ole played by one speci ic kind o in o mal ac o : he alua ion o en ep eneu ship in he indi idual’s close and wide en i onmen s. In his sense, many au ho s poin ou ha ins i u ional economic heo y se es o analyze he in luence o en i onmen al ac o s on en ep eneu ship. Thus, his heo y has been applied o he analysis o new i m c ea ion in ansi ion economies (Nee and Young - 7 - 1991; Nee 1992; Li wack 1993; B au igam 1997; Peng and Shekshnia 2001; S ein, 2002). Simila ly, i has also been used in he case o Wes e n Eu opean a eas (Wes head 1995; Veciana 1999; Díaz, U bano and He nández 2005; Veciana, Apon e and U bano 2005; U bano, 2006). In his line, many en ep eneu ship esea che s ha e s essed he ole o cul u al a ia ions in explaining di e en ial en ep eneu ial beha iou s ac oss coun ies and egions (Da idsson 1995; Muelle and Thomas 2001; Hay on, Geo ge, and Zah a 2002). Spilling (1991) conside s cul u e as he common ideas, alues, and no ms inside a g oup o people. As a consequence, hese alues could in luence he en ep eneu ship le el o a socie y by legi ima ing o p omo ing on indi iduals ce ain posi i e a i udes ela ed o i m c ea ion (Da idsson 1995). In o mal ins i u ional ac o s, he e o e, would e lec he social dynamics o en ep eneu ship, whe e he le el o en ep eneu ial ac i i y wi hin a communi y is an unin ended consequence o many indi idual choices wi h espec o en ep eneu ship (Byg a e and Minni i 2000). These choices, howe e , could be de i ed om social models ha impac on he indi idual’s en ep eneu ial in en ion (Hmieleski and Co be 2006). These sha ed alues and ideas a e ansmi ed h ough human in e ac ion and ne wo k con ac s a di e en le els. Thus, acco ding o Naphie and Ghoshal (1998), hey would ep esen he cogni i e dimension o social capi al. Un il now, he ole o s uc u al social capi al in he o m o pe sonal ne wo ks has been s udied as an impo an elemen in he c ea ion and de elopmen o en ep eneu ial i ms (Jack and Ande son, 2002; Hoang and An oncic, 2003; G e e and Sala , 2003). This may be due o he ac ha s uc u al social capi al is a ela i ely objec i e and ex e nally obse able dimension. Cogni i e social capi al (CSC), ins ead, de i es om men al p ocesses and esul ing ideas, ein o ced by cul u e and ideology, gene a ing alues, a i udes, belie s and us (Naphie and Ghoshal, 1998), and has ecei ed much less a en ion. Howe e , he s eng h o he linkages wi h o he indi iduals o o ganiza ions depends on he equency and p oximi y o con ac be ween indi iduals. G ano e e (1983, 1985) was he i s o di e en ia e be ween s ong and weak ies. Bo h s ong ies (among membe s o a amily o e hnic g oup) and weak ies a e complemen a y o an e icien de elopmen o social capi al (Woolcock and Na ayan, 2000). In his sense, we can alk abou bonding social capi al, de i ed om s ong in a-communi y ies, and b idging social capi al, de i ed om weak ex a- communi y ies. Bo h ca ego ies a e he esul o he ela ional dimension o social capi al (Naphie and Ghoshal, 1998). F om a cogni i e pe spec i e, bo h bonding and b idging social capi al could play di e en oles in ansmi ing alues and ideas ha may ha e an in luence on pe cep ions and, h ough hem, on in en ions (Simon, Hough on and Aquino, 1999; Ca olis and Sapa i o, 2006). Fi s ly, bonding cogni i e social capi al, based on s ong ies wi h amily o iends, gene a es di e en alues, us , sha ed languages and sha ed na a i es. Thus, indi iduals ecei e he in luence om Close En i onmen Valua ions, and his con ibu es o he gene a ion o mo e a ou able pe cep ions owa ds s a -up (Coope and Dunkelbe g, 1987; Sche e , B odzinsky and Wiebe, 1991; Ku a ko and Ma hews, 2004; Kim, Ald ich and Keis e , 2006). They could exe hei in luence di ec ly on a i ude owa ds he beha iou as a consequence o he cogni i e alues and belie s con o ming indi idual’s pe cep ions owa ds a ca ee (Upho 2000; G oo ae and Bas elae 2001). Kennedy e al. (2003) ound ha expec a ions om amily, iends and - 8 - signi ican o he s a e key a iables in luencing s uden ’s esponses, and ha close en i onmen expec a ions we e ela ed o a i ude owa ds he beha iou , subjec i e no ms and gende . Pe cei ed beha iou al con ol would no be impo an a his s age. Secondly, b idging cogni i e social capi al based on weak ies could also gene a e a ou able alues and belie s owa ds i m s a -up h ough he acquisi ion o in o ma ion and expe ience (Jack and Ande son, 2002; Hoang and An oncic, 2003). Thus, Social Valua ion o En ep eneu ship akes a c i ical ole in de e mining en ep eneu ial beha iou (Zah a, Jennings and Ku a ko 1999). The unde lying sys em o alues pe aining o a speci ic g oup o socie y shapes he de elopmen o ce ain pe sonali y ai s and abili ies, modelling no ma i e and abili y pe cep ions owa ds he en ep eneu ial ac i i y (Thomas and Mulle 2000). Fo example, Takyiasiedu (1993) ound ha some socio-cul u al ac o s hinde ed he en ep eneu ial ac i i y in A ica. In his sense, we can now p esen ou hi d se o hypo heses ega ding he e ec o en i onmen al alua ions o en ep eneu ship: H3a. Close alua ion has a posi i e impac on he a i ude owa ds he beha iou , bu is di e en depending on he egional con ex H3b. Close alua ion has a posi i e impac on subjec i e no ms, bu is di e en depending on he egional con ex H3c. Social alua ion has a posi i e impac on subjec i e no ms, bu is di e en depending on he egional con ex H3d. Social alua ion has a posi i e impac on pe cei ed beha iou al con ol, bu is di e en depending on he egional con ex 2.3. Con ol Va iables Con ol a iables e e o demog aphic in o ma ion ( ole models, age, gende , educa ional le el o p e ious wo k expe ience). In he li e a u e hese a iables ha e been used o de ine a p o ile o a ypical en ep eneu (Robinson, S impson, Hue ne , and Hun , 1991). Some examples e eal he cha ac e o hese ela ions: he in luence o gende on a i udes owa ds new en e p ise c ea ion (Kol e eid 1996; Mazza ol, Vole y, Doss and Thein, 1999); he ela ionship be ween gende and sel -e icacy (Zhao, Hills and Siebe , 2005); he in luence o ole models on sel -e icacy and possibly on pe sonal a ac ion and subjec i e no ms (Sche e , B odzinsky and Wiebe 1991; Ca s ud 1992; Boyd and Vozikis 1994); age o labou expe ience as ac o s a ec ing a pe son’s p opensi y o s a a i m (Robinson e al. 1991; Coope 1993); and he ele ance o expe ience and social in luences (Da idsson 1995; Kol e eid 1996). Addi ionally, some au ho s poin o he highe en ep eneu ial ac i i y by immig an s (Baude , 2008). In his sense, we ha e conside ed he inclusion o six con ol a iables in he analysis: age, gende , labou expe ience, sel -employmen expe ience, ole models, and being an immig an . Inse Figu e 1 a ound he e - 9 - In summa y, he elemen s and ela ionships in eg a ing he En ep eneu ial In en ion Model p oposed in his pape a e p esen ed in Figu e 1. 3. Me hodology The empi ical analysis has been ca ied ou on a sample o las -yea uni e si y s uden s. This is a con enience sample e y o en used in en ep eneu ship esea ch (Fayolle and Gailly 2005; Kol e eid 1996; K uege , Reilly and Ca s ud 2000; Tkache and Kol e eid 1999; Veciana, Apon e and U bano 2005). In pa icula , ecen esea ch has ound ha young uni e si y g adua es (25-34 yea s) show he highes p opensi y owa ds s a ing up a i m (Bosma, Jones, Au io and Le ie, 2008). Then, as ou pu pose was o analyze social alues and hei in luence on en ep eneu ial in en ions, wo di e en egions we e selec ed o he analysis. In his con ex , a b ie summa y o he main cha ac e is ics o bo h egions is p esen ed in able 1. Ca alonia has adi ionally been conside ed as a main Spanish indus ial cen e. I has also been able o de elop a mode n se ices sec o . Ca alonia p oduces 18.6% o he o al Spanish GDP, c ea ing 17.8% o o al employmen . The e o e, i is cha ac e ized by ha ing ela i ely high p oduc i i y. O e he yea s i has a ac ed a g ea numbe o immig an s om o he pa s o he coun y. Nowadays, i ep esen s 16% o he o al Spanish popula ion, wi h an income le el abo e he na ional a e age (118%). Rega ding he en ep eneu ial po en ial, he numbe o exis ing and newly-c ea ed i ms oughly co esponds o i s con ibu ion o GDP. Inse Table 1 a ound he e Andalusia, on he o he hand, lacks a s ong indus ial base. In con as , ag icul u e, cons uc ion and pe sonal se ices a e ela i ely mo e de eloped in he egion. The e o e, i specializes in low p oduc i i y sec o s, since i p oduces 13.9% o o al Spanish GDP, while gene a ing 14.6% o employmen . I is cha ac e ized by ha ing a la ge o al popula ion (17.8% o Spain), wi h ela i ely low income le els (78% o he Spanish a e age). In Andalusia he e is a ela i ely la ge numbe o i ms (16.1%), bu hey end o be smalle . Newly-c ea ed i ms ep esen 14.5% o he Spanish o al. Inse Table 2 a ound he e In his s udy, one la ge public uni e si y in he bigges me opoli an a ea o each egion was chosen: Uni e si a Au onoma de Ba celona (UAB, in Ca alonia) and Uni e sidad de Se illa (USE, in Andalusia). The main cha ac e is ics o bo h uni e si ies a e summa ized in Table 2. Empi ical da a o his esea ch we e ob ained om a o al popula ion o 3811 uni e si y s uden s (in he wo inal yea s o hei deg ees), du ing he academic yea 2006-2007 (2338 s uden s om UAB and 1473 s uden s om USE). Ques ionnai es we e adminis e ed op ionally o las - yea s uden s en olled on business and economics deg ees du ing a class session, wi h p e ious p o esso ’s au ho iza ion. The ieldwo k was ca ied ou in Oc obe and No embe 2006. In ha en i onmen , esponse a e was e y high, well abo e 90%. Only a small numbe o hem we e - 16 - The e o e, he ele ance o p omo ing mo e posi i e en ep eneu ial cul u e and alues in ela i ely backwa d egions could be highligh ed (Guzmán and San os 2001; Vaillan and La uen e 2007). The di ec e ec ound om ole models and close alua ion on en ep eneu ial in en ion dese es u he analysis. The heo y o planned beha iou (Ajzen, 1991; 2001; 2002) s a es ha he mo i a ional an eceden s explain in en ion, whe eas all o he a iables would only ha e an indi ec e ec . Agains his s ong heo e ical a gumen , i is no unusual o ind empi ical esea ch epo ing one o mo e o hese di ec ela ionships (Au io e al. 2001, Choy, Kuppusamy and Jusoh 2005). In his sense, he i s and mos p obable explana ion would be he limi a ions o ou esea ch design. Al e na i ely, he exis ence o mode a ing o media ing e ec s could help explain hese di ec e ec s on in en ion. Thus, ole models (especially o he UAB subsample) and close alua ion (especially o he USE subsample) would be mode a ing he e ec o he mo i a ional an eceden s on in en ion. Fu he esea ch is needed o cla i y his poin . The p esen esea ch has a numbe o limi a ions ha should be ecognized and add essed in u u e esea ch. In he i s place, imp o emen s ega ding he ins umen a e p obably needed. Some i ems may need e ising o e en elimina ion. In pa icula , e e sed i ems ha e p obably been use ul o a oid acquiescence bias, bu con ibu ed e y li le o he cons uc s. Addi ionally, some unexpec ed esul s we e ound, such as he signi ican e ec o some a iables on in en ion, which may be pa ly a ibu ed o measu emen issues. The model used in he analysis di e s om he o iginal TPB model in some mino poin s. This decision was made based on p e ious esul s and me a-analyses (A mi age and Conne 2001, Chandle and Lyon 2001, Liñán and Chen 2009). In pa icula , he measu e used o subjec i e no m is simple han ha o Ajzen’s (1991). Howe e , addi ional esea ch should be speci ically designed o compa e bo h iews and con i m o ejec hese de ia ions. Secondly, mo e wo k will be needed o ully unde s and how pe cei ed alues in each egional cul u e help de e mine s a -up decisions. A numbe o in e es ing en i onmen al- ac o elemen s should be analyzed. Fo example, he in luence ha o mal ac o s (e.g. physical in as uc u es o incuba o s, o mal sou ces o unding, non-mone a y helps, among o he s) implemen ed in each egion imp o ing he en ep eneu ial cul u e. Thi dly, he in luence o uni e si y ac ions owa ds en ep eneu ship needs o be conside ed. In his espec , some ques ions need o be inco po a ed o ob ain complemen a y da a ha allows iden i ying how en ep eneu ial educa ional cou ses o o he suppo p og ams in each uni e si y would impac on he people’s schemes. Thus, he ela ionship be ween uni e si y cul u e and s uden ’s en ep eneu ial in en ions dese es also close a en ion. Fou hly, i is necessa y o apply his me hodology o di e en samples. In pa icula , since mos suppo measu es o en ep eneu ship in Spain a e ocused on he de elopmen o high- ech i ms, enginee ing schools, echnology-pa k wo ke s, and simila ‘po en ial echnology en ep eneu s’ should be analyzed. - 17 - Acknowledgemen s A p e ious e sion o his pape was p esen ed a he 2007 Babson Con e ence (Mad id, Spain). We a e mos g a e ul o se e al pa icipan s o hei commen s and sugges ions, which ha e con ibu ed o he imp o emen o his s udy. In pa icula , we highly app ecia e commen s om No is F. K uege . 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The media ing ole o sel -e icacy in he de elopmen o en ep eneu ial in en ions. Jou nal o Applied Psychology 90(6): 1265-1272. - 22 - Appendix 1. Ques ionnai e i ems (o iginal in Spanish) A. Indica e you le el o ag eemen wi h he ollowing s a emen s abou he En ep eneu ial Ac i i y om 1 ( o al disag eemen ) o 7 ( o al ag eemen ). 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 A01.- S a ing a i m and keeping i iable would be easy o me A02.- A ca ee as an en ep eneu is o ally una ac i e o me A03.- My iends would app o e o my decision o s a a business A04.- I am eady o do any hing o be an en ep eneu A05.- I belie e I would be comple ely unable o s a a business A06.- I will make e e y e o o s a and un my own business A07.- I am able o con ol he c ea ion p ocess o a new business A08.- My immedia e amily would app o e o my decision o s a a business A09.- I ha e se ious doub s abou e e s a ing my own business A10.- I I had he oppo uni y and esou ces, I would lo e o s a a business A11.- My colleagues would app o e o my decision o s a a business A12.- Amongs a ious op ions, I would a he be any hing bu an en ep eneu A13.- I am de e mined o c ea e a business en u e in he u u e A14.- I I ied o s a a business, I would ha e a high chance o being success ul A15.- Being an en ep eneu would gi e me g ea sa is ac ion A16.- I would be e y di icul o me o de elop a business idea A17.- My p o essional goal is o be an en ep eneu A18.- Being an en ep eneu implies mo e ad an ages han disad an ages o me A19.- I ha e a e y low in en ion o e e s a ing a business A20.- I know all abou he p ac ical de ails needed o s a a business C. Indica e you le el o ag eemen wi h he ollowing sen ences abou he alues socie y pu on en ep eneu ship om 1 ( o al disag eemen ) o 7 ( o al ag eemen ). 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 C1.- My immedia e amily alues en ep eneu ial ac i i y abo e o he ac i i ies and ca ee s C2.- The cul u e in my coun y is highly a ou able owa ds en ep eneu ial ac i i y C3.- The en ep eneu ’s ole in he economy is gene ally unde alued in my coun y C4.- My iends alue en ep eneu ial ac i i y abo e o he ac i i ies and ca ee s C5.- Mos people in my coun y conside i unaccep able o be an en ep eneu C6.- In my coun y, en ep eneu ial ac i i y is conside ed o be wo hwhile, despi e he isks C7.- My colleagues alue en ep eneu ial ac i i y abo e o he ac i i ies and ca ee s C8.- I is commonly hough in my coun y ha en ep eneu s ake ad an age o o he s - 23 - Table 1: Main egional cha ac e is ics Indica o Regional Con ex Spain Ca alonia Andalucía Geog aphical Localiza ion No heas Sou h Socio-demog aphical Popula ion ( o al numbe ) 44.708.964 7.134.697 15.96% * 7.975.672 17.84% * Male 22.100.466 3.543.706 3.958.565 Female 22.608.498 3.590.991 4.017.107 Economically Ac i e Popula ion 37.733.900 6.023.000 15.96%* 6.576.000 17.43%* Economical GDP Pe capi a (Eu os) 22.150 26.124 4 h* 17.250 17 h* GDP G ow h a e (2000-2006) 3.90 3.80 Lowe * 3.90 Highe * To al Employmen 20.724.900 3.691.900 17.81%* 3.016.200 14.55%* Educa ion Uni e si ies 73 12 17.43%* 10 13.69%* S uden s 1.433.016 182.258 12.72%* 230.621 16.09% * En ep eneu ial En e p ises (numbe ) 3.174.393 578.340 18.22%* 486.674 15.33% * New En e p ises (numbe ) 415.275 77.656 18.70%* 60.215 14.50%* Regional Suppo s p o ided by Go e nmen Gene ali a o Ca alonia Jun a o Andalusia * Regional Con ex p esence s. Spanish Da a Sou ce: Las da a published in 2006 by he INE (Spanish Na ional S a is ics Ins i u e) - 24 - Table 2: Main de ails o su eyed uni e si ies Desc ip ion Au onomous Uni e si y o Ba celona (UAB) Uni e si y o Se ille (USE) Gene al In o ma ion Focus Humani ies, Social Sciences, Heal h Sciences, Expe imen al Sciences and Enginee ing. Age 39 yea s 502 yea s Na u e Public Uni e si y Public Uni e si y Uni e si y size 31660 unde g adua e 59892 unde g adua e En ep eneu ial Side Educa ional p og ams Ex acu icula s a -up cou se and Doc o al p og am in business c ea ion Ex acu icula s a -up cou se Spin-o s 18 echnological and bio echnological 13 echnological Spillo e s om 90s 14653 esea ch pape s 8444 esea ch pape s Technical De ails C i e ia Uni e si y s uden s en olled in Business Adminis a ion and Economics (in he wo inal yea s). Da e o ield wo k Oc obe and No embe , 2006. Popula ion 3811 uni e si y s uden s (2338 UAB s uden s and 1473 USE s uden s) Sample Size 549 uni e si y s uden s (300 UAB and 249 USE) Sample E o ± 3.87 % Con idence Le el 95% (Z=1.96, p=q=0.5) - 25 - Table 3: Fac o analysis en ep eneu ial in en ion (Ro a ed Fac o ma ix) I ems Fac o Communali ies 1 2 3 4 Ini ial Ex ac ion a01 .601 .330 .395 a2Re .517 .195 .269 a03 .854 .568 .666 a04 .539 .332 .366 a06 .603 .508 .545 a07 .484 .427 .441 a08 .607 .415 .446 a11 .897 .635 .810 a12Re .618 .353 .480 a13 .689 .611 .680 a14 .642 .455 .554 a15 .424 .514 .541 .633 a16Re .572 .247 .386 a17 .541 .530 .537 a18 .327 .367 .387 a20 .501 .241 .279 C onbach alpha .809 (4 i ems) .818 .727 .722 (4 i ems) No e: Ex ac ion me hod: p incipal axis ac o iza ion. Ro a ion me hod: Oblimin No maliza ion wi h Kaise . Ro a ion con e ged a e 12 i e a ions. Loadings below 0.30 no shown. - 32 - Figu e 3: Resul s o he Ca alonian sub-sample En ep . in en ion Social Valua ion Close Valua ion PBeha . Con ol A i ude o beha iou Role Model Gende Age Immig an Labou expe . Sel -empl. expe . 0.216 R2=0.013 Subjec i e No ms R2=0.047 R2=0.191 R2=0.047 R2=0.177 R2=0.526 0.102 0.122 0.112 0.273 0.213 0.217 0.314 0.297 0.315 0.504 No e: Only signi ican (p<0.05) pa h coe icien s a e shown. - 33 - Figu e 4: Resul s o he Andalusian sub-sample En ep . in en ion Social Valua ion Close Valua ion PBeha . Con ol A i ude o beha iou Role Model Gende Age Immig an Labou expe . Sel -empl. expe . 0.198 R2=0.018 Subjec i e No ms R2=0.055 R2=0.262 R2=0.063 R2=0.257 R2=0.563 0.222 0.125 0.211 0.128 0.133 0.314 0.174 0.201 0.159 0.190 0.283 0.290 0.278 0.476 0.148 No e: Only signi ican (p<0.05) pa h coe icien s a e shown.