Social advancement: military promotions and retirement within the Spanish army in Chile (1693-1735)

Daniel M. S ewa Social ad ancemen : mili a y p omo ions and e i emen wi hin he Spanish a my in Chile (1693-1735) Núme o 47, diciemb e 2021, pp. 373-408 DOI: h ps://dx.doi.o g/10.12795/Temas-Ame icanis as.2021.i47.19 373 SOCIAL ADVANCEMENT: MILITARY PROMOTIONS AND RETIREMENT WITHIN THE SPANISH ARMY IN CHILE (1693-1735) ASCENSO SOCIAL: GRADOS MILITARES Y JUBILACION DENTRO DEL EJERCITO ESPAÑOL EN CHILE (1693-1735) Daniel M. S ewa Pon i icia Uni e sidad Ca ólica de Valpa aíso O cid: 0000-0003-2466-7320 Abs ac : Colonial Chile is known in pa o i s con inual mili a y con lic s ha o ced he Spanish C own o s a ion he e a pe mean s anding a my. This pape looks a a unique aspec o his con lic , in ha i ocuses on he adminis a i e de ails o a specially c ea ed sys em by which common soldie s could pu chase o ice ´s i les and o m pa o a newly c ea ed semi- e i ed o ice co ps. Many o hese o ice s on pape we e hen able o en e he ci ilian socie y wi h an acqui ed le el o nobili y ha pe mi ed hem o ecei e speci ic economic bene i s ese ed o hose o noble bi h. Key Wo ds: A auco Indian Wa , Mili a y P omo ions, Coloniza ion, Colonial Chile, Spanish A my, 17 h-Cen u y. Resumen: Chile colonial es a conocida en pa e po sus con inuos con lic os bélicos que o za on a la Co ona Española a es aciona allí un ejé ci o p o esional pe manen e. Es e a iculo analiza un aspec o único de es e con lic o, en que se en oca en los de alles adminis a i os de un sis ema especial c eada po medio de lo cual soldados comunes comp a on g ados de o iciales pa a luego o ma pa e en un cue po de o iciales semi e i ados. Muchos de es os o iciales en papel en onces log a on en a en el mundo ci il con un ni el de nobleza adqui ida que les pe mi ió ecibi bene icios económicos especí icos que gene almen e ue on ese ados pa a los de nacimien o noble. Palab as cla e: Gue a de A auco, p omociones mili a es, colonización, Chile colonial, ejé ci o español, siglo XVII. Daniel M. S ewa Social ad ancemen : mili a y p omo ions and e i emen wi hin he Spanish a my in Chile (1693-1735) Núme o 47, diciemb e 2021, pp. 373-408 DOI: h ps://dx.doi.o g/10.12795/Temas-Ame icanis as.2021.i47.19 374 In oduc ion The conques and subsequen Eu opean coloniza ion o Ame ica du ing he i een h and six een h cen u ies ha e been he subjec o enewed in e es wi hin he academic communi y in en on unde s anding he inne wo kings o Spanish colonialism and i s unique coun y speci ic cha ac e is ics. While he conques o Ame ica´s indigenous peoples was quick and decisi e in many pa s o Spain´s Ame ican colonies, he e we e a ew no able excep ions, whe e localized indigenous mili a y esis ance ex ended he pe iod o he ini ial conques la e in o he se en een h cen u y. One such place was he emo e colony o Chile, loca ed on he sou he n Paci ic coas o Sou h Ame ica. Chile´s loca ion was key in p o ec ing no only he massi e Pe u ian sil e mines o Po osi bu also Spain´s o e all con ol o he Paci ic Ocean. The King´s mili a y planne s ecognized Chile´s s a egic impo ance and he inhe en di icul ies in colonizing and esupplying such a emo e egion. Howe e , no hing was done o emedia e hese p oblems un il a massi e Indian up ising in 1598 cos he li es o he Spanish go e no and hund eds o he colony´s leading ci izens. The loss o se en key ci ies in sou he n Chile and he dea hs o cap u e and mos o hei inhabi an s inally con inced he powe b oke s in Mad id ha he adi ional sys em o using he lowe anks o he Spanish nobili y o colonize and de end he colonies was no wo king and would no wo k in Chile´s case. She was oo a away om he adi ional economic cen e s o Lima and Mexico Ci y and hus was no able o a ac he in e es o hose o he noble class willing o emig a e o Spain´s Ame ican colonies. Howe e , abandoning e en pa o he egion was no an op ion because he B i ish and Du ch saw he lack o a isible Spanish mili a y p esence as a pe ec oppo uni y o c ea e hei own bases o ope a ions in sou he n Chile´s abandoned po s, which was clea ly shown by aids in 1593 and 1600. 1 The me e idea ha ano he Eu opean powe could o m a base o ope a ions in he Sou h Paci ic o ced he Spanish King, Phillip III, o au ho ize he c ea ion and inancing o a pe manen s anding a my in Chile, whose main asks we e o 1 Gascón, Ma ga i a, Pe i e ias impe iales y on e as coloniales en Hispanoamé ica, Buenos Ai es, Edi o ial Dunken, 2011. Daniel M. S ewa Social ad ancemen : mili a y p omo ions and e i emen wi hin he Spanish a my in Chile (1693-1735) Núme o 47, diciemb e 2021, pp. 373-408 DOI: h ps://dx.doi.o g/10.12795/Temas-Ame icanis as.2021.i47.19 375 p o ec Chile´s Paci ic coas and o ce in o submission he ebellious pa s o he indigenous popula ion. 2 The a i al o o e wo- housand Spanish soldie s and he cons uc ion o pe manen and mobile mili a y ins alla ions changed o e nigh he Spanish socie y o colonial Chile and in pa icula , he sou he n mili a y on ie egion loca ed a ound he ci y o Concepcion. Fu he mo e, he a my was unded by a yea ly g an o 293,279 pesos, 3 called he Real Si uado, collec ed om axes on he sil e p oduced in he Pe u ian mines o Po osi, which quickly became he mo o o he egional economy and he sou ce o i s economic dependence. O e he nex hund ed yea s, Chile´s sou he n on ie was an ac i e mili a y zone, o cing he Pe u ian Vice oy’s o main ain he mili a y´s unding and a he same ime sending o e he yea s housands o new ec ui s o ill he a my´s anks. 4 Yea s o mili a y ac ion pe manen ly changed he Chilean colonial socie y and in pa icula hose li ing in he on ie egion o Concepcion. This pape will analyze a po ion o hese inna e social and economic changes and hei appea ance wi hin he his o ical eco d. We will speci ically examine he ini ia ion and e olu ion o he Eu opean coloniza ion o colonial Chile du ing he se en een h cen u y and how he coloniza ion in i sel became di ec ly ied in o he con inued mili a y con lic . While he economic and social p ocesses ela ed o he Eu opean coloniza ion a e also e iden in he his o ical eco d in Chile´s cen al and no he n egions, in his pape we will ocus di ec ly on he sou he n mili a ized bo de egion, whe e he eco e ed documen a ion allows o isible di ec connec ions be ween he A auco Indian Wa and he Spanish coloniza ion. The idea ha Chile´s colonial socie y e ol ed a ound and c ea ed a new iden i y based on he A auco Indian Wa , in i sel is no new. In 1961 Al a o Ja a showed how Chile´s colonial iden i y was based on yea s o cons an mili a y ac ion, da ing om he 2 Fo mo e in o ma ion abou he his o ical e en s su ounding he c ea ion o he s anding a my in Chile and i s place wi hin he whole o he Spanish empi e please see: Va gas Ca iola, Juan Edua do. Ejé ci o de Chile en el siglo XVII. Doc o al Thesis, Uni e si y o Se illa, Spain, 1981; Concha Mona des, Raúl, El eino de Chile: ealidades es a égicas sis emas mili a es y ocupación del e i o io (1520-1650), CESOC P in e s, San iago, Chile, 2014. 3 In 1606 he Real Si uado was 212,000 ducados, which was la e con e ed in o 293,279 pesos. 4 Va gas Ca iola, Juan Edua do. Ejé ci o de Chile en el siglo XVII. Doc o al Thesis, Uni e si y o Se illa, Spain, 1981. Daniel M. S ewa Social ad ancemen : mili a y p omo ions and e i emen wi hin he Spanish a my in Chile (1693-1735) Núme o 47, diciemb e 2021, pp. 373-408 DOI: h ps://dx.doi.o g/10.12795/Temas-Ame icanis as.2021.i47.19 376 a i al o Ped o de Valdi ia. 5 La e classical his o ians such as Se gio Villalobos we e able o show ha while he A auco Indian Wa was a cons an aspec o he se en een h-cen u y Chilean socie y mos yea s we e ela i ely peace ul wi h li le o no meaning ul mili a y ac ion. 6 Recen ly, Raul Concha u he expanded on his idea by documen ing and ca ego izing he a my´s mili a y ac ions. 7 In 2006, Eugene Be ge showed how Chile´s mili a y and ci ic leade s cons an ly misin e p e ed o exagge a ed he colony´s mili a y si ua ion in o de o main ain o expand he mili a y´s unding le els. 8 Recen ly Jaime Valenzuela and o he s ha e shown how local ci ilian leade s used o misused mili a y ac ions o ensla e housands o Mapuche Indians, who we e la e sold in San iago o Lima. 9 In o he wo ds, he A auco Indian Wa was an in eg al pa o he Chilean socie y and none o he colonial ins i u ions can be s udied wi hou aking in o accoun he local mili a y in luence o e ha pa icula ins i u ion. One such ins i u ion o aspec o his mili a y con lic ha has been long o e looked o o e simpli ied by his o ians is he ole o he Spanish soldie in he ci ilian coloniza ion o he egion hey we e asked in de ending. We de ine he ci ilian coloniza ion as ha p opaga ed by he Spanish go e no and local ci y councils and no squa e s loca ed in he di ec icini y o he on ie mili a y ins alla ions. 10 The Spanish go e no and local ci ilian o icials we e asked wi h he o de ly coloniza ion o hei ju isdic ions, h ough he issuing o land g an s o a ms (chac as) and anches (haciendas-es ancias) o Spania ds o C iollos o noble bi h, who exp essed a desi e o colonize he egion. Go e nmen o icials and ac i e-du y mili a y leade s echnically we e ba ed om ecei ing land g an s, in a ain a emp o educe hei in luence and accusa ions o co up ion agains hem, howe e , mos used legal loopholes o ge a ound hese p ohibi ions. While many o he ecipien s o he land g an s immedia ely s a ed cons uc ing hei anches and plan ing ineya ds, a po ion 5 Ja a, Ál a o. Gue a y Sociedad en Chile. Edi o ial Uni e si a ia, 1961. 6 Villalobos R, Se gio. His o ia del pueblo Chileno, 4 omos. Edi o ial Uni e si a ia; Relaciones on e izas en la A aucania. San iago, Ediciones Uni e sidad Ca ólica de Chile, 1982. 7 Concha Mona des, Raúl, El eino de Chile: ealidades es a égicas sis emas mili a es y ocupación del e i o io (1520-1650), CESOC P in e s, San iago, Chile, 2014. 8 Be ge , Eugene Cla k. Pe manen wa on Pe u’s pe iphe y: on ie iden i y and he poli ics o con lic in 17 h cen u y Chile. Doc o al Thesis Uni e si y o Vande bil , 2006. 9 Valenzuela Má quez, Jaime, Indias escla as an e la Real Audiencia de Chile (1650-1690), in he book "Amé ica en diáspo as", edi ed by Jaime Valenzuela, San iago 2016. 10 Kei h, Robe G. Conques and ag a ian change: The eme gence o he hacienda sys em on he Pe u ian coas . Ha a d Uni e si y P ess, Camb idge, Massachuse s, 1976. Daniel M. S ewa Social ad ancemen : mili a y p omo ions and e i emen wi hin he Spanish a my in Chile (1693-1735) Núme o 47, diciemb e 2021, pp. 373-408 DOI: h ps://dx.doi.o g/10.12795/Temas-Ame icanis as.2021.i47.19 377 we e sold a specula i e ma ke p ices wi hin days o hei legal acquisi ion, hus allowing o he o ma ion o la ge haciendas composed o a ious conjoining land g an s. The nea absence o po en ial nonmili a y colonize s led o he c ea ion o a unique pa ne ship ha allowed some soldie s s a ioned in Chile o e ol e, o e a pe iod o yea s, om ac i e mili a y du y o ha o semi- e i ed landholding o ice s. This sys em, which we will analyze in his pape , allowed o hund eds o 17 h cen u y Chilean soldie s i s o become o ice s and second o ecei e land g an s and encomiendas based en i ely on he nobili y o social s anding exp essed by hei mili a y ank. As (hacendados) landholde s hese soldie s and hei amilies we e hen able o o m pa o he colonial poli ical and economic sys ems and ascend o he newly o med c iollo middle class. This unique sys em is i al in unde s anding he ci ilian-mili a y connexon ha became an in eg al pa o he Chilean na ional iden i y and shaped i s pos colonial in e ac ions. In his pape , we will i s show he geog aphical dis ibu ion and b eakdown o he Spanish a my in Chile du ing he 17 h and 18 h cen u ies. Second, we will analyze he c ea ion o he semi- e i ed o ice co ps (Capi anes Re o mados) and i s expansion du ing he se en een h cen u y. Nex , we look a how mili a y p omo ions wo ked wi hin he Spanish a my in Chile, a he local le el, using indi idual soldie ’s mili a y eco ds om he o o Valdi ia and he Chilean go e no ’s sec e a y´s logbook. Finally, we will show how he semi- e i ed o ice s we e able o ecei e land g an s and encomiendas wi hin he Chilean ci ilian socie y by analyzing g an eco ds om he la e pa o he 17 h cen u y. Dis ibu ion and B eakdown o he Spanish A my in Chile: 1693-1735 The i s wa e o mili a y ein o cemen s ha a i ed in Chile upon he c ea ion o he s anding a my included nea ly wo- housand Spanish and Po uguese soldie s led by a numbe o deco a ed mili a y o ice s ained in Spain´s mili a y con lic s in he Ne he lands, including Alonso de Ri e a who was named as he new colonial go e no . Local o icials and p e ious mili a y leade s joined o ces wi h Alonso de Ri e a o c ea e and implemen a plan o a mobile mili a ized on ie ha p o ec ed he wo emaining sou he n ci ies, Chillán and Concepcion, wi h a s ing o o s and mili a y encampmen s. 11 Mili a y leade s 11 Alonso de la Calle, Rica do. “Los ue es on e izos chilenos. Resis encia e in e acción en la on e a de Chile en los siglos XVI y XVII”, Espacio, Tiempo y Fo ma, Se ie IV, His o ia Mode na, Vol. 18-19, 2005, Daniel M. S ewa Social ad ancemen : mili a y p omo ions and e i emen wi hin he Spanish a my in Chile (1693-1735) Núme o 47, diciemb e 2021, pp. 373-408 DOI: h ps://dx.doi.o g/10.12795/Temas-Ame icanis as.2021.i47.19 378 and Jesui missiona ies we e gi en ci il and eligious au ho i y sou h o he mili a ized on ie , while local ci ic leade s and pa ish p ies s con olled he dis ic s loca ed jus no h o he bo de . The Go e no o Chile was asked wi h using he Real Si uado o pay he soldie ´s sala ies and supplying hem wi h he needed ood and mili a y equipmen . The Real Si uado came in he o m o ood, clo hing, mili a y supplies, and a ew sil e coins, pa o which he go e no used o pay mili a y deb s, ese ing he es o he soldie ’s sala ies. 12 Howe e , high shipping cos s and p ice gouging by me chan s in Lima d as ically educed he mone a y alue o he supplies ha he Chilean mili a y agen s we e able o b ing in each yea , and as a esul , local mili a y leade s we e ne e able o ully co e he cos o he soldie ´s sala ies o he a my´s accumula ed wa deb s. 13 The newly cons uc ed de ensi e line, o mili a ized on ie , ollowed he Bio-Bio and Laja i e s, whose size and swi cu en s made hem na u al bounda ies be ween he emaining colonial ci ies and he hos ile Indian g oups ha li ed on he o he side. Se en o s we e buil on he no h side o p o ec he i e ´s main o ds. Th ee addi ional o s we e buil along he coas , sou h o he Biobio Ri e , which se ed a double ole de ending agains hos ile Indians and Eu opean co sai s. Fo de ensi e pu poses, each o was assigned a ga ison o 20 soldie s and a company o iendly Indians (Indios Amigos) who pages 223-246; Con e as, Hugo. Fo i icaciones, logís ica y ida de cua el en el eal ejé ci o de Chile du an e el siglo XVII, Bole ín Ame icanis a, N° 77, 2018, Ba celona, pages 203-223. 12 Each yea he Chilean go e no would send an agen o Lima o collec he Real Si uado om he Pe u ian Vice oy. Gene ally, he agen would ecei e only c edi no es om he Vice oy ha he would hen ade wi h local me chan s o clo hes, weapons, and a small quan i y o sil e coins. Since he bank no es did no come wi h a gua an ee o quick paymen , local me chan s cha ged he Chilean agen s high-in e es a es ha we e gene ally collec ed he nex yea . Fo mo e in o ma ion abou he inne wo kings o his p ocess e e o Sua ez, Ma ga i a. Desa íos ansa lán icos: me cade es, banque os y el es ado en el Pe ú i einal, 1600-1700, Ins i u o F ancés de Es udios Andinos, Lima, 2001; Fo mo e in o ma ion abou he inancing o mili a y ope a ions wi hin he Spanish empi e e e o, Ma chena Fe nández, Juan. “La inanciación mili a en Indias. in oducción a su es udio”. Anua io de Es udios Ame icanos, #36, 1979, pages 81-130; “O iciales y soldados en el ejé ci o de Amé ica”, Escuela de es udios Hispano-Ame icanos, Se illa, 1983; Rod íguez Ridao, An onio Luis. “La adminis ación del Real Si uado en iempos del gobe nado Tomás Ma ín de Po eda: co upción en de imen o del Ejé ci o de Chile (1692-1700)”, Re is a Complu ense de His o ia de Amé ica, N° 43, 2017, pages 101-126; Rod íguez Ridao, An onio Luis & Sole Liza azo, Luisa Consuelo. “Mecanismos de egulación del Real Si uado: una ap oximación a la e iciencia de los ecu sos iscales des inados al ejé ci o de Chile en el siglo XVII”, TEMPUS Re is a en His o ia Gene al Medellín (Colombia), N° 6, 2017, pages 22-56. 13 Sua ez, Ma ga i a. Come cio y aude en el Pe ú colonial: Las es a egias me can iles de un banque o. Ins i u o de Es udios Pe uanos, Lima 1995; Desa íos ansa lán icos: Me cade es, banque os y el es ado en el Pe ú i einal, 1600-1700. Pon i icia Uni e sidad Ca ólica del Pe ú, Ins i u o Ri a-Agüe o, Lima 2001. Daniel M. S ewa Social ad ancemen : mili a y p omo ions and e i emen wi hin he Spanish a my in Chile (1693-1735) Núme o 47, diciemb e 2021, pp. 373-408 DOI: h ps://dx.doi.o g/10.12795/Temas-Ame icanis as.2021.i47.19 379 li ed in nea by illages o haciendas. Ancho ing he line o o s we e wo mili a y camps called e cios, each wi h six hund ed soldie s di ided in o an equal numbe o ca al y and in an y companies. The es o he a my was s a ioned in he ci ies (p esidios) o Chillán, Cas o, Concepcion, and Valpa aiso 14 . The ci ies o La Se ena and San iago did no ha e paid ga isons and we e de ended by local mili ia companies. Figu e 1: Dis ibu ion o he o s o he Spanish a my in Chile 15 While he de ensi e line emained s agnan du ing he majo i y o he 17 h and 18 h cen u ies, new o s we e added, when p olonged mili a y campaigns pe mi ed he 14 Concha Mona des, Raúl, El eino de Chile: ealidades es a égicas sis emas mili a es y ocupación del e i o io (1520-1650), CESOC P in e s, San iago, Chile, 2014. 15 S ewa , Daniel M. “Indian labo : he e olu ion o he encomienda and indigenous sla e y wi hin Chile´s 17 h cen u y on ie socie y”, Amé ica en Diáspo as: escla i udes y mig aciones o zadas en Chile y o as egiones Ame icanas (Siglos XVI-XIX), Edi ed by Jaime Valenzuela Ma quez, RIL Edi o es, San iago, 2017, pages 251-291. Daniel M. S ewa Social ad ancemen : mili a y p omo ions and e i emen wi hin he Spanish a my in Chile (1693-1735) Núme o 47, diciemb e 2021, pp. 373-408 DOI: h ps://dx.doi.o g/10.12795/Temas-Ame icanis as.2021.i47.19 380 empo a y occupa ion o Indian lands sou h o he Biobio Ri e . The mos no able o hese o s we e Angol, Bo oa, Pu en, and Tucapel. Addi ionally, in 1646, he po ci y o Valdi ia was ebuil and u ned in o a mili a y o ess by he Pe u ian Vice oy, a e a new incu sion in o he Sou h Paci ic by Du ch na al o ces. 16 While he King´s mili a y planne s called o a pe manen s anding a my o 2000 soldie s, he ac ual numbe o oops luc ua ed be ween 1200 and 2600. Each yea he a my had o eplace a minimum o 10% o i s anks due o illness, dea h, dese ion, e i emen , no o men ion he ew who died in ac ual comba . 17 Fo example, in he yea 1615, he Chilean Go e no Alonso de Ri e a complained o he au ho i ies in Mad id ha nea ly one hund ed soldie s had le he a my ha yea alone wi hou his pe mission o become Ca holic monks. 18 Fu he mo e, le e s om local mili a y leade s show ha a any gi en ime mo e han a hi d o he soldie s ha appea ed on hei olls we e ei he missing o away on lea e. Likewise, a la ge pe cen age o he soldie s who we e p esen in he o s we e ei he oo old o oo sickly o bea a ms. 19 While we ha e ample documen a ion showing he numbe o soldie s s a ioned a each on ie pos du ing he se en een h-cen u y, mos a e limi ed o only a numbe and no he name and ank o each soldie . Howe e , we ha e loca ed h ee comple e pay oll lis s ha will allow us o show he dis ibu ion and iden i ies o he soldie s o he yea s 1693, 1700 and 1735. 20 They a e key in allowing us o be e analyze he dis ibu ion and o ganiza ion o he King´s a my in Chile and he ole o he o ice s wi hin i s anks. 16 Concha Mona des, Raúl, El eino de Chile: ealidades es a égicas sis emas mili a es y ocupación del e i o io (1520-1650), CESOC P in e s, San iago, Chile, 2014. 17 S ewa , Daniel, Eli e Mili a y o mación económica de un espacio egional: Concepción, 1598-1700 ( ie a, población y me cado), Doc o al Thesis, Uni e si y o Chile, 2016. 18 Inos oza, I án His o ia de Concepción: O ganización colonial y economía ag a ia 1600-1650. Uni e sidad de la F on e a 1998. 19 S ewa , Daniel, Eli e Mili a y o mación económica de un espacio egional: Concepción, 1598-1700 ( ie a, población y me cado), Doc o al Thesis, Uni e si y o Chile, 2016. 20 Two o he h ee pay oll lis s s udied in his in es iga ion co espond o backpay since inancial di icul ies in Pe ú caused long delays in he a i al o he mili a y supply ships. Howe e , his does no educe he impo ance o his o ical usage o hese lis s. The 1693 pay oll lis co esponds o he paymen o soldie s o he yea s 1687-1689. I also includes an ini ial paymen made o soldie s who enlis ed be ween he yea s 1689- 1692. The paymen lis o he yea 1700 co esponds o he yea s 1690-1692 and a pa ial paymen o ood cos s be ween 1690-1695. ANH.CG ol. 917 i em 1; ANH.CG ol. 876 i em 13; AGI.Ch,25,R.1,N.43; The e a e also pa ial lis s o he yea s 1602, 1605, 1613 and 1654. Daniel M. S ewa Social ad ancemen : mili a y p omo ions and e i emen wi hin he Spanish a my in Chile (1693-1735) Núme o 47, diciemb e 2021, pp. 373-408 DOI: h ps://dx.doi.o g/10.12795/Temas-Ame icanis as.2021.i47.19 381 Figu e 2: Dis ibu ion o he soldie s in he Spanish a my in Chile 21 While he e we e 2184 soldie s on mili a y pay olls in 1693, hose numbe s en e ed in o a s eady decline when inancial p oblems in Lima led o a subs an ial educ ion in he size and equency o he Real Si uado. By 1735 he a my had eached a low o 588 soldie s, which was main ained un il 1752 when he Spanish c own eo ganized i s a my in Chile. Mili a y dis ibu ion and pay oll cha s a e only he beginning o any analysis o he colonial a my in Chile. While hey clea ly show he a eas o high mili a y concen a ion such as he e cios o Yumbel and A auco, hey ail o show he daily ac i i ies o hose who appea s a ioned he e on pape . While he numbe o soldie s was d as ically educed be ween 1693 and 1735, he gene al popula ion o he egion o Concepcion con inued o g ow. The soldie s who le he a my gene ally did no lea e he egion and only solidi ied 21 ANH.CG ol. 917 i em 1; ANH.CG ol. 876 i em 13; AGI.Ch,25,R.1,N.43. Mili a y Ins alla ions 1693 1700 1735 A auco 495 118 Buena Espe anza 25 10 Chillan 105 79 18 Chiloe 207 Colcu a 910 10 Concepcion 468 871 161 Nacimien o 17 23 Pu en 206 202 75 San Ch is obal 14 14 San Ped o 22 19 17 San a Juana 10 7 3 Talcama ida 26 21 23 Tucapel 66 522 32 Valpa aiso 49 2 Yumbel 482 108 To al Numbe o Soldie s 2184 1774 588 Daniel M. S ewa Social ad ancemen : mili a y p omo ions and e i emen wi hin he Spanish a my in Chile (1693-1735) Núme o 47, diciemb e 2021, pp. 373-408 DOI: h ps://dx.doi.o g/10.12795/Temas-Ame icanis as.2021.i47.19 388 Fo example, in he mili a y base (Te cio) o Pu en we ind he Cal a y company belonging o he Se gean Majo Ba olomé Pé ez de Villag án (commande o all he o ces in Pu en and he sou he n coas al o s), who wi hin i s o al o 56 soldie s we see 1 Se gean Majo , 2 Cap ains, 5 Lieu enan s, 4 Al é eces, 6 Se gean s, 1 Co po al, 1 T umpe e , and 37 common soldie s. 38 In o he wo ds, he e we e 12 o ice s ins ead o he allo ed h ee, who we e he only ones who ecei ed ac i e o ice´s sala ies. Ano he company in Pu en, commanded by Cap ain Joseph Mendoza, shows he same pa e n wi h 5 Cap ains, 5 Lieu enan s, 2 Al é ez, 1 Se gean , 1 Co po al, 1 T umpe e , and 39 common soldie s. 39 The same end is ound in e e y company on he 1693, 1700 and 1735 pay olls. In o he wo ds, hund eds o soldie s who on pape appea ed as o ice s we e se ing as common soldie s in egula a my companies and no in he companies o Capi anes Re o mados. The e we e jus oo many o ice s o go a ound. Colonial documen a ion indica es ha many o he ein o cemen s ha he Pe u ian Vice oys sen o Chile we e ag an s and pe y c iminals pulled o he s ee s o Lima o Qui o. Some o hese new soldie s saw mili a y se ice as a na u al ex ension o hei p e ious ac i i ies and we e in en on jus su i ing and no on se ing down oo s in hei new su oundings. On he o he hand, a la ge po ion o he a my saw mili a y se ice, o ced o olun a y, as a na u al s eppings one on a pa h ha included o ming a amily and owning a anch o shop. Wi hou a doub , hey knew ha becoming an o ice was an essen ial s ep in eaching hose goals. Fo ha eason, hey ole a ed o e en p aised he c iminal ac ions o he mili a y mino i y whose aids on peace ul Indian illages and Spanish anches ex ended and eigni ed he o en s agna e mili a y con lic . As Eugene Be ge explained, Chile´s colonial popula ion depended economically on he Real Si uado. Wi hou i s yea ly in lux o ma e ial goods om Lima, local ci ilian leade s ea ed he Concepcion economy would comple ely collapse. The e o e, i was in hei bes in e es ha minimal mili a y con lic s con inued om yea o yea . Each yea ha he con lic was ex ended mean ha much needed supplies would a i e and a new g oup o soldie s would be able o become o ice s and o m pa o he eme ging ci ilian 38 AGI.Ch,25,R.1,N.43. 39 AGI.Ch,25,R.1,N.43. Daniel M. S ewa Social ad ancemen : mili a y p omo ions and e i emen wi hin he Spanish a my in Chile (1693-1735) Núme o 47, diciemb e 2021, pp. 373-408 DOI: h ps://dx.doi.o g/10.12795/Temas-Ame icanis as.2021.i47.19 389 popula ion. Jus how ha sys em wo ked is key o unde s anding he unna u al and in en ional ex ension o Chile´s mili a y s uggle. Mili a y P omo ions in he Colonial A my in Chile: Valdi ia 1646-1678 The widesp ead lack o su i ing adminis a i e mili a y eco ds o he 17 h-cen u y colonial a my in Chile has limi ed many pas a emp s o analyze e e yday mili a y ac i i ies, such as p omo ions, ood, and pay. Tha is no o say ha p ecise accu a e and de ailed mili a y eco ds did no exis a one ime, only ha oday ew such eco ds ha e been loca ed due o he des uc ion o he qua e mas e ´s a chi es in he sunamis ha des oyed he ci y o Concepcion in 1657 and again in 1730 and 1751. 40 Tha being said, one such documen has been loca ed, which allows us o see he se ice eco ds o 26 soldie s s a ioned in he mili a y encla e o Valdi ia be ween he yea s 1646 and 1678. Simila se ice eco ds ha e been ound in pe i ions sen o he Spanish au ho i ies by indi idual Chilean mili a y o ice s hoping o ob ain mili a y and ci ilian ad ancemen ou side o Chile, howe e , he Valdi ian documen is unique because he 26 se ice eco ds we e eco ded a he same ime using a s anda d c i e ion. The eco ds o m pa o Judge Manuel Iba a in es iga ion in o backpay owed o soldie s om he Valdi ia ga ison. The soldie s pe i ioned he Judge o ake hei cases o backpay pe sonally o he Pe u ian Vice oy. The eques s o he 26 soldie s om he Valdi ia ga ison ne e made i o Vice oy and ended up in mis iled pape s o he Real Audiencia o Chile, whe e he case was i s p esen ed 41 . The soldie s included as e idence ha hey we e owed a subs an ial po ion o hei sala ies, de ailed copies o hei se ice eco ds, which include no only he amoun o money hey we e and we e no paid bu he da es and amoun o ime hey spen in each mili a y posi ion. I ´s his second pa ha allows us o be e unde s and he Chilean colonial mili a y sys em and how he lack o money o pay he soldie ´s comple e sala y led o he c ea ion o a a ie y o me hods whe e 40 S ewa , Daniel M. “His o ical sunamis in he Concepcion Bay, as seen in he econs uc ed lood le els om he colonial ci y o Concepción (Penco), Chile (1570-1835)”, Re is a His o ia, N° 26, Vol. 2, 2019, pages 97-127; S ewa , Daniel M. “El e emo o de 1657 en Concepción, Chile. Un análogo colonial del e emo o en Maule 2010”, Cuade nos de His o ia, N° 55, Decembe 2021, pages 191-221. 41 I is e y p obable ha a epo was c ea ed o each soldie in he Valdi ia ga ison and ha o some unknown eason hese 26 eco ds ne e made i o Lima wi h he es o he documen a ion, whose whe eabou oday is unknown. Daniel M. S ewa Social ad ancemen : mili a y p omo ions and e i emen wi hin he Spanish a my in Chile (1693-1735) Núme o 47, diciemb e 2021, pp. 373-408 DOI: h ps://dx.doi.o g/10.12795/Temas-Ame icanis as.2021.i47.19 390 soldie s we e paid in pa wi h seconda y bene i s whose alue was be e app ecia ed once hei mili a y se ice was comple ed. The wen y-six soldie s, om he o ess o Valdi ia, whose se ice eco ds we ha e, ep esen wha we see in he o he mili a y ins alla ions in he colonial a my in Chile du ing he se en een h cen u y. The g oup includes 2 Cap ains, 19 Al é eces (Ensign), 4 Se gean s and 1 Gunne . 42 They a e aged 17.5 yea s o mili a y se ice wi h he longes ha ing se ed a li le o e hi y- ou yea s. While each o he soldie s used he p i ileges associa ed wi h hei ank o p esen hei case o back pay in he Spanish cou s, a close look a hei se ice eco ds shows us he hidden eali y o he colonial o ice wi hin he Chilean a my. 43 Be o e going in o any mo e de ail, we need o emphasize ha he o ess o Valdi ia and i s se ies o on ie o s was no pa o he main Chilean a my. I s soldie s o igina ed om he ga ison o he Pe u ian po o Callao and we e paid wi h unds om hei own Real Si uado, which also ne e came o he amoun s o iming ha he law equi ed. Mos o Valdi ia´s mili a y go e no s we e Capi anes Re o mados om he Chilean ci y o Concepcion, which u he complica ed i s unique posi ion, since mos yea s he soldie s in Valdi ia pa icipa ed wi h he es o he Chilean a my in he summe mili a y campaigns, ecei ing hei mili a y o de s om he Chilean Go e no . The annual Real Si uado o he Valdi ia ga ison consis ed o wo pa s: i s , h ee boa s om he Chilean po o Valpa aiso loaded wi h lou , mea , shoes, wine, and o he oods u s supplied by San iago´s me chan class, and a ou h boa om he Pe u ian po o Callao loaded wi h clo hes, mili a y supplies, and sil e coins o he emaining po ion o he soldie ´s pay. As wi h he Real Si uado ha wen o he es o he a my in Concepcion, he mone a y alue o he supplies ha eached Valdi ia ne e was enough o pay he soldie s ull sala ies o accumula ed wa deb s. 44 Each soldie ecei ed only a po ion o his yea ly sala y and he unpaid po ion was eco ded on his se ice eco ds unde he p e ex 42 Mos o ice s only use he hono i ic e m “don” in ci ilian eco ds which du ing he XVI and XVII cen u ies shows a clea class dis inc ion in Chile. 43 ANH.RA ol. 2230 i ems 7,9, 11, se ice eco ds o soldie s om he Valdi ia ga ison, 1678. 44 S ewa , Daniel, Eli e Mili a y o mación económica de un espacio egional: Concepción, 1598-1700 ( ie a, población y me cado), Doc o al Thesis, Uni e si y o Chile, 2016. Daniel M. S ewa Social ad ancemen : mili a y p omo ions and e i emen wi hin he Spanish a my in Chile (1693-1735) Núme o 47, diciemb e 2021, pp. 373-408 DOI: h ps://dx.doi.o g/10.12795/Temas-Ame icanis as.2021.i47.19 391 ha when mo e money a i ed, hey would be paid in ull. Fo example, in 1657 one o he be e yea s, he o al alue o he ood and clo hes ha he common soldie ecei ed was alued a 104 pesos o 72% o he 144 pesos ha co esponded o he yea ly sala y o he common soldie . 45 The emaining 40 pesos we e eco ded as pending on hei indi idual se ice eco ds. While he e a e small a ia ions in he se ice eco ds o he wen y-six soldie s whose eco ds we now ha e, hey all show a speci ic pa e n ela ed o hei ad ancemen wi hin he Valdi ia ga ison and how ha ad ancemen allowed hem o ecei e bene i s wi hin he colonial socie y, when hey e i ed and mo ed no h o he ci ies o Concepcion o San iago 46 . The eco ds show ha on a e age a e deduc ing hei ood cos s and ma e ial pay, a in la ed mili a y p ices, each soldie was owed nea ly 40% o hei accumula ed sala ies. 47 They also demons a e ha each was paid o he posi ion hey occupied and no he ank hey had while occupying ha posi ion. In o de o be e desc ibe and analyze he pa e ns ha appea wi hin hese se ice eco ds and hose o o he soldie s in Concepcion, we will ocus on a ew speci ic soldie s, who ep esen wha he g oup as a whole looks like. Fo example, Cap ain F ancisco Espinoza joined he a my as a common soldie on Feb ua y 4 h, 1644, in Pe u ian po o Callao du ing he open en ollmen o he expedi ion ha ebuil he o ess o Valdi ia. 48 He se ed wi h a mon hly sala y o 20 pesos un il Feb ua y 10 h, 1645, when he eenlis ed as a common soldie wi h a sala y now o only 12 pesos a mon h, a posi ion he main ained un il he 21s o No embe 1656 when he ecei ed he ank o Al é ez (Ensign) wi h a sala y o 30 pesos a mon h. Howe e , ele en days la e on Decembe 2nd, he e u ned o his old posi ion as a common soldie wi h a sala y o 12 pesos a mon h. Fi e and a hal yea s la e , on June 2nd, 1662, he was called again o se e as Al é ez and his ime also as he company lag bea e wi h a combined sala y o 42 pesos a mon h. This ime he emained in he posi ion o a li le o e a yea be o e e u ning o his posi ion as a common soldie on June 25 h, 1663. Nine mon hs la e he ecei ed pe mission o go o San iago o medical ea men 45 ANH.RA ol. 1857 i em 1. 46 Valdi ia was a mili a y encla e and did no allow ci ilian se lemen un il he eigh een h cen u y, o ha eason upon e i ing he Spanish soldie s emig a ed no h by boa o Concepcion. 47 ANH.RA ol. 2230 i ems 7,9, 11, se ice eco ds o soldie s om he Valdi ia ga ison, 1678. 48 ANH.RA ol. 2230 i ems 7,9, 11, se ice eco ds o soldie s om he Valdi ia ga ison, 1678. Daniel M. S ewa Social ad ancemen : mili a y p omo ions and e i emen wi hin he Spanish a my in Chile (1693-1735) Núme o 47, diciemb e 2021, pp. 373-408 DOI: h ps://dx.doi.o g/10.12795/Temas-Ame icanis as.2021.i47.19 392 om which he e u ned o ac i e se ice as a common soldie on Janua y 5 h, 1665. Eigh yea s la e on Janua y 19 h, 1673, he was p omo ed o ank o In an y Cap ain wi h a sala y o 65 pesos a mon h, ye again jus like his i s p omo ion, one day la e on Janua y 20 h he e u ned o his ea lie posi ion as a common soldie , his ime wi h a new semi- e i ed o ice ’s sala y o 17.25 pesos a mon h. He was s ill in ha posi ion in 1678 when he pe i ioned he Vice oy o his backpay. Du ing he 34 plus yea s ha F ancisco Espinoza se ed as a soldie in Valdi ia mo e han hi y- h ee we e as a common soldie . Tha being said, he used he i le o Al é ez o 17 yea s and Cap ain du ing he las i e. O he han he one yea he se ed as company lag bea e , he e is no hing in his se ice eco d ha would place him wi hin he anks o he colonial o ice s. Tha said, he would e i e as a Capi an, being able o use ha i le du ing he es o his ci ilian li e. A second example is he Al é ez G ego io Quin e o, who a i ed in Valdi ia as a common soldie on Augus 26 h, 1657, as pa o he ein o cemen s ha we e sen a e he 1655 Indian e ol . 49 O e nine yea s la e on Sep embe 25 h, 1666, he was p omo ed o he ank o Co po al (Cabo de Esquad a), a posi ion he held o he nex eigh yea s. In 1674, a e se en een yea s o mili a y se ice he was p omo ed o he ank o Se gean , a posi ion he held o one day. A yea and a hal la e , he was p omo ed o Al é ez, whe e ye again he se ed only one day. A e each p omo ion, he e u ned o his posi ion as a common soldie . So, when he e i ed om he a my he end o Decembe 1676, Al é ez G ego io Quin e o had du ing his 19 yea s o mili a y se ice 1 day as a Se gean and 1 day as an Al é ez. Ye again, in he ci ilian wo ld, he became a e i ed mili a y o ice , wi h access o land g an s and encomiendas. We see he same pa e n wi h Al é ez Domingo Valencia, who joined he ga ison in Valdi ia on Decembe 16 h, 1646, as a common soldie . 50 A e nea ly i een yea s o con inuous mili a y se ice, he was p omo ed o Co po al, a posi ion he held o he nex wo-plus yea s. Then on No embe 29 h, 1663, became a Se gean and he nex day on No embe 30 h he e u ned o he anks as a common soldie . A li le o e ou yea s la e 49 ANH.RA ol. 2230 i ems 7,9, 11, se ice eco ds o soldie s om he Valdi ia ga ison, 1678. 50 ANH.RA ol. 2230 i ems 7,9, 11, se ice eco ds o soldie s om he Valdi ia ga ison, 1678. Daniel M. S ewa Social ad ancemen : mili a y p omo ions and e i emen wi hin he Spanish a my in Chile (1693-1735) Núme o 47, diciemb e 2021, pp. 373-408 DOI: h ps://dx.doi.o g/10.12795/Temas-Ame icanis as.2021.i47.19 393 on Decembe 30 h, 1667, he was p omo ed o he ank o Al é ez and wo days la e on Janua y 1s , 1668 he e u ned ye again o he anks o he common soldie , whe e he was in Augus 1678 when he pe i ioned he King o his back pay. In o e hi y- wo and a hal yea s o mili a y se ice, he had one day as a Se gean and wo days as an Al é ez, a i le he legally used o o e he las wel e yea s o his mili a y se ice. O he wen y-six soldie s whose se ice eco ds we analyzed, 18 we e p omo ed o Se gean , 13 o which se ed o ou o ewe days and only h ee emained a leas one yea in he posi ion. Twen y-one o hem became o ice s when hey ecei ed he ank o Al é ez, howe e , jus as be o e, nine een o he wen y-one se ed ou days o less in he posi ion be o e e u ning o he anks as a common soldie . The only di e ence was ha nine o he wen y-one Al é ez e u ned o he posi ion a a la e da e, whe e hey we e concu en ly assigned he company lag, no mally o a pe iod o one yea . The same pa e n is seen wi h he ou soldie s who became assis an s o he Se gean Majo and he wo who became Cap ains, only wo o hem se ed mo e han a couple o days in he posi ion. 51 51 ANH.RA ol. 2230 i ems 7,9, 11, se ice eco ds o soldie s om he Valdi ia ga ison, 1678. Daniel M. S ewa Social ad ancemen : mili a y p omo ions and e i emen wi hin he Spanish a my in Chile (1693-1735) Núme o 47, diciemb e 2021, pp. 373-408 DOI: h ps://dx.doi.o g/10.12795/Temas-Ame icanis as.2021.i47.19 394 Figu e 5: O ice s om he Valdi ia ga ison showing he dis ibu ion o hei mili a y se ice 52 A look a he wen y-six soldie s se ice eco ds shows ha while wen y-one we e o ice s on pape , in o al hey had only spen an a e age o 3% o hei mili a y se ice in a pos ese ed o o ice s. Six een o he o ice s spen less han 1% o hei mili a y se ice as o ice s, while on a e age 86% pe cen o hei ime was spen as common soldie s, wi h he emaining 11% as noncommissioned o ice s. Ye mos we e like he Al é ez Es eban Nuñez who in 15.5 yea s old mili a y se ice spen only one day as an Al é ez o C is obal Moya who in nea ly 21 yea s in Valdi ia spen one day as Se gean and one day as Al é ez. Simila pa e ns a e seen in he se ice eco ds ha we ha e om soldie s in he main Chilean a my in Concepcion. Fo example, Cap ain Ped o Gomez G anizo joined he a my as a common soldie in Pe u on No embe 10 h, 1662. 53 He a i ed sho ly he ea e in Chile wi h he ein o cemen s b ough in by Cap ain Julian Da ila. Nea ly en yea s la e on 52 ANH.RA ol. 2230 i ems 7,9, 11, se ice eco ds o soldie s om he Valdi ia ga ison, 1678. 53 ANH.MLS, ol. 1. Name and Rank % o Mili a y Se ice Common Soldie % o Mili a y Se ice Noncommissioned- O ice % o Mili a y Se ice Commissioned O ice Al é ez Bal haza Valencia 75,58% 24,39% 0,03% Al é ez Be na do Chá ez 89,72% 0,03% 10,25% Al é ez C is obal Moya 99,97% 0,01% 0,01% Al é ez Domingo Valencia 92,95% 7,04% 0,01% Al é ez Es e an Núñez 99,98% 0,00% 0,02% Al é ez G ego io del Cas illo 85,56% 14,43% 0,02% Al é ez G ego io Quin e o 58,81% 41,17% 0,01% Al é ez He nando San ande 96,71% 3,26% 0,02% Al é ez Ignacio Pe ez de la C uz 95,87% 0,03% 4,10% Al é ez Joseph de O iguela 57,00% 28,32% 14,68% Al é ez Joseph Mejia Lugones 68,47% 22,12% 9,40% Al é ez Juan Caza 99,92% 0,00% 0,08% Al é ez Juan Ruiz de Ba ahona 37,42% 62,56% 0,01% Al é ez Nicolas Vi o 81,61% 18,38% 0,01% Al é ez Ped o Iba a 93,48% 6,48% 0,04% Al é ez Sebas ian Polanco 99,95% 0,04% 0,01% Ayudan e F ancisco Mon e o 90,59% 1,27% 8,13% Ayudan e Isid o Co onado 95,19% 0,01% 4,80% Ayudan e Joseph Beliz 72,61% 18,48% 8,91% Capi an F ancisco Espinoza 96,90% 0,00% 3,10% Capi an Ma in Pa ga 74,26% 0,00% 25,66% Gunne F ancisco Losada Quiñones 100,00% 0,00% 0,00% Se gean Diego de la Peña 91,79% 8,21% 0,00% Se gean F ancisco An onio Venegas 99,98% 0,02% 0,00% Se gean Je onimo Villegas 63,57% 36,43% 0,00% Se gean Joseph Valdes 99,98% 0,02% 0,00% 85,96% 11,09% 2,88% Daniel M. S ewa Social ad ancemen : mili a y p omo ions and e i emen wi hin he Spanish a my in Chile (1693-1735) Núme o 47, diciemb e 2021, pp. 373-408 DOI: h ps://dx.doi.o g/10.12795/Temas-Ame icanis as.2021.i47.19 395 Oc obe 1s , 1672, he was p omo ed o Co po al (Cabo de Esquad a), a posi ion he held o a li le o ou mon hs un il on Feb ua y 4 h, 1673, he was p omo ed o Al é ez whe e he se ed un il Ma ch 8 h, 1674, when he e u ned as a common soldie . O e h ee yea s la e on Ap il 29 h, 1677, he became Lieu enan o a Cal a y company, whe e he se ed o a li le o e a yea un il May 26 h, 1678, when he wen back o his posi ion as a common soldie . Nea ly wo and a hal yea s la e , on Oc obe 10 h, 1680, he was p omo ed o In an y Cap ain and he nex day joined one o he companies o Capi anes Re o mados, whe e he se ed as a common soldie un il his e i emen on June 26 h, 1685. Upon e i ing he used his ank and mili a y expe ience o become a success ul me chan in Concepcion and was la e able o mo e his amily o he ci y o La Se ena, whe e hey o med pa o he egional eli e and ecei ed a land g an in he alley o Copiapo. The same pa e n is isible in he mili a y eco ds o o ice s who achie ed e en g ea e inancial and social success a e e i ing om he mili a y. One such o ice was he Se gean Majo F ancisco He edia, who enjoyed one Concepcion´s la ges encomiendas, which p o ided him wi h labo e s o his ineya ds and ields. 54 He also se ed as Town Mayo and Co egido o he ci y o Concepcion on mo e he one occasion. His mili a y se ice spanned hi y- h ee plus yea s whe e he achie ed he ank o Capi an and Se gean Majo . E en wi h his excep ional mili a y eco d, only 16% o his mili a y se ice co esponded o he ime whe e he ac i ely se ed as an o ice . His economic and social s a us was in la ge pa due o he ac ha he was an o ice on pape du ing 95% o his long mili a y se ice. Common Soldie 18 mon hs Al é ez 1 day Common Soldie 14 mon hs Al é ez 16 mon hs Common Soldie 39 mon hs In an y Cap ain 3 days Common Soldie 13 mon hs In an y Cap ain 12 mon hs 54 ANH.RA ol. 2496 i em 4ª pages 240-241. Daniel M. S ewa Social ad ancemen : mili a y p omo ions and e i emen wi hin he Spanish a my in Chile (1693-1735) Núme o 47, diciemb e 2021, pp. 373-408 DOI: h ps://dx.doi.o g/10.12795/Temas-Ame icanis as.2021.i47.19 396 Common Soldie 79 mon hs Cal a y Capi an 36 mon hs Common Soldie 160 mon hs Se gean Majo 1 day Common Soldie 13 mon hs Figu e 6: F ancisco He edia´s mili a y se ice eco d, 1668-1701 55 The desc ibed mili a y eco ds clea ly show ha many mili a y p omo ions did no se e a speci ic mili a y pu pose. When F ancisco Espinoza was p omo ed o Al é ez and Capi an i was no wi h he in en o illing a acancy wi hin he command s uc u e o he Valdi ia ga ison. The e we e no delusional ideas ha his p omo ion would in eg a e him wi hin he mili a y eli e o Valdi ia o allow him o be a he same le el as he Spanish go e no o ga ison commande . The e was no ange o esen men upon e u ning o he anks as a no mal soldie because in eali y he and each o hose who had been p omo ed ne e le hei posi ions o du ies as a common soldie . Wha hey did know was ha wi h hei p omo ion, hey could ob ain, in he u u e, an o ice ’s posi ion wi hin he egula command s uc u e, a posi ion in he company o he Capi anes Re o mados, o he possibili y o e i ing om mili a y se ice. Fu he mo e, in he case o F ancisco Espinoza, while his ank did no p o ide him wi h a speci ic mili a y pos wi hin he ga ison o Valdi ia, i did allow him o a el o San iago o medical a en ion, and la e upon e i ing e u n o he ci y as a espec ed o ice wi h a long dis inguished mili a y ca ee . Mili a y P omo ions in colonial Chile: deb s and pape wo k So how exac ly did a common soldie ge a p omo ion? Wha we e he cos s in ol ed and who made he choice as o whom o p omo e and who no o? Fe nando Sil a is a ecen a icle explained how he Spanish go e nmen in Mad id sold go e nmen pos s in Chile and h oughou he Ame ican colonies du ing he 17 h-cen u y o he highes bidde . 56 Jo ge 55 ANH.RA ol. 2496 i em 4ª pages 240-241. 56 Sil a Va gas, Fe nando, No as sob e la en a de hono es, o icios y plazas en Indias y en Chile (1650-1750), Bole ín de la Academia Chilena de la His o ia, Año LXXVI-N° 119-2010, pages 47-90. Jiménez Es ella, An onio. “El p ecio de las almenas: en as de alcaidías de o alezas eales en época de los Aus ias”, Re is a de His o ia Mode na, num. 22, 2004, pages 143-172; Jiménez Es ella, An onio. “Mili a es y o iciales de la adminis ación mili a : es a egias de ascenso social e in eg ación en las eli es del eino de G anada du an e el siglo XVI”. In La mo ilidad social en la España del An iguo Régimen, Edi o ial Coma es, G anada, 2007, Daniel M. S ewa Social ad ancemen : mili a y p omo ions and e i emen wi hin he Spanish a my in Chile (1693-1735) Núme o 47, diciemb e 2021, pp. 373-408 DOI: h ps://dx.doi.o g/10.12795/Temas-Ame icanis as.2021.i47.19 397 Aba ca showed he same eali y in Chile i sel du ing he 17 h-cen u y by analyzing he paymen s (b ibes) ha nume ous high- anking o ice s made o he local go e no o hei pos s in he King´s a my and he colonial adminis a ion. 57 Wha is clea is ha ca ee o ice s wi hin he mili a y command s uc u e such as company and base commande s all pu chased hei posi ions. 58 The same is ue o he Co egido es who we e named by he go e no . Ga ison commande s and o he ac i e-du y a my o icials we e able o use hei posi ions o con ol he c oss-bo de ade wi h Chile´s indigenous communi ies and he sale o wine and o he me chandise inside he o s. The p o i s om hese luc a i e business en u es allowed hem o eco e wha hey had in es ed in pu chasing hei pos s, all he while solidi ying hei pos -mili a y business empi es. 59 The e o e, i should su p ise no one ha mili a y p omo ions o anks we e also pu chased om he Spanish go e no . While li le documen a ion exis s oday de ailing he pu chase o posi ions wi hin he mili a y command s uc u e, he pu chase o mili a y p omo ions was eco ded in colonial easu y eco ds, which we e a ely ques ioned o audi ed be o e he eigh een h cen u y. The sys em o buying p omo ions wi hin he colonial a my in Chile came o a empo a y hal in 1695 when he go e no ’s pe sonal sec e a y Juan Uga e iled sui agains he local go e nmen o backpay and aud in his pu chase o he posi ion o he go e no ’s pe sonal sec e a y. 60 He claimed ha he was owed he oyal ies ha we e collec ed on he o icial dec ees ha he p oduced since he had paid he as onomical p ice o 8000 pesos o he posi ion, which had been con i med by he Cou in Mad id 61 . As e idence o he wo k pages 193-221; Jiménez Es ella, An onio. “Pode , dine o y en as de o icios y hono es en la España del an iguo égimen: un es ado de la cues ión”, Cuade nos de His o ia Mode na, ol. 37, 2012, pages 259-272. 57 Aba ca, Jo ge, La co upción bu oc á ica: co up os, co up o es, deli os y jus icia en Chile colonial (1621- 1700), Doc o al Thesis, Uni e si y o Chile, 2010. 58 And ien Kenne h J, The sale o iscal o ices and he decline o oyal au ho i y in he Vice oyal y o Pe u, 1633-1700, in he Hispanic Ame ican His o ical Re iew, #62, 1982, pages 49-71; Rod íguez Ridaeo, An onio Luis. “La adminis ación del Real Si uado en iempos del gobe nado Tomás Ma ín de Po eda: co upción en de imen o del Ejé ci o de Chile (1692-1700)”, Re is a Complu ense de His o ia de Amé ica, N° 43, 2017, pages 101-126. 59 S ewa , Daniel, Eli e Mili a y o mación económica de un espacio egional: Concepción, 1598-1700 ( ie a, población y me cado), Doc o al Thesis, Uni e si y o Chile, 2016. 60 ANH.RA VOL. 2102 i em 8. 61 AGI.Ch, 38,N.15, Con i mación de o icio: Juan de Uga e U ispu o. Daniel M. S ewa Social ad ancemen : mili a y p omo ions and e i emen wi hin he Spanish a my in Chile (1693-1735) Núme o 47, diciemb e 2021, pp. 373-408 DOI: h ps://dx.doi.o g/10.12795/Temas-Ame icanis as.2021.i47.19 404 Figu e 8: Social dis ibu ion o he ecipien s o land g an s in Concepcion (1670-1700) 92 The same pa e n can be seen on a simila scale wi h he Chilean encomienda sys em. Fo example, he Spanish go e no awa ded 532 encomiendas be ween he yea s 1670 and 1679. 93 O his selec g oup, 332 (62%) we e o ice s using hei mili a y se ice o pe i ion he king, 1% we e noncommissioned o ice s, 15% we e sons o deceased o ice s, and he emaining 22% we e daugh e s and widows o deceased o ice s. As wi h he land g an s, all he pe i ione s used hei mili a y se ice and ha o hei ances o s in hei o iginal pe i ions. 94 92 ANH.CG ols. 8, 39, 68, 74, 86, 89, 171, 189, 402, 431, 449, 473, 474, 475, 476, 477, 478, 479, 480, 481, 482, 483, 580, 841, 846; ANH.RA ols. 412, 1272; ANH.ES ol. 343. 93 The decade 1670-1679 co esponds o he end o legalized Indian sla e y. Mos sla eholde s choose o change he legal s a us o hei Indians om sla es o encomienda which explains he ex emely la ge numbe o encomiendas in his pe iod. Fo mo e in o ma ion abou he new encomienda sys em and i s implemen a ion wi hin he Chilean socie y e e o, S ewa , Daniel, “Indian labo : he e olu ion o he encomienda and indigenous sla e y wi hin Chile´s 17 h cen u y on ie socie y" in he book "Amé ica en diáspo as", edi ed by Jaime Valenzuela, San iago 2016. 94 Mos encomiendas s a ed wi h a pe i ion o he King ha was submi ed o he go e no which ollowed his gene al pa e n, “el capi an Ped o Ve dejo dice que ha se ido a su mages ad en la gue a de es e eino en el e cio de A auco 30 años…”. (The capi an Ped o Ve dejo says ha he has se ed you Majes y 30 yea s in his kingdom´s wa in he Te cio o A auco.) ANH.CG ol. 473 olio 100. 86% 4% 3% 7% O ice s Soldie s Women Ci ilians Daniel M. S ewa Social ad ancemen : mili a y p omo ions and e i emen wi hin he Spanish a my in Chile (1693-1735) Núme o 47, diciemb e 2021, pp. 373-408 DOI: h ps://dx.doi.o g/10.12795/Temas-Ame icanis as.2021.i47.19 405 Figu e 9: Social makeup o ecipien s o encomiendas, Chile 1670-1679 95 Jus as wi h he pu chase o mili a y p omo ions, ob aining land g an s and encomiendas equi ed seconda y paymen s o he Go e no ´s sec e a y o he c ea ion o he o icial i les and deeds o owne ship. Fu he paymen s we e hen needed o su ey he land and clea ly ma k he bounda ies, o u u e land acquisi ions. Final Though s and Conclusions The mili a y his o ian Geo ey Pa ke explains ha one o he main ac o s ha a ec ed he o e all mili a y eadiness in Eu ope du ing he 17 h-cen u y was he high u no e o quali ied soldie s and he e olu ion in he ec ui ing p ac ices. Bo h ac o s we e also hea ily el by he Spain´s Ame ican colonies, who had o de end hemsel es om hos ile na i es and Eu opean supe powe s. The colony o Chile ound i sel in a unique si ua ion wi hin he 17 h-cen u y Spanish empi e in ha i s local popula ion was insu icien 95 ANH.CG ols. 29, 57, 83, 402, 473, 474, 475, 476, 477, 478, 479, 480, 481, 482, 483, 484, 500, 501, 524, 527, 547, 551, 552, 563, 565, 580, 841, 846; ANH.RA ols. 1106, 1264, 2500; ANH.ES ol. 343; ANH.CMI ol. 1198, 1200, 1201. 332 6 79 115 0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 O ice s Soldie s Ci ilians Women Indian Encomiendas in Chile: 1670-1679 Encomiendas Daniel M. S ewa Social ad ancemen : mili a y p omo ions and e i emen wi hin he Spanish a my in Chile (1693-1735) Núme o 47, diciemb e 2021, pp. 373-408 DOI: h ps://dx.doi.o g/10.12795/Temas-Ame icanis as.2021.i47.19 406 o i s mili a y manpowe needs and i s pe iphe y loca ion made i impe a i e o main ain in a high le el o mili a y eadiness agains po en ial Eu opean h ea s. Geo ey Pa ke ´s 17 h-cen u y mili a y e olu ion did no con empla e wha would happen o he soldie s once hey le he mili a y o he speci ic echnical di e ences be ween hose se ing in Eu ope in compa ison o hose in Spain´s colonies. 96 While mos ex-soldie s in Eu ope echnically we e able o e u n o hei homes upon inishing hei mili a y se ice, hose sen o de end he in e es s o he c own in one o he o e seas colonies did no ha e his op ion. Fo hem, i was impe a i e o in eg a e hemsel es wi hin he new Ame ican socie y. Many o he soldie s in colonial Chile joined he mili a y wi h an eye o glo y and iches. Howe e , o mos o hem, he accumula ion o ma e ial weal h was impossible due o i egula pay, ha sh li ing condi ions and he lack o e e y hing excep he ba e minimum needed o sus ain li e. Fo ha eason, mos we e o ced o use wha li le hey ecei ed o hei sala y o buy essen ial i ems such as wine and clo hes in o de o main ain hei basic li ing condi ions. E en du ing he bes yea s, a subs an ial po ion o he money allo ed o mili a y sala ies was spen on o he essen ial i ems ela ed o he wa e o and no he egula soldie ´s sala ies. Yea a e yea he soldie s accumula ed unpaid sala ies wi h li le o no hope o e e being paid in ull. As a di ec consequence, many soldie s o hei amilies we e o ced o pu chase i ems wi h c edi in s o es un by hei commanding o ice s a a i icially high p ices, hus shi ing he unpaid sala ies om he soldie ´s accoun o ha o hei commanding o ice s. Such deb s we e collec ed upon a i al o he Real Si uado, lea ing many soldie s wi h no sala y wha soe e . The lack o money in he o s and on ie ci ies, in gene al, caused ampan p ice in la ion, whe e p ices on some common p oduc s such as wine o lou doubled o ipled be o e inally eaching he soldie s and hei amilies. Fo example, a ba el o wine ha sold o 3 pesos in Concepcion, sold o 12 pesos in he mili a y base o Valdi ia. Fu he mo e, since he amoun o wine ha en e ed he o each yea was a 96 Pa ke , Geo ey. The a my o Flande s and he Spanish oad, 1567-1659.Camb idge P ess, 1972; The mili a y e olu ion: Mili a y inno a ion and he ise o he wes 1500-1800, Camb idge P ess, 1988. Daniel M. S ewa Social ad ancemen : mili a y p omo ions and e i emen wi hin he Spanish a my in Chile (1693-1735) Núme o 47, diciemb e 2021, pp. 373-408 DOI: h ps://dx.doi.o g/10.12795/Temas-Ame icanis as.2021.i47.19 407 below he demand, he o ice s who ecei ed he o e p iced wine as pa o hei sala ies we e able o esell i o e en la ge p o i s. 97 Some soldie s we e able o use s a egic iendships wi hin he mili a y o en e in o a sys em ha allowed hem o use pa o hei backpay o inc ease hei social s a us ou side o he mili a y. The only way o a common soldie o ascend socially was by becoming an o ice , howe e , he a my only had a ini e numbe o posi ions o o ice s, all o which we e no mally held ei he by ca ee soldie s who came o e om he wa s in Flande s o by iends and ela i es o he cu en go e no . This lack o oppo uni y o p omo ion wi hin he anks was sol ed by he c ea ion o companies o semi- e i ed o ice s, whose anks we e bols e ed yea ly by common soldie s who used hei connec ions o pu chase p omo ions such as Al é ez, Lieu enan , o Cap ain wi h a po ion o hei back pay. As an o ice , on pape , hey we e able o pe i ion he King, h ough he go e no , o land g an s, encomiendas, a spo in one o he companies o Capi anes Re o mados, and o he go e nmen bene i s, all o which we e paid o wi h hei accumula ed unpaid sala ies. Du ing he 17 h-cen u y hund eds i no housands o common soldie s used pa o hei back pay o become o ice s. Many who pu chased hei anks, semi- e i ed soon he ea e and se led down in he ci y o Concepcion as dis inguished o ice s, as shown in u u e eques s o bene i s om he King o applica ions o go e nmen employmen . Thei child en also used hei ank and social s a us o ecei e hei own bene i s, hus changing hei li es as well. Consequen ly, o he g ea majo i y o he Spanish soldie s in Chile du ing he 17 h-cen u y, he pu chasing o a mili a y i le had li le o no hing o do wi h he A auco Indian Wa and e e y hing o do wi h secu ing hei place wi h a closed class socie y o he Spanish empi e. By he end o he 17 h-cen u y, unlike wha occu ed in o he on ie ou pos s o he Spanish Empi e, whe e mos soldie s immig a ed back o dis an u ban cen e s upon e i ing, sou he n Chile had a h i ing mili a ized economy wi h hund eds o haciendas, whose 97 S ewa , Daniel M. “Las iñas de Concepción: dis ibución, amaño y come cialización de su p oducción du an e el siglo XVII”, RIVAR, Vol. 2 N° 4, 2015, pages 106-124; Alio o, Sebas ián Leand o. “La ebelión indígena de 1693: desna u alización, iolencia y come cio en la on e a de Chile”, Anua io de Es udios Ame icanos, ol. 71, N° 2, 2014, pages 503-537. Daniel M. S ewa Social ad ancemen : mili a y p omo ions and e i emen wi hin he Spanish a my in Chile (1693-1735) Núme o 47, diciemb e 2021, pp. 373-408 DOI: h ps://dx.doi.o g/10.12795/Temas-Ame icanis as.2021.i47.19 408 ounde s had se ed ac i ely in he Chilean a my. The s eng h o he economic bonds o med wi hin he anks o he a my opened pe manen ade ou es wi h he Mapuche Indians and led o he educ ion o s anding a my om 2000 soldie s in he 17 h-cen u y o 500 by 1750. Fu he mo e, hese inna e social bonds allowed u u e Spanish go e no s o c ea e he on ie owns o Coelemu, Hualqui, Los Angeles, Nacimien o, Qui ihue, Re e, San a Ba ba a, Talcama ida, Tucapel, and Yumbel, du ing he la e hal o he eigh een h cen u y.