Women at university. Strategies and achievements of a secular presence in Latin America and Spain

Cul u e & His o y Digi al Jou nal 8(1) June 2019, e002 eISSN 2253-797X doi: h ps://doi.o g/10.3989/chdj.2019.002 Women a uni e si y. S a egies and achie emen s o a secula p esence in La in Ame ica and Spain Consuelo Flecha-Ga cía1 and Alicia-I a í Pale mo2 1 Uni e sidad de Se illa. Facul ad de Ciencias de la Educación. C/ Pi o ecnia s/n. 41013 Se illa e-mail: [email p o ec ed] ORCID iD h p://o cid.o g/0000-0002-1580-0428 2 Uni e sidad Nacional de Luján. Depa amen o de Educación. Ru a 5 y A enida Cons i ución. 6700 Luján, Buenos Ai es, A gen ina e-mail: [email p o ec ed] ORCID iD h p://o cid.o g/0000-0001-6365-1853 Submi ed: 7 Janua y 2018. Accep ed: 3 June 2018 ABSTRACT: This pape o e s a desc ip i e and c i ical o e iew o he expe ience o he p esence o women a uni e si y in Spain and se e al coun ies in La in Ame ica. I ocuses no jus on how hey emba ked on di e en deg ees, bu also on he ex en o which hey wen on o exe cise p o essionally and he social ba ie s encoun e ed a each s ep. I desc ibes some o he s a egies used on he pa hs ollowed o s udy a uni e si y du ing almos one hund ed and i y yea s, and he achie emen s made possible by his educa ion, bo h inside and ou side he academic se ing. The pape d aws on p ima y documen a y sou ces om uni e si y a chi es and newspape lib a ies and in- cludes a e iew o he li e a u e on he subjec . These documen a y sea ches p o ided us wi h a g ea deal o alu- able in o ma ion ha has helped us in ou ask. The indica o s o he subjec ma e s udied a e, amongs o he s, uni- e si y educa ion, emale lec u e s, his o y and sociology, emale s uden s and li e aspi a ions. KEYWORDS: His o y; Sociology; Uni e si y; S uden s; Female lec u e s; Knowledge. Ci a ion / Cómo ci a es e a ículo: Flecha-Ga cía, Consuelo and Pale mo, Alicia-I a í (2019) “Women a uni e si y. S a egies and achie emen s o a secula p esence in La in Ame ica and Spain”. Cul u e & His o y Digi al Jou nal, 8 (1): e002. h ps://doi.o g/10.3989/chdj.2019.002 RESUMEN: Muje es en las uni e sidades. Es a egias y log os de una p esencia secula en La inoamé ica y en España.- El a ículo o ece una mi ada desc ip i a y c í ica a los inicios de la p esencia de muje es en uni e sidades de España y de a ios países la inoame icanos. Se cen a, no sólo en el o igen de su en ada en las dis in as ca e as, sino ambién en el eje cicio p o esional y en la men alidad social que hizo di ícil cada uno de es os pasos. Se desc i- ben algunas de las es a egias u ilizadas en di e en es momen os de las ayec o ias seguidas pa a es udia en las au- las uni e si a ias -ya ce canas a los cien o cincuen a años-, y los log os a que les encaminó esa o mación, den o y ue a de los espacios académicos. Se han u ilizado dis in as uen es documen ales p ima ias p oceden es de a chi os his ó icos uni e si a ios y de heme o ecas, y se han e isado los es udios publicados sob e es a misma emá ica; búsquedas que han p opo cionado da os y ci cuns ancias imp escindibles pa a elabo a es e abajo. Los indicado es de la emá ica desa ollada son, en e o os, o mación uni e si a ia, p o eso as, his o ia y sociología, alumnas y ex- pec a i as de ida. PALABRAS CLAVE: His o ia; Sociología; Uni e sidad; Alumnas; P o eso as; Sabe . Copy igh : © 2019 CSIC. This is an open-access a icle dis ibu ed unde he e ms o he C ea i e Commons A ibu ion 4.0 In e na ional (CC BY 4.0) License. Cul u e & His o y Digi al Jou nal 8(1), June 2019, e002. eISSN 2253-797X, doi: h ps://doi.o g/10.3989/chdj.2019.002 2 • Consuelo Flecha-Ga cía and Alicia-I a í Pale mo INTRODUCTION The libe al S a es eme ging in he wes e n wo ld a he dawn o he 19 h cen u y as one o he consequences o he Enligh enmen and he ideals o he F ench e olu- ion, g an ed igh s o he male popula ion, as men had been chosen o occupy he public s age, be in ol ed in socially isible ac i i ies and con ibu e o he desi ed changes o libe y and p og ess. They we e summoned o ake cha ge, and make pe sonal use, o he new oppo u- ni ies esul ing om ins uc ion (Puelles, 1993), and pa - icipa e and achie e social p o agonism. This was in pa due o he desi e o bu y he dynamics o inequali y inhe - en in he p eceding absolu is egimes, u ning he men who had, hi he o, been conside ed me ely as subjec s in o ci izens. This was an ambi ious p ojec wi h a eaching implica ions a a poli ical, social, economic and educa ional le el; and i was one om which women we e excluded (C uz y Díez, 2012). The decision was aken no jus o dis ega d he expe- ience o women who had been dedica ed o eaching and lea ning, bu o exclude hem ou igh om he schooling p ojec which he condi ion o ci izenship included and in which i was conside ed ha hey should no ake pa . School ins uc ion was no he symbolic o eal place en- isaged o hem in he design o he pos - e olu iona y p ojec o mode ni y which was unde cons uc ion. On he con a y, hey we e asked o accep as a equi emen o he iabili y o his pa ia chal d eam, beha iou s which in ol ed domes ic seg ega ion, economic depen- dence silence in public spaces and ew wo ds in p i a e. Bu he incohe ence unde lying he uni e sali y wi h which hese p e oga i es we e de ined -p inciples o a gen- e ally male scope-, did no go unno iced. Pa o he emale popula ion mani es ed i s disapp o al wi h opinions and a - i udes ha unde lined hei de e mina ion o be co e ed by igh s which could lead o new oppo uni ies and imp o e- men s in hei own li es. G ea in e es was gene a ed by he deba es o e whe he hey should be accep ed in spaces managed by s a e au ho i ies. I is well-known ha no all women allowed hemsel es o be domina ed by he model ha hey saw ep oduced a ound hem. No all women ac- cep ed his in hei li e p ojec s o , a leas , hey a oided ep oducing i iden ically. Because he c i e ia bo n unde he pa ia chy ha e no always been de e minan , ei he in all emale li es, o h oughou he li es o all women. In se e al coun ies, he poli ical and social ba ie s designed o obs uc he en y o he i s women in o uni- e si y became clea ly de ined. This le el o educa ion was no conside ed app op ia e o women and he e we e also ea s abou he epe cussions ha hei subsequen p o essional occupa ion could ha e on such an and ocen- ic and hie a chical social o de . Howe e , emale doc- o s, pha macis s, lawye s, seconda y and uni e si y eache s, ci il se an s, e c. g adually demons a ed hei abili y o p oduce c acks in he pa ia chal edi ice; a men- ali y li le gi en o accep ing women in public se ings and oles o impo ance, o o allowing hem o abandon hei p eo dained domes ic oles. ORIGINS OF A HARD-WON LEGITIMACY In his con ex , a cen u y and a hal ago a g oup o young women achie ed hei goal o going o uni e si y despi e unnecessa y delays, legal obs acles demons a ing he excep ionali y wi h which hey we e looked on, and cumbe some egis a ion p ocedu es. And abo e all, de- spi e ha ing o endu e o ensi e and un ai commen s a ound hem om hose who opposed hem s udying. D awing on documen a y sou ces om lib a ies, uni- e si y a chi es, and newspape lib a ies, in his a icle we p esen a his o iog aphic pe spec i e o women’s his- o y wi h he his o y o educa ion. We ha e w i en an ac- coun o he jou ney ollowed by emale uni e si y s u- den s de e mined o change he di ec ion o hei li es, undaun ed by he many obs acles in hei way. I is unde s andable ha hey ebelled agains hese in- comp ehensible di icul ies which in e e ed wi h hei p og ess owa ds educa ion and ea ning a li ing. I is also wo hy o admi a ion ha hey we e able o o e come hese obs acles, d i en by an unques ionable con ic ion and by a lucid insis ence which was impe ious o us- a ion. They we e b a e pionee s who won legi imacy o he bene i o he gene a ions ha ollowed. Since he c ea ion o uni e si ies in he ea ly Middle Ages, hei objec i e had been o ins uc laymen in knowledge o applica ion in he e udi e p o essions e- qui ed by socie y; women we e kep away om his place o knowledge ansmission. I was only accep able o s udy o be unde aken by women wi hin he walls o monas e ies due o hei li es yle; o all o he women, i was unnecessa y and inapp op ia e because hey we e no going o exe cise such p o essions. Howe e , we do ind some cases o women who had comple ed exams o em- po a y eache s in ‘one o one’ uni e si y classes be o e he 19 h cen u y. Bu i was no un il he mid-19 h cen u y ha he g adual inco po a ion o women in o uni e si ies inally consolida ed his pa h o e h ee decades in many coun ies in he wo ld. This con inued absence o e he cen u ies was no he esul o laws p ohibi ing women om s udying, o due o a lack o women wi h in ellec u- al cu iosi y; i was ins ead he esul o he des iny which had been imposed on he emale popula ion, and he nega ion o hei in ellec ual capaci ies. This had e ec- i ely d owned women’s libe ies. Thus, he second hal o he 19 h cen u y saw he egis- a ion o emale s uden s a uni e si ies in many La in Ame ican and Eu opean coun ies, amongs hem Spain. E en hough his was no unp eceden ed, i was s ill me wi h disquie . These middle-class women had decided o s udy in o de o be able o wo k in he p o essions which we e app op ia e o hei social g oup and which had hi he o been con ined o men: hei a he s, b o he s, husbands o sons. The biog aphies o many o hese women con i ms ha hey sough access o a be e quali- ied job o inancial independence, pe sonal sa is ac ion o he social se ice hey pe o med, and as a pla o m om which hey could become in ol ed in public ma - e s. In ac , apa om wo king in he p o ession hey Cul u e & His o y Digi al Jou nal 8(1), June 2019, e002. eISSN 2253-797X, doi: h ps://doi.o g/10.3989/chdj.2019.002 Women a uni e si y. S a egies and achie emen s o a secula p esence in La in Ame ica and Spain • 3 had s udied o , mos emale g adua es in he 19 h and ea ly 20 h cen u ies became in ol ed in ac i i ies which had impo an social epe cussions. No hing could s op -al hough i could slow down- he g owing numbe o women demanding changes o he in- dica o s which we e applied calcula ingly o he condi ion o women, holding back hei pe sonal de elopmen . S udying was he objec i e which a ac ed many and, a - e ha , hey wan ed o wo k in a p o ession, ead, w i e, some wished o publish, and o he s ake pa in public li e. These we e channels o women’s con ibu ion o a cul u al eali y which, wi h di e en exp essions and e- sul s, has un h ough he his o y o humani y. This e icence was also made clea by po aying hem as a special, mino i y ype o youngs e , due o cha ac e - is ics o hei pe sonali y, wi h unusual aspi a ions and suppo om amilies unawa e o wha hey we e doing. They we e e en accused o leeing om hei biological oles by going o uni e si y, because hey did no eel sa - is ied wi h hem. They we e supposedly a emp ing o a oid submission o he p e ailing sociopoli ical p ojec in which, o he middle classes, ca ing o he amily and wo king ou side he home we e incompa ible. This ideo- logical model undoub edly slowed down, and some imes e en p e en ed, he decision o s udy and ind new ways o slo ing in o socie y; bu i could no s op he con inual inc ease in he numbe o women going o uni e si y, and ha mo e coun ies and mo e uni e si ies ollowed sui . The meaning ansmi ed by he image o excep ional- i y o hese pionee s was in ended o aise doub s, and pe haps e en disquie , among hose young women p e- pa ed o b eak wi h he no m. Howe e , i also inc eased pe plexi y amongs women ega ding he cus oms ha we e imposed on hem, and he seg ega ing c i e ia ha egula ed hei exis ence. This, in u n, inc eased he a e o ansg essi e esponses. In an age o changing cus- oms, i was becoming inc easingly clea ha common g ound was being los be ween wha women wan ed and wha was expec ed o hem. The ew emale ole models ha we e a ailable we e a emo ed in ime, bu hey s ill illus a ed b a e, da ing and insis en li es yles which e u ed he discou se abou wha women should be like, used as an a gumen o jus i- y and main ain he p e ailing s a us quo. When hese poin s o iew and pe sonal posi ions a ose, hose a ound hem ied o hide hem om public cu iosi y, and hey we e censu ed o he poin o he idiculous and he p o- agonis s we e ejec ed as a h ea o he male social pac o sepa a ion o sphe es. Howe e , hese women we e no always aiming o a comple e b eak; hei eelings and expec a ions we e aimed undamen ally a b oadening he scope o hei pe sonal libe y. When hey we e denied access o uni e si y in hei own coun ies, hey o en mo ed o o he s which did ac- cep hem, emba king on jou neys owa ds ways o being a woman which did no in ol e enouncing mo e open and di e si ied ho izons. S udies a uni e si y and he e- sul ing p o essional ca ee s wi h which hey con ibu ed o pe sonal and social wellbeing, encou aged o he s o ollow in hei s eps and ga e legi imacy o he ollowing gene a ions o women a uni e si y, hose who, o e he cou se o he 20 h cen u y, ha e sensed his accep ance, and co obo a ed he good esul s o well-made decisions. POLITICAL OPPORTUNITIES AND SOCIAL DEBATES IN LATIN AMERICA The ad ance in he cons uc ion p ocess o na ional educa ion sys ems in oduced impo an elemen s in he way he ci izenship is concei ed and he ci izens a e o med. The in luence o p inciples p oclaimed by he F ench Re olu ion we e a ec ing many go e nmen a eas, being educa ion among hem. The ideas o F ench hinke s, as he Ma quis o Condo ce and Claudio Hel e- cio, on how educa ion could con ibu e o he coun y’s p og ess and i s social, economic, poli ical and cul u al de elopmen , we e ead wi h in e es . Taking hese ideas o educa ional policies en ailed passing ules ha include a gene al, common, compulso- y, ee and uni e sal educa ion, aimed a all social g oups and child en. Good pu poses wi h many di icul ies in he way o he objec i es pu sued, since ‘nei he he deg ee o accep ance was homogeneous no we e he poli ical and educa ional esul s de i ing om i s inspi a ion’ (Rama, 1987). Howe e , an elemen a y educa ion s a ed o de elop, which among i s main unc ions we e social- izing alues and beha iou s; and also o e ing a seconda y and highe educa ion o child en in he go e nmen eli e. E en hough i s applica ion and p ac ice had an une en in luence in many coun ies and in o he s, i became an e ec i e means o social mo emen wi hin eme ging g oups o middle classes. In his con ex , gi ls and young women’s educa ion was pa o he issues discussed in 19 h-Cen u y La in Ame ican Geog aphy. I was one o he consequences o he leading ole, aken by many women socially well-po- si ioned, in he ini ia i es o suppo he igh o inde- pendence. Suppo hey had gi en o e ing all he means hey disposed o o help a change o mind, o o m opin- ion, o help he mee ing and con as ; o example, wi h he e enings and ga he ings hey o ganized in hei own houses, whe e hey en wined social, cul u al and poli ical issues; bu hey also o e hei help in hospi als and o he a eas o campaign, d essed as men so as o pa icipa e in ac ions o de ense o hei in e es s; as spies, as pos o i- ce s, e c. Ul ima ely, aking sides in e e y hing which bols e hei expec a ions o independence (Na a o y Sánchez, 2004: 143-153). These singula ci cums ances c ea ed a scena io whe e women could be mo e conscious o hei capaci y and he ine i able ole hey could ha e, p o ing hem- sel es and hei en i onmen a he same ime, ha hey we e able o ul ill mo e unc ions han me e domes ic and amily ones. Indi idual women, bu also in g oups, such as he o ganiza ion o Pa io as Ma ianas, ounded in Mexico by Ana I ae a in 1810, and he Cha i able Socie y [Sociedad de Bene icencia] in A gen ina o he Cha i able Women Socie y [Sociedad de Damas de Bene icencia], Cul u e & His o y Digi al Jou nal 8(1), June 2019, e002. eISSN 2253-797X, doi: h ps://doi.o g/10.3989/chdj.2019.002 4 • Consuelo Flecha-Ga cía and Alicia-I a í Pale mo c ea ed in 1923 by Be na dino Ri ada ia p epa ed, among o he s, he way o claim and s and o women’s educa ion. Since he 19 h cen u y in many La in Ame i- can coun ies, one way o ano he , women who had had he oppo uni y o ecei e o ecei ing any cul u al edu- ca ion, had o commi o di e en issues which a ec women’s popula ion. The idea o ac i ism ela ed o opics o gene al in e es o women became popula . This con inued in he i s decades o he 20 h cen u y, ending wi h he second eminis wa e o mode n imes, which in luenced he e- o m o he ci il code and es ablished he igh o o e o women (Na a o y Sánchez, 2004: 156). And in his in e dependence, which is inhe en be- ween educa ion p ocesses and he changes on pe sonal consciousness, some women, s ill a ew a he end o he 19 h cen u y and he beginning o he 20 h, b oadened hei ho izon o expec a ions. They claimed o mo e and be e educa ion, bu wi h e icence on he pa o hei en i onmen , which needed hem o amily du ies: When in he decade o 1880, women’s educa ion be- came an issue o na ional in e es , many oices claimed o ‘highe ’ educa ion, o le women be pa o p o es- sional ca ee s. Howe e , many educa o s did no lose sigh o he need o p epa e women wi h mo e limi ed objec i es, such as home e ec i e adminis a ion and he ‘scien i ic’ ca e o child en (Lab ín, 2005). Pe iodic p ess, which inc eases in numbe o headings and publica ions, has dedica ed since he beginning o he 19 h cen u y space o oices, which s eng hen he dis- cussion o e he ad an ages and disad an ages o women educa ion. The Mexican Newspape [Dia io de México] equen ly e e s o he p oblems posed by women who a e no docile, hose who hink hey know. We can ind his exp essed in poe y and na a ions o se e al num- be s o he yea s 1806 and 1807. In A gen ina issues e- la ed o women’s educa ion we e p esen in se e al news- pape s; in Comme ce Co espondence [Co eo de Come cio], ounded by Manuel Belg ano in 1810, in July o ha same yea and, in wo consecu i e numbe s; i is conside ed ha he ounda ion o gi ls’ public schools is one o he mos u gen and impo an asks, au ho i ies mus accomplish in a ‘new coun y’ o o m hem in good p ac ices, ‘main pu pose o which hey a e des ined’. To his end, ‘dona ions om dis inguished ci izens de o ed o women’s educa ion’ we e encou aged o be e ec i ely made.1 Twen y yea s la e he newspape La Aljaba was pub- lished, o be he i s women’s newspape in A gen ina. I de o ed con inued a en ion o he issue o women’s edu- ca ion. He e, we obse e only wo o he a icles, he one in numbe 3 o he magazine o No embe 1830, abou ‘Daugh e ’s educa ion’; whe e i was claimed ha hey had been p ohibi ed ‘un il hey lea n all le e s in he al- phabe ’;2 and in he ollowing numbe , ano he one dedi- ca ed “To hose who a e agains women’s ins uc ion’, and which s a ed wi h he ques ion ‘Up o which momen will emales be plunged in he da kness whe e he opp es- si e sys em, o hose who denied he simples knowledge, ha e aken hem?’.3 By he middle o he cen u y, om Janua y 1852 o Decembe 1855, we ound in B azil he newspape O jo - nal das senho as, which came ou wi h he pu pose o con ibu ing o women’s mo al au onomy and i s p og ess wi hin socie y. In he las hi d o he 19 h cen u y, he e was an impo an B azilian eminis p ess: O sexo emeni- no, ‘dedica ed o women’s educa ion, ins uc ion and emancipa ion’; O domingo, Jo nal das Damas, Myoso is and Eho das Damas (Na a o y Sánchez, 2004: 159). A cos ly bu necessa y cou se o discussions and pe - se e ance in he i ine a y owa ds uni e si y educa ion in La in Ame ica, un il i was accomplished wi h almos i y yea s o dis ance wi h he i s g adua es in he Uni ed S a ed, and less han wen y in he case o ce ain Eu opean coun ies (Biebe and Heppne , 2015). Fi s La in Ame ican Uni e si y S uden s The en ollmen o emale s uden s in La in Ame ican uni e si ies s a ed in he decade o 1880 and, as in o he Wes e n coun ies, i was he Medicine School he mainly chosen by he i s young emale s uden s, who decided o s a hei uni e si y s udies. A decision, which migh ha e di e en easons, al hough acco ding o Ka en O en he e a e wo main easons in hose yea s: ‘ i s ly, he campaign o women’s medical educa ion and, secondly, he de elopmen o a well-documen ed e iew abou he impo an disad an ages ela ed o women’s employmen ’ (2015:207). To which we should add he i al y o con ol knowledge when male physicians we e aking on espon- sibili ies and p ac ices in a eas commonly assis ed by midwi es. The same p o esso O en s a ed ha ‘ in he campaign o medical educa ion no hing less han knowl- edge and he con ol o e women’s bodies and ep oduc- ion we e comp omised’ (2015: 208). So as o be pa o academic spaces hose emale you hs use he s a egies hey could; hey exp essed hei will and claims publicly, hey a eled o o he coun ies whe e hey could en oll in medicine; hey pu sued legal emedies, hey c ea ed ‘Women’s Medical Associa ions, among o he s (Pale mo, 2006). A leas six La in Ame i- can and Ca ibbean coun ies en olled women in di e en ca ee s in he las wo decades o he 19 h cen u y; A gen- ina, B azil, Chile, Cuba, Mexico and Pe u. B azilian Ma ía Augus a Gene oso Es ella a eled o he Uni ed S a es o s udy medicine in he New Yo k Medical College and Hospi al o Women (NYMCHW), ounded in 1863 by a suppo e o women igh s, Clem- ence Lozie (Taylo , 2003). She g adua ed in 1881 and a e she had wo ked as an in e n o a yea , she wen back o B azil; once she had alida ed he deg ee a Rio de Janei o Uni e si y she de o ed he sel o medical p ac ices. When she was a s uden oge he wi h ano he B azilian s uden o he same School, Jose a Águeda Felisbela Me cedes de Oli ei a, she decided o publish in Cul u e & His o y Digi al Jou nal 8(1), June 2019, e002. eISSN 2253-797X, doi: h ps://doi.o g/10.3989/chdj.2019.002 Women a uni e si y. S a egies and achie emen s o a secula p esence in La in Ame ica and Spain • 5 New Yo k, he li e a y newspape The Woman. De o ed o he In e es s and Righ s o B azilian Women (Da id- son, 2014); i was hough o con ince B azilian women o hei capaci y o s udy, and was dis ibu ed in B azilian bigges ci ies. On i s pages he bene i s o emale dedica- ion o medical ca e we e claimed, since he e we e wom- en who did no accep being ea ed as men. They bene i - ed, hus, wi h he ac ha hey knew hey could be assis ed by o he women; and wi h hem all socie y bene- i ed (Rago, 2000). Being pionee s in La in Ame ica, hey expe ienced he same which had happened o o he emale you hs in Eu ope, hey had o lea e hei coun ies looking o uni- e si ies, whe e women we e admi ed. Knowing which expe iences we e being p oduced would encou age new emale you hs o ask o en ollmen a uni e si ies in hei own coun ies, and hese cen es would ha e o ad- mi hem in he end. Being Chile one o hem and, in e- sponse o he discussion abou he need o s eng hen a b oade educa ion o women, in 1877 he Minis e o Jus ice, Wo ship and Public Educa ion by hen, signed a dec ee in Viña del Ma , on Feb ua y 6 h, published wi h he heading ‘Women’s exams o ob ain p o essional de- g ees’.4 This dec ee es ablished ‘ ha women mus be ad- mi ed o si o binding exams so as o ob ain p o es- sional deg ees as long as hey a e bound o he same ules he men a e subjec o’. P e ious conside a ions e- la ed o egula ions, desc ibed he con enience o ‘en- cou aging women o comple e solid and o mal highe s udies’; o ‘ he ac ha hey could p ac ise some p o- essions, he so-called scien i ic ones, wi h ce ain ad- an ages’; o ha ‘which is impo an is o help he means so hey could ea n hei own li ing’. Se e al yea s had passed since An onia Ta agó and Isabel Le B un, seconda y school di ec o s in gi ls’ schools o San iago de Chile, decided o ask o a cou , whe e hei emale s uden s could si o hei binding exams o access Uni- e si y and, om he echoes hese eques s we e ha ing in he p ess (Sánchez Man íquez, 2006). Ha ing passed ou yea s o he publica ion o he De- c ee, he en ollmen o emale s uden s s a ed in San ia- go de Chile Uni e si y. The i s h ee –Eloisa Díaz, E - nes ina Pé ez and Ma ilde Th oup- had al eady been s uden s in he Isabel Le B un de Pinoche Lyceum, es- ablished in San iago in 1875, whe e he i s exams o Bachelo ’s deg ee had been p epa ed (Lyceum, 1900). Eloísa Díaz Insunza s udied Medicine and Pha macy om 1881 o 1886 and on Janua y 2nd, 1887 she go he deg ee as Doc o o Medicine and Su ge y (Jiménez, 2000), being he i s woman in Sou h Ame ica o ge a deg ee in a La in Ame ican uni e si y. In he memoi s she p esen ed o g adua e, she desc ibed many speci ic si ua- ions she had deal wi h up o ha momen ; and she de- nied he dange s sp ead by doomsaye s wi h hese wo ds: Some ha e whispe ed, some o he ha e disapp o ed, and hose who ha e applauded, ha e been a ew o many? […] I eel when I concen a e in ima ely ha I ha e no los including mysel (sic) ha I ha e no di- minished my woman’s digni y, no ha e I changed he empe o my own sex! No! Ins uc ion, as many p e- end i o be, is no a down all o a woman: i is he sal a ion (Díaz, 1888). E nes ina Pé ez Ba ahona also g adua ed in Medicine on Janua y 6 h, 1887 wi h a memoi abou ‘Popula hy- giene’; la e she comple ed he educa ion in Ge many o wo yea s-whe e she had o si in class nex o he p o esso and some imes behind a sc een-, due o a schola ship g an ed by he Chilean Go e nmen and, du ing wo o he yea s in Pa is. Along he p o essional ca ee she combined medical p ac ice wi h esea ch and publica ions (O ellana, 2015). The hi d, Ma ilde Th oup Sepúl eda inished he Law s udies in 1892 (Sánchez Man íquez, 2006). And e en be o e he cen u y ended, in 1898, Ma ilde B andau Galin- do ead he hesis in Law, ha ing chosen he opic o Wom- en’s Ci il Righ s, in which she exposes a compa a i e anal- ysis on he legal si ua ions su e ed by women in di e en coun ies (B andau, 1898). She con inued wo king o women’s igh s and, educa ion was he p o essional ield she inally de o ed o. Female esea che s, who ha e s udied 19 h-cen u y emale physicians in Mexico, desc ibe a emale s uden called Zenaida Ucounko who sa o he hesis exam in 1877, bu o whom he e is no p oo o he s udying in ha School (Flo es and Ramos, 2000). The inqui y o he Mexican Medical Gaze e [Gace a Médica de México] in ha yea o e ed p ecise in o ma ion abou his ac : “Miss. Zenaida Ucounko has jus su e ed (sic) he exam success ully; he hesis was: “E he pape in subcu- aneous injec ions, and i s usage o subs i u e blood ans- usion5”; a p o agonis we had los any ack o . In he Mexican Uni e si y a emale g adua e go he Bachelo ’s deg ee in 1887; Ma ilde Pe a Mon oya La a- gua, also in medicine, a e ha ing o o e come com- men s and si ua ions which disc edi ed he beha iou . Ha ing inished he s udies as a midwi e in he School o Midwi es and Obs e icians, she en olled in he School o Medicine o Puebla, which she abandoned due o he social ejec ion se o . She was admi ed in he Na ional School o Medicine whe e he objec ion o eache s and s uden s leaded o he wi hd awal o ha admission based on he ac ha he School’s in e nal egula ion e e ed o male s uden s, no emale ones. She w o e o he P esi- den o he Republic who ga e he necessa y ins uc ions by means o a dec ee, da ed Augus 24 h, 1887, so Ma il- de could inally si o he exams (Ca illo Espe e al., 2015). She g adua ed p esen ing a hesis on ‘Lab ech- niques o ce ain clinical esea ch’. She was pa o Mex- ican Medical Associa ions and he Women’s A eneo; in 1923 she pa icipa ed in he second Pan-Ame ican Con- e ence o Women celeb a ed in Mexican Ci y (Cas añeda and Rod íguez, 2010). The second s uden s a ed in he ollowing decade, p ima y educa ion eache Columba Ri e a Oso io, who inished he Medicine s udies in 1899 (Flo es and Ramos, 2000) wi h a hesis on ‘A gynaecological issue. The p eci- sion and accu acy in he diagnosis o abdominal umo s Cul u e & His o y Digi al Jou nal 8(1), June 2019, e002. eISSN 2253-797X, doi: h ps://doi.o g/10.3989/chdj.2019.002 6 • Consuelo Flecha-Ga cía and Alicia-I a í Pale mo can only be eached in mos cases h ough lapa o omy’. And as he p edecesso s, she ealized ha women who eso o he assis ance did no wan o be ea ed by male physicians. He p o essional p ac ice became e iden ly educa ion-o ien ed, since apa om wo king o Juá ez Hospi al, she also wo ked as p o esso in he Na ional School o Medicine, emale physician o he An h opo- me ic Depa men o he Na ional P epa a o y School and medical inspec o o he No mal School o P o es- so s (Cas añeda and Rod íguez, 2010). Toge he wi h he lawye Ma ía Sando al de Za co and a eache o he No mal School, Ma ía Co ea Zapa a, hey c ea ed he magazine The Mexican Woman (La Muje Mexicana) which o e ed a icles and in o ma ion abou women’s igh s and expec a ions. In he i s numbe , making e e - ence o Columba, i was said: ‘Anyone who knows Miss Ri e a will be con inced ha knowledge does no kill no poisons’ (Macías, 2002). In B azilian uni e si ies, E melinda Lopes de Vascon- celos g adua ed in 1888, in he School o Medicine o Rio de Janei o. She had en olled ou yea s be o e, a e pe - suading he a he o gi e his consen . She was a eache and chose as opic o he hesis ‘Clinical o ms o Menin- gi is in child en: di e en ial diagnoses’. In ligh o he g adua ion, a well-known his o ian and w i e o he ime, Sil io Rome o, published a epo unde he heading ‘Fe- male macho [Machona]’ whe e i said: ‘Be su e emale physician ha you macho ee will no s ep on my place’, (Colling, 2011). An yea be o e Ri a Loba o Velho Lopes had inished he s udies in he Medical School o Bahia Uni e si y, in he middle o a local p ess campaign gua - an eeing ha , o example he b ain had no enough ca- paci y o assimila e medical science o , ha he e wasn’ any man who would like o ma y he . E en in his con- ex , she became he i s emale you h o med in a B a- zilian uni e si y and, la e , he i s councilo o Rio G ande do Sul (Colling, 2011. Boa and Cos a, 2005). In 1884, wi h only i een yea s old, An onie a Césa Dias s a ed he s udies in he Medical School o Rio de Janei- o; she was he hi d o do his in B azil, and inished de- ending a hesis wo k on ‘Pos -pa um Haemo hage’ in Augus 1889. She ecei ed suppo o pa o he p ess, he one commi ed o women’s igh s, such as he news- pape The Family (La amilia), which a ed An onie a’s g adua ion as some hing ‘mo e o a ic o y o he sex she ep esen ed, o e b u al p ejudice o s un ing educa ion, un o una ely s ill in o ce’ and, ha he achie emen e- in o ced ‘ he mos ehemen p o es agains opinions op- posing ou emancipa ion’ (Colling, 2011). In he island o Cuba, he e was a g oup which coin- cided wi h he beginning and ending o hei uni e si y s udies be ween 1883 and 1888. Me cedes Riba Pinos, en olled in he School o Philosophy and Li e a u e in La Habana when she was 26 yea s old; she had been bo n in Ba celona, Spain and go he Bachelo ’s deg ee in 1885. Two yea s la e , in May 1887, she de ended he doc o a e hesis in on o he Gene al Body ga he ed ‘in he Uni- e si y Lec u e Hall o con e on he a Doc o a e deg ee in Philosophy and Li e a u e’ (He nández, 2012). F an- cisca de Rojas Saba e , a wen y-six-yea -old eache who was bo n in Cien uegos, s a ed he s udies in he School o Law and inished in 1888. The e’s s ill a hi d woman, who s udied in he School o Science; a i een-yea -old you h called Digna Amé ica del Sol y Galla do, na i e o Ma anzas, who go he Bachelo ’s deg ee in Science, Physicochemical Sec ion, in 1888. The e we e s ill mo e applican s in he Pha macy School. The i s being Ma ía de la Asunción Menéndez de Lua ca Díaz, na i e o Gua- nabacoa (Ma chan e and Me chán, 2012). She en e ed in he School o Medicine and Su ge y and in he School o Science, Lau a Ma ínez de Ca ajal y del Camino, and g adua ed in 1888 as Bachelo in Sci- ence, Physicochemical Sec ion and, in 1889, as Bachelo in Medicine, specializing in Oph halmology. He p o essional ac i i y was in ense because she p ac ised in a Polyclinic, c ea ed he Polyclinic Files Magazine [Re is a A chi os de la Policlínica], ook pa in he d a ing o he ex Clinic Oph halmology [O almología Clínica], was a eache and c ea ed a ee school o poo child en and an asylum o he blind (Kohn Lonca ica and Sánchez, 1996 y 2000). One o he p o esso s, he lec u e on Su gical Pa hology José Púlido Pagés, e e ed o he s a ing she beha ed, acco ding o wha he unde s ood was co ec o a woman, ea nes , conscien ious and humble, and he classma es beha iou had always been a e nally e- spec ul o he . In case he e was any doub abou he u h ulness o he excellen ma ks she go , she made clea hey we e no a esul o eache s’ educa ion gallan - y, bu o jus ice, which app ecia ed he s udy and mas- e y o knowledge (López, 2004). Un il 1898, yea in which Spanish independence was decla ed, he e we e many women unde going uni e si y s udies; mainly in Pha macy, bu also in Law, Science and Philosophy and Li e a u e. Some also de ended hei Doc o a e hesis, such as Ma ía Jesús Pimen el Pe aza and Ma ía Te esa Pé ez Chaumon in Pha macy, and Ma- ía Luisa Dolz in Na u al Sciences (He nández, 2012). In Pe u, Cusco Uni e si y ecei ed he i s emale s uden , T inidad Ma ía En íquez, in he School o Ju is- p udence, whe e she go a Bachelo ’s deg ee be ween 1875 and 1877, al hough she was no con e ed he igh o ge he deg ee (Gu ié ez, 2005). And, in 1888, Ma ga- i a P áxedes Muñoz en e ed San Ma cos Uni e si y o Lima, a woman om a amily link o poli ics and b ough up in an in ellec ual en i onmen , who go he Bachelo ’s deg ee in Na u al Sciences in 1889; hen she a eled o San iago de Chile, whe e she s udied in he School o Medicine and inished in 1895. Lau a Es he Rod íguez Dulan o en olled in he School o Science o San Ma cos Uni e si y in 1892, and a e she go he Bachelo ’s de- g ee she en olled in Medicine while she de o ed some ime o p epa e he Doc o a e hesis wo k. She de ended i in 1898 on ‘Geog aphical s udies o Chancay p o ince’; she became he i s woman wi h a doc o a e deg ee in Pe u and a p o essional dedica ed o di e en ields (Díaz, 2007). Be o e he end o he cen u y, in 1899, Es- he Fes ini de Ramos Ocampo en olled in San Ma cos School o Li e a u e, and ook ad an age o he manda o- Cul u e & His o y Digi al Jou nal 8(1), June 2019, e002. eISSN 2253-797X, doi: h ps://doi.o g/10.3989/chdj.2019.002 Women a uni e si y. S a egies and achie emen s o a secula p esence in La in Ame ica and Spain • 7 y deg ee wo k so as o moo he ideas abou women’s si ua ion. She chose as heading ‘The ole women ha e in socie y de e mines hei educa ion’. In 1904 she de ended he Doc o a e hesis wo k in Li e a u e on ‘Issues ela ed o women’s educa ion’ (Vallada es, 2012). Women, whose among hei expec a ions we e hei uni e si y s udies, looked o a way o unde ake hem. F om a coun y o he o he , he possibili y was allowed o hose who we e willing o de o e e o and cons ancy. Women’s Access o Uni e si y in A gen ina As in he es o he coun ies, A gen ina was no ou o he discussion abou women’s en ollmen in uni e si y s udies, i s con enience and he women’s capaci y o un- de ake hese s udies. I was no enough ha he Cons i u- ion o 1853 es ablished equal igh s o men and women. No had been use ul he opinions in a ou o women’s educa ion along he 19 h cen u y, Those o Belg ano since 1810 in he pages o he newspape he had ounded himsel Co eo de Come cio; hose o he Ame ican Ob- se e (Obse ado Ame icano) since 1816, yea in which an a icle om i s Augus numbe on ‘Women’s educa ion’ came ou , s a ing: ‘I passion does no mislead us, we could make su e ha he e will only be a ew coun- ies o eg e he lack o in e es o educa e he beau i ul sex, as will ou p o inces’,6 Those o emale jou nalis and poe ess Pe ona Rosende in La Aljaba, dedica ed o he beau i ul sex since 1830. In he second hal o he cen- u y, he e we e mo e in ense dispu es, which enjoyed ull suppo o Domingo Faus ino Sa mien o. Pe iod in which he e was also a change o pe spec i e added o he news de i ing om he coun ies, whe e women we e s udying a uni e si ies. Encou aged by he con ex , wills s a ed o exe among A gen ine you hs. The i s was Élida Passo om Buenos Ai es, who en olled in he School o Humani ies and Philosophy o Buenos Ai es Uni e si y, ha ing also sa o exams o o he subjec s in he School o Exac , Physical and Na u al Sciences. Maybe as being he daugh e o a Pha macis , she go he deg ee in Pha macy in 1885, a ca ee which, by hen, was no pa o uni e - si y s udies. To con inue he o ma ion, as in ended, in he School o Medicine she had o pu sue a legal emedy o suppo he eques , al hough an ea ly dea h hinde ed he o inish he ca ee . In hose yea s A gen ina coun ed on wo uni e si ies, one in Có doba and he o he in Buenos Ai es, whe e s u- den s could en oll in ou di e en ca ee s: Medicine, Law, Philosophy and Li e a u e and Exac , Physical and Na u al Sciences. Among he emale you hs who s a ed hei classes, Medicine was he mos widely chosen; he s o y o he i s emale uni e si y g adua es wi h p o es- sional p ac ice, is ha o physicians, den is s, pha macis s and obs e icians, in almos e e y coun y. The same hap- pened in A gen ina (Pale mo, 2006. Sánchez e al., 2015). The i s woman who go a highe educa ion deg ee in A gen ina was Cecilia G ie son, when she inished he Medicine ca ee in Buenos Ai es Uni e si y. Élida Pas- so’s legal emedy had pa ed he way so she did no ha e any p oblems wi h he en ollmen . She had some wo k expe ience as go e ness and eache , o wha she had p epa ed he sel in he Buenos Ai es Na ional School o Teache s, headed by Ema Nicolai de Cap ile, one o he eache s, who Sa mien o had aken o A gen ina (Ba an- cos, 2000). Cecilia G ie son was a c ea i e and en e p is- ing woman who in 1886, being s ill a s uden , in ligh o he si ua ion igge ed by a chole a epidemic, c ea ed he Buenos Ai es Medical Boa d [Cículo Médico de Buenos Ai es], he School o Nu ses [Escuela de En e me as] conside ed o be he i s in Sou h Ame ica; a cen e she headed un il 1913, main ained when i was necessa y and which was gi en he name a yea a e he dea h (Flecha Ga cía, 1993). As a p o essional she pe o med se e al unc ions and coope a ion; she ied o be a p o esso in he School o Medicine, bu she was no admi ed, abou which she s a es: ‘ he easons and a gumen s exposed in his occasion, would comple e a chap e agains emi- nism, whose in ellec ual and economic aspi a ions I ha e always s ood o ’ (G ie son, 1916). Ano he A gen ine you h, also a eache , a eled o Swi ze land in 1879 and go he deg ee in Medicine in Zu ich Uni e si y, cen e o which women om di e en coun ies we e ans e ed o s udy, due o he good way hey we e ecei ed he e. She was called Pe ona Eyle and was a descendan o a Swiss amily, which i migh be a a ou able eason o s a such a jou ney. The hesis wo k, w i en in Ge man and dedica ed ‘as a oken o g a i ude’ o he a he , a mili a y su geon, ein o ced he will o go back o he o igins. When she inished he s ud- ies she wen back o Buenos Ai es and alida ed he de- g ee. When, in May 1910, he Fi s In e na ional Wom- en’s Cong ess was held in A gen ina, Pe ona Eyle was he p esiden o he ‘A gen ine Uni e si y S uden s’ As- socia ion’ and, o ganized he Cong ess (Ca lson, 1988). Be o e he end o he cen u y, El i a Rawson Guiñazú en olled, once again wi h p e ious s udies as a eache . She g adua ed in 1892. Being a colonel’s daugh e , e en du ing he s udies she showed a social and poli ical com- mi men , which she kep all along he li e, o ganizing a ield hospi al oge he wi h he classma es o assis people inju ed in he ci il-mili a y e ol o 1890, known as Pa k Re olu ion. She also di e en ia ed due o he posi ion o de end women’s igh s. Towa ds he end o he cen u y, she ied, wi h no luck, o s udy Law. The magazine Anales de la ciudad de Buenos Ai es in o med abou he exis ence o a you h, who sa o ‘mos ’ subjec s’ exams o he i s yea wi h- ou a ending classes a he Schools o Law and Social Sciences o Buenos Ai es Uni e si y; bu i will no be un il he 20 h cen u y, in 1909, when Angélica Ba eda inished he s udies in he School o Law o La Pla a y Celia Tapia in 1910, in Buenos Ai es (Suá ez, 2012). The di icul ies in he p o essional p ac ice o Law on he pa o women con ibu ed o he ac ha less women chose he ca ee . In 1896, he School o Philosophy and Li e a u e was c ea ed in Buenos Ai es Uni e si y. Besides, i was an op- Cul u e & His o y Digi al Jou nal 8(1), June 2019, e002. eISSN 2253-797X, doi: h ps://doi.o g/10.3989/chdj.2019.002 8 • Consuelo Flecha-Ga cía and Alicia-I a í Pale mo po uni y o he eache s who wan ed o unde ake highe le el s udies - hey could en oll wi h no mo e equi emen han hei eache s’ deg ee-, which p oduced a eo ien a- ion o women uni e si y choices. Since he beginning o he 20 h cen u y he e we e mo e g adua es in his School han in he one o Medicine; i was he beginning o a pe- iod cha ac e ized by he concen a ion o women in o he s udies. In he i s g adua ing class, in he yea 1901, he e we e ou women ou o nine g adua es. Ma ía A il- ia Cane i, E nes ina López, El i a López and Ana Mau he (Pale mo, 2006). We can compa e his si ua ion wi h wha happened wi h eache s’ educa ion, he s udies and he p o ession, in which ‘ he e was a g ea and unusual poli ical insigh o de ec he eme gence o ce ain women’s mo emen , allow o an ins i u ion and channel i o he di ec ion de- si ed by domain g oups’ (Mo gade 1997). The School o Philosophy and Li e a u e called o women o i s classes, and o e ed, a he same ime, he chance o access uni- e si y, wo king as a seg ega ed zone o women and an elec ion acco ding o ‘women’s na u e’. I also had a low numbe o s uden s, since a ew men wan ed o ca y ou an ac i i y ba ely p o i able. A gumen s which, o he hough o he ime, made his School in o an ideal op ion o women, since i le hem s udy wi h no need o ha e p o essional p ac ices and, leas o all, ea n money (Pale - mo, 2006). The Fi s Uni e si ies and he Awakening o Consciousness The p esence o women in uni e si y classes du ing he 20 h cen u y mus be amed in he gene al con ex o immig a ion g ow h in La in Ame ican coun ies, he de- elopmen o a libe al p ojec o mode n socie ies and he p edominance o posi i e s ands o hough among in ellec ual g oups. Glo ia Bonde (1992) s a ed ha im- mig a ion lows coming om Eu ope since he end o he 19 h cen u y che ished alues which admi ed, and e en os e , women’s educa ion. A g ea pa o hose amilies expec a ions o in eg a ion in he new coun ies and o so- cial and economic mobili y we e on he new gene a ions, sons and daugh e s. So hese uni e si ies became a amilia space whe e imp o emen e o s p e ailed in e ms o educa ion needs. O he women s udied ca ee s, Den is y, Pha macy o Obs e ics, whose p o essional p ac ice was sha ed wi h pa en s, siblings o husbands, which su ely was an impo an suppo . S udying a uni e si y ook a double meaning: om he poin o iew o he es ablished o de , i was a na ow doo h ough which only a ew access and ha ing p ob- lems. Bu om women’s poin o iew i was a wide doo hey ook ad an age o , o o m hemsel es, en e a p o- ession and be able, when going h ough he doo , o pa - icipa e ac i ely in social, poli ical, economic and cul u al li e o hei ime. E en being no many women in uni e si y classes, hey we e ac i e in deba es, cong esses and publica ions, sp eading ou an impo an mo emen in a ou o wom- en’s demands; and maybe i could be said ha hey e en ep esen ed a p eceden o gende s udies in some o he coun ies. In o he wo ds, wi h hose women new heo- e ical and p ac ical conce ns appea ed because o gende ela ions os e ed by women’s mo emen and he gene al discussions o he ime. The ac o ha ing been pionee s made hem hink abou he place o ‘excep ion’ hey had. A ci cums ance which was no exclusi e o A gen ina. When Do o ea E xleben g adua ed as physician in Halle Uni e si y in 1754, he opic she chose o he hesis wo k was he ‘Analysis o causes which make women d aw hemsel es away om s udy’ and he successo s con inued wo king on he same issue in hei hesis o in o he subsequen w i ings. PIONEERS IN SPAIN I we look a e en s in Spain, du ing he Sexenio Democ á ico (1868-1874) a small numbe o gi ls e- ques ed access o baccalau ea e s udies - he i s in 1870-, and he i s women en e ed uni e si y in 1873. These ini- ial s eps made a signi ican con ibu ion o b eaking down ce ain ies abou he co ec educa ional model o women, and led o an e olu ion in men ali ies abou how o pe cei e he in ellec ual capaci y o women. By he end o he 19 h cen u y, he numbe o women who had been o uni e si y was sca cely i y. Only nine women egis e ed in 1900-1901 in he en uni e si ies exis ing in Spain a he ime. O hese, i e s udied medicine, wo pha macy and he o he wo philosophy and le e s, ep e- sen ing 0.05% o all uni e si y s uden s (Flecha, 1996: 150). The egula ions we e ha hey we e en olled as ee s uden s, only going o he Facul y o si exams. I hey wished o a end lec u es as o icial s uden s, hey had o apply o pe mission o he au ho i ies o he minis y e- sponsible o a ai s o public ins uc ion. These young women had hese aspi a ions a a ime when mos o he Spanish popula ion could no ead, le alone w i e. As hese women s a ed o en e uni e si ies, he li e acy a e among he emale popula ion was ba ely 10%. This a e was beginning o inc ease as a esul o he Law o Public Ins uc ion in 1857 in which he Minis e Claudio Moyano made i obliga o y o he e o be a school o gi ls o e e y 500 inhabi an s. This measu e was e ec i e in g adually aising he a e o emale li e a- cy om 9% in 1860 o 25% in 1900 (De Gab iel, 1997: 203). The numbe o gi ls a p ima y school inc eased s eadily and hey had schools in hei places o esidence. Howe e , o he le els o ins uc ion we e s ill almos a p i ilege o women; only a mino i y s udied in no mal schools o women, o did he exams o gain he i le o midwi e, o ained o ade jobs o o he ask o go - e ness: ypes o educa ion o women which we e oo closely linked o he his o ically condi ioned sys em o gende ela ions. Bu , e en so, hey became an e ec i e launch pad o hose who wan ed o lead hei li es wi h o he poin s o e e ence. Gi en hese condi ions, i is ha dly su p ising ha women a ending seconda y school Cul u e & His o y Digi al Jou nal 8(1), June 2019, e002. eISSN 2253-797X, doi: h ps://doi.o g/10.3989/chdj.2019.002 Women a uni e si y. S a egies and achie emen s o a secula p esence in La in Ame ica and Spain • 9 o uni e si y caused much cons e na ion. In he middle classes a g owing numbe o women wan ed and needed paid employmen and hey he e o e equi ed he aining ha would allow hem o choose om hose pe o med by hei social g oup. The e we e no lack o si ua ions and pe sonal and amily in e es s which lean owa ds his op- ion. One o hese was he possibili y o emaining un- ma ied, ei he ou o choice o h ough a lack o a sui - able ma ch, which would make i necessa y o hem o ha e inancial esou ces o hei own; i hey did no man- age his, hey would ha e o depend on he suppo o amily membe s. I is also ue ha when ma ied, hei own income also p o ec ed hem agains a o al depen- dence on hei husbands. Ba ie s and S a egies o O e come Them Ma ía Elena Mase as Ribe a (Vilaseca, Ta agona, 25- 05-1853/Mahón, 04-12-1905) s a ed a uni e si y in 1872-1873; in he i s yea in he non-o icial o m o s udy and la e , when a new egula ion came in o o ce, a ending lec u es. She con inued he deg ee wi hou di - icul ies un il, a e passing all he deg ee cou ses, she de- cided o mo e o he Uni e si y o Mad id o do a doc o - a e. To do his, she needed o apply o he deg ee ce i ica e which o icially ecognized he s udies o be able o exe cise p o essionally. I was a his momen ha all so s o obs acles appea ed due o he ea o women aking up emune a ed employmen , along wi h he au- onomy and eedom ha his would en ail. The e was conce n ha hese young women wi h excellen ma ks would no be con en wi h ha ing assuaged hei in ellec- ual cu iosi y in he deg ee hey had jus comple ed. I was ea ed hey would se hemsel es new goals which would a ec he di ision and alloca ion o hi he o sepa- a e and sealed social sphe es. Hence, hose wi h he ole o judging he pe inence o hese s udies o women ook se e al yea s o issue a e- sponse o some hing he e was no will o accep , despi e i being hei igh . Du ing he lapse in ime, wo mo e women doing he same deg ee a he same uni e si y ap- plied o he same ce i ica e: Ma ía Dolo es Aleu Rie a (Ba celona, 1857-1913) and Ma ina Cas ells Ballespí (Lé ida, 1852-Reus, 1884) (Camps y Casasus, 2000). The o icial esponse inally came in Ma ch 1882 ia a Royal O de which ecognized ha i could no deny he deg ee ce i ica e o he h ee women; his igh ex ending o all emale s uden s egis e ed a ha da e in Spanish uni e - si ies. Howe e , he same law p ohibi ed access o new emale s uden s, in a clea indica ion ha hese h ee we e excep ions and, as such, hei passage h ough uni e si y was no o be copied by o he s. The i s s uden , Ma ía Elena Mase as Ribe a, had w i en o King Amadeo 1 o Spain in 1870 eques ing pe - mission o pe o m baccalau ea e and hen uni e si y s ud- ies. The e was no ule p ohibi ing his, bu women knew ha his did no necessa ily mean ha hey could s udy. The cus oms, men ali y, and p ejudices abou he s a us o women we e s onge han any minis e ial egula ion. The king swi ly communica ed his app o al h ough he Gen- e al Di ec o a e o Public Ins uc ion au ho izing Elena Mase as o ake he baccalau ea e exams, al hough i did no men ion exams a uni e si y; al hough his did no s op he om aking hose as well (Ga cía, 2010). F om 1882 o 1888 Spanish uni e si ies we e no al- lowed o con inue accep ing women. Only he Uni e si y o Valencia b eached his ule, p obably because i was unawa e o he legisla ion. When his igh was eins a ed due o he insis ence o mo e young women, i included he applica ion o he Minis y o a special pe mi o be able o a end classes: his pe mi was only issued i he p o esso s o he subjec s could gua an ee “o de in he class ooms in which hese young ladies a ended”. This measu e e lec s he disquie ha he p esence o emale s uden s mus ha e caused in hose who had o au ho ize hem; and i p obably also wo ied he young women hemsel es and hei amilies, discou aging hem. This p ecau ion con i med he idea o he male na u e o lec- u e ooms and he isk ha he in oduc ion o emales could in ol e. This hinking was clea ly he ui o an a che ypal male imagina ion o he p e en ion o ash beha iou , o pe haps i s emmed om expe iences abou he eac ion o male s uden s o he p esence o emales in an ins i u ion hey conside ed o be hei own. The academic eco ds o hese emale s uden s e lec ha he lec u e s esponded in all cases by accep ing hem in hei classes. They we e no asked abou he emale s uden s’ capaci y o s udy he subjec in ques ion, o whe he hey ag eed wi h admi ing hem o uni e si y. Wi h hei signa u e hey commi ed hemsel es o gua - an eeing o de in he class oom when a emale s uden was p esen . I appealed solely o he lec u e ’s au ho i y in on o his s uden s, which could ha e helped emale applican s. I is ha d o imagine a p o esso admi ing ha he was incapable o keeping his s uden s in o de . As he yea s passed, i became clea ha lec u e s saw he p es- ence o women as some hing no mal, and he e we e e en academic ad an ages: “The in en ion o his pe son seems pe ec ly ai o me and I ind no eason o denying he access o i . 9 Oc obe 1893. Miguel Mo ay a”. “The un- de signed has been P o esso o Gene al Li e a u e o he pe son in ques ion and may ce i y ha no only was he e ne e any occasion o p e ex o al e ing he o de o he class, bu he p esence, beha iou and applica ion se ed as a s imulus o he less o una e s uden s. 30 Sep embe 1894. An onio Sánchez Moguel”. Bu his was no enough, and hey we e also subjec ed o o he complemen a y measu es o sa egua d he o de ha could be jeopa dised, no jus in he class ooms bu also in he co ido s. O he di e en accoun s ha ha e been le o us, le us look a wo. One comes om Ma ía Goy i (Guecho, Vizcaya, 1873-Mad id, 1954) who was o become a esea che in his o y o li e a u e oge he wi h he husband he philologis Menéndez Pidal. She was no allowed o wai o he s a o class ei he in he co ido s o in he class oom, bu in he s a oom o be accompa- nied o he class oom and be sea ed on a chai nea he lec u e , and hen accompanied back a he end o he