"Militarism is a Movement of Retrogression": the Feminist Pacifism of Jane Addams, Mabel St Clair Stobart and Rose Macaulay in World War I

231 Revista Internacional de Culturas y Literaturas, ISSN: 1885-3625 DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.12795/RICL.2020.i23.17 Jaime Francisco Jiménez Fernández Universidad de Sevilla “ “MILITARISM IS A MOVEMENT OF RETROGRESSION”: THE FEMINIST PACIFISM OF JANE ADDAMS, MABEL ST CLAIR STOBART AND ROSE MACAULAY IN WORLD WAR I “EL MILITARISMO ES UN MOVIMIENTO DE RETROGRESIÓN”: EL PACIFISMO FEMINISTA DE JANE ADDAMS, MABEL ST CLAIR STOBART Y ROSE MACAULAY EN LA I GUERRA MUNDIAL Abstract: The telling of the Great War (1914-1918), mainly through the point of view of combatants, is one of the best scenarios exemplifying how women have been obviated and censored throughout history. Moreover, the engagement of pacifist women in the conflict has been doubly belittled due to a misinterpretation of the term ‘pacifism’. Consequently, this paper aims at re-examining the origins and values of pacifism from a western perspective and giving visibility to pacifists Jane Addams, Mabel St Clair Stobart and Rose Macaulay and their efforts during the event. Keywords: World War I, women, pacifism, gender Resumen: El relato de la Gran Guerra (1914-1918), principalmente desde el punto de vista de los combatientes, es uno de los mejores escenarios que ejemplifican cómo las mujeres han sido obviadas y censuradas a lo largo de la historia. Además, la participación de las mujeres pacifistas en el conflicto ha sido doblemente menospreciada debido a una mala interpretación del término “pacifismo”. En consecuencia, este artículo tiene como objetivo reexaminar los orígenes y valores del pacifismo desde una perspectiva occidental y dar visibilidad a las pacifistas Jane Addams, Mabel St Clair Stobart y Rose Macaulay y sus esfuerzos durante el evento. Palabras clave: Primera Guerra Mundial, mujeres, pacifismo, género 232 Revista Internacional de Culturas y Literaturas ISSN: 1885-3625 DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.12795/RICL.2020.i23.17 1. Introduction When facing the experiences of Anglophone pacifist women during the Great War, there are various difficulties that need to be taken into account. The first one is the number of pacifist women. Though not as ample as, for instance, the number of civilians who enlisted in the Voluntary Aid Detachment (known as VADs) or women involved in industrial work, there is still a somewhat large corpus of women to consider. Once this task is carried out, special attention needs to be paid to the ones who have produced any kind of work and to its quality as well as to those who contributed to the pacifist movement through speeches or simply by vindicating the ceasefire. Yet, this already provides a wide margin of authors to research about in future studies. Moreover, sometimes pacifist women’s perspective has not been the same throughout their accounts and works. For instance, authors such as Vera Brittain (1893-1970) or Mabel St Clair Stobart (1862-1954) do not embrace pacifism until they have a firstperson experience of the war and its atrocities. Also, most of this material has not been published yet, therefore it is laborious to access it. For instance, most of women’s letters or diaries concerning pacifism are only held at the archives of the Imperial War Museum in London. Besides, critical support is also somewhat lacking in this field. Though Peace Studies are ample, they tend to focus prominently in what peace is and how it can be achieved: Webel and Galtung (2007), Amster et al. (2015) or Barash and Webel (2016), among others. Within the Great War studies, its centenary and the revisionist context of the period have helped to draw attention to women. Yet, the focus of attention is placed on the different jobs women took for the very first time, the horrors experienced as a VAD or the trauma caused by personal losses, such as Brybon (2013), Asselin (2016), Dumenil (2017) or Wynn and Wynn (2017), to name a few, who are primarily concerned about women’s roles which broke stereotypes and conventions. As pacifism has been wrongly interpreted as passivism, most publications, such as Grayzel and Liggins and Nolan (2019), including the above-mentioned ones, obviate pacifist women and, if mentioned, they are proportionally inferior to the women related to patriotism, conscription, industrial work and so on. The example that best proves this fact is Vera Brittain’s experience of the war: though turning into a fervent pacifist, most scholars, such as Bostridge (2014) and, most importantly, even the film adaptation1 of Brittain’s own Testament of Youth (1933), directed by James Kent and released in 2014, have focused on her war rhetoric of patriotism and heroism, on doing ‘her bit’ as a VAD 1 This is of utmost relevance, as the film adaptation has probably been the biggest exposure of Brittain’s accounts to the general public. Indeed, the leading actress who interpreted the role of Brittain was star Alicia Vikander, whose popularity was at its peak around that time, as she also stared in The Danish Girl (2015), which earned her the Oscar award for Best Supporting Actress. 233 Revista Internacional de Culturas y Literaturas, ISSN: 1885-3625 DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.12795/RICL.2020.i23.17 and the horrors she suffered, while dismissing her pacifist activity which is, indeed, included in her aforementioned memoir2. Thus, the need of a study centered simply on pacifist women3 and their efforts during World War I becomes stronger than ever. 2. Justification As historian Hew Strachan notes, World War I “has become one of the most unassailable divisions in the compartmentalization of the past” (2004: 132) and, therefore, a matter of study for numerous scholars. Following this definition, it is simple to understand why the events that lasted from 1914 until 1918 are also known as The Great War, as it was the first conflict that affected such a large proportion of the globe and this, along with the technological advances of the time, turned it into one of the most lethal events in history. As a consequence, not only has the war to end all wars become the perfect scenario for numerous accounts based on personal and real experiences, but also for the massive production of fictional material dealing with the matter. Yet, only combatants’ perspective of the conflict is the focus of most studies. One may wonder why and how this happened. In the early 20th century, the discourses on femininity were still inserted within the old-fashioned imageries of the Victorian period. This meant that women should conform to the private sphere, where women were to be confined to the privacy and safety of their homes, following the parameters set by the famous poem Angel in the House by Conventry Patmore (1854), where women’s aforementioned attitude and position in society were established. As a consequence, women’s own experience about the conflict used to be of no relevance. However, due to the feminist intervention in the historical and literary canon, women’s experience throughout history has gained visibility and valor. When it comes to the Great War, women’s experiences have been brought to the public eye, in general, by numerous publications and scholarly researches such as those by Susan R. Grayzel (2002), Vivien Newman (2014) or Christine E. Hallet (2016), to name but a few. 2 Brittain’s experience can be divided into two different moments: her experience as a VAD and that as an absolute pacifist. Once the war broke out, Brittain decided to contribute to the effort as a VAD, therefore, she did not only support the women’s movement but she was also an example of a woman breaking from the private sphere and stepping into the public one in a hyper-masculinized context: war. As a matter of fact, Brittain’s engagement in the women’s movement gained recognition, and she became a feminist journalist who tried to reconcile both feminism and pacifism in her works. Nevertheless, and as time passed by, she realized that political contributions seeking for peace, such as the League of Nations, were advocated to fail, as the upcoming events of the 1930s proved. Consequently, she turned her efforts towards the pacifist movement alone and religion and reason became her main motivations. This may be a reason why scholars have tended to focus on one side of her story, as Brittain’s feminist and political contributions may be more attractive to scholars as it breaks with burdens in a more striking way than her absolute pacifist attitude. For more information, see Mellown, M. (1985). 3 This research, as mentioned, is contextually focused on American and British women. Nevertheless, this necessity of visualizing pacifist women may be applied to women of all the belligerent and neutral countries that asked for the ceasefire during WWI. 234 Revista Internacional de Culturas y Literaturas ISSN: 1885-3625 DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.12795/RICL.2020.i23.17 However, there seems to be a spectrum of women whose actions have not, or at least not to the same extent, been acknowledged yet: pacifists. Indeed, pacifist women had to face a greater censorship. On the one hand, as women, they were considered to be inferior and their claims were socially disregarded. On the other hand, as most women supported the war (either in the battlefront or in the home front), pacifist women’s discourse found itself doubly belittled. Moreover, the pacifist movement has usually been wrongly associated with passivity. Consequently, interest in these women was rare, as they were considered to suit within outdated stereotypes. As a result, even feminist have, sometimes, failed to pay the necessary attention to the actions carried out by this specific group that problematized the gender dynamics of the war context. This oblivion in which pacifist women have fallen into within the Great War context is proved when examining the publications regarding both women and WWI and their contents mentioned in the previous section. However, and as it will be discussed below, there is an intersection between pacifism and feminism in the authors’ experience that is worth addressing. Nonetheless, and as this paper aims to prove, pacifism is not passivism, a personality trait that has been traditionally assigned to women. Following this premise, it will be easier to both (de ) construct the motivation of pacifists and their actions within the Great War, as well as giving visibility to both the collective and their efforts. 3. Methodology Following the necessity of achieving the aims previously discussed, the methodology implied in order to do so consists in examining the state quo of the literary canon of the Great War within a very specific context: Britain and the USA, which has already been addressed and referenced in the previous sections. Hence, and despite the fact that gynocriticism and the feminist intervention in the literary canon have provided some light upon a large extent of women’s experiences within a male-associated event (Susan R. Grayzel (2002), Vivien Newman (2014) or Christine E. Hallet (2016)), there is still a minor group which is generally disregarded: pacifists, as previously mentioned. Thus, an analysis of why pacifists’ efforts, especially those of women, have tended to fall into oblivion is necessary, as already proved. This ultimately leads to a review of the etymological roots of the term ‘pacifism’ and the context of the word’s origins. In order to do so, the theories of authors such as Clough (2007), Dosenrode (2008) or Lohmann (2017) will be referred to. By doing so, pacifism will be proved to be detached from the stereotypes of passivity that have been ill-associated to the movement and which has made critics, even feminist ones, to obviate pacifist women’s activity. 235 Revista Internacional de Culturas y Literaturas, ISSN: 1885-3625 DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.12795/RICL.2020.i23.17 Once the aforementioned steps have been completed, the conclusions achieved regarding pacifism and its true active nature will be exemplified by the active contribution of the women, within the specific context of Britain and the United States in the Great War, of the selected corpus: Jane Addams4, Mabel St Clair Stobart and Rose McCauley. For so, their works, respectively, Women at the Hague (1915)5, The Flaming Sword in Serbia and Elsewhere (1916) and Non-Combatants and Others (1916) will be taken into account closely. 4. Pacifism: Context and Revision Many (Cortright (2008), Galtung (2013), or Fox (2014), among others) have tried to provide a definition of what pacifism means, yet, scholars do not seem to agree on what it truly conveys. According to the Oxford English Dictionary, the term pacifism can be defined as a [b]elief in or advocacy of peaceful methods as feasible and desirable alternatives to war; (espousal or advocacy of) a group of doctrines which reject war and every form of violent action as a means of solving disputes, esp. in international affairs. Also: advocacy of a peaceful policy or rejection of war in a particular instance. (OED, n.) Following this definition, it is simple to infer that non-violent responses are expected from those who stand pacifism, especially in political contexts. Yet, there is no mention about the kind of actions pacifists are most likely to perform. Indeed, and historically, these actions have been wrongly associated to passivism, as non-resistance was misunderstood with no-action. However, this statement is far from being true, and a deep research about pacifism’s roots illuminates the blind spots concerning public perception of the movement. The term pacifism was first used around late 19th- early20th centuries. Nonetheless, if attention is paid to the core meaning and etymological roots of pacifism6, Christianity has to be considered. As Friedrich Lohmann remarks, pacifism’s origins are much older ‘than the 20th century as its “first appearance designates people and not a concept 4 It must be noted that, despite the fact that Addams is American, the pacifist movement of the USA was originated in very similar circumstances to the British (and to a larger extent, Europe) one. The different wars that took place during the 19th century, the still present ideals of reason and equality of the Enlightenment, and the revival experienced in the Society of Friends (Quakers) were the reasons of the origins of the pacifist movement at both sides of the Atlantic. For more information regarding the origins of said movement in both countries, see Kennedy, T. (1984) and Cortright, D. (2008). 5 The three works have been accessed through digitalized versions of the original copies. This is stated in the references section. 6 This paper acknowledges that there are other forms of pacifism, including other cultures and religions such as Buddhism or Hinduism. Nevertheless, and due to the scope of this paper, the revision and contextual-dependence of the word ‘pacifism’ is focused on the western civilization, as it is the most immediate context of the corpus’ authors. 236 Revista Internacional de Culturas y Literaturas ISSN: 1885-3625 DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.12795/RICL.2020.i23.17 […] As the New International Version puts it: ‘Blessed are the peacemakers, for they will be called children of God’” (2017: 3). Soren Dosenrode draws upon Childress’s analysis on pacifism, as he points out to two crucial passages in the New Testament: “the words of Jesus in the Sermon on the Mount not to resist one who is evil (Matthew 5:39), and the words of Paul that he who resists the authorities resists what God has appointed and those who will resist will incur judgement (Romans 13:2)” (2008: 29). In consequence, “Christian disciples are called to turn the other cheek, not resist evil” (Clough 2007: 17). Therefore, Childress believes that this Biblical life-style can be coined as “passive resistance” (quoted in Dosenrode 2008: 29), preventing Christians from taking any kind of action if it implies violence or aggression. This is the idea that the popular western imagery as accommodated throughout history about pacifism and pacifists: people who, from a passive standpoint, will do nothing but endure a certain situation even in spite of disagreeing with it. However, this passive understanding of pacifism and those who support it comes, as Dosenrode claims, from “a misinterpretation of Matthew 5:39” (2008: 29). Indeed, according to Dosenrode, if the term ‘resistance’ implies efforts to effect or prevent social and political change, their actions might better be viewed as non-compliance or conscientious objection. Instead of passively obeying rulers, Christians have refused to comply with law, orders, or demands that conflict with God’s will, usually accepting the consequences of non-compliance. (2008: 29) Moreover, according to Bartsch’s (1969) statement, the word pacifism is contracted from Latin words pax (peace) and facere (make), and disciples are called to be ‘peacemakers’ (Matthew 5:9). Therefore, a true Christian understanding of the word is far from signifying passivity, as it implies the willing act of making, it requires action (quoted in Dosenrode 2008: 30). This erratic point of view needs to be highlighted, as, even though pacifism encompasses the act of making peace, pacifists are “often represented and criticized for their passivity, as pure bystanders, just waiting and observing while others are massacred” (Lohmann 2017: 3). As a consequence, pacifist women have found their actions neglected not by virtue of their sex but also because of the ill-interpretation of the cause they supported. This was even more evident throughout the course of World War I, as the stereotypes imposed on women were highly restrictive and their social position very limited. Nevertheless, this new light upon the term pacifism evidences that not only a revision of women’s experience in WWI is required, but also, and especially, a revision of those whose actions were doubly disregarded. 237 Revista Internacional de Culturas y Literaturas, ISSN: 1885-3625 DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.12795/RICL.2020.i23.17 5. The Great War and British and American Pacifism When facing the Great War, patriotism stands as one of the main guiding principles which allowed the war to move forwards. Indeed, Patriotism held that inspirational status during World War I as it enabled governments to make men enlist in hordes, fully equipped with high moral values and heroic ideals that governmental propaganda had instilled in their minds7. Yet, certain citizens, especially women, were able to overcome the burden of patriotism and tried to provide a closer image of what war really was. However, governmental propaganda was so well-designed that even after years into the War, citizens still believed it was a righteous cause. As a result, “in 1916 the majority of writers were still refusing to contemplate what they saw. The existence of the War was taken-for-granted” (Tylee 1990: 107). Moreover, it was not until January 1916 that conscription became compulsory through the Military Service Bill, meaning that, until this moment, England had been able to make men enlist alone on the basis of patriotism for over one year and a half, despite already showing that the war was not a matter of few months as promised at its outbreak. As a consequence, this became the reason why the horrors of the event were not generally questioned, as they were considered to be a mere routine to achieve a higher purpose. Consequently, pacifists were despised in a society which elevated abstract values such as heroism or patriotism, and as Tylee argues, “though it was legal it was never easy to be a conscientious objector or to help one” (1990: 53). This breach between those who supported the War and those who were against it was so intense that “there was felt to be more sympathy between English and German soldiers than between Englishmen at the Front and all other English women and men” (Tylee 1990: 54). This is actually discussed in Virginia Woolf’s radical pacifist essay Three Guineas (1938), where “women’s participation in the war is denounced as a misguided and dangerous acceptance of militarism, brought about by the British woman’s ‘loathing’ for the confinement of the private home: the rush to volunteer for service abroad; ‘that amazing outburst in 1914’, showed that ‘unconsciously [women] desired our splendid war’” (Barrett 1993: 160–1). Basically, most British women sought the war as an opportunity to finally counterbalance themselves to men in a historical event, but a small portion of women, pacifists, considered the war as a way of aligning with bellicose masculine attitudes. Indeed, Woolf points out in Three Guineas that patriotism is the “one reason which prevails in order to bring about [an] overpowering unanimity” (2015: 94), that is, that the vast majority of men “are today in favour of war” (93). Still, she argues that there must be a difference between men’s and women’s notions of 7 This can be proven by the different posters that were created as a means of propaganda during the Great War, such as the ones of Saint George defeating the dragon. In order to have a clearer picture of these pieces of propaganda, visit the webpage of the Imperial War Museum: https://www.iwm.org.uk/ 238 Revista Internacional de Culturas y Literaturas ISSN: 1885-3625 DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.12795/RICL.2020.i23.17 patriotism. As Woolf points out, it is not the same to be “educated men” (94) than being “the daughters of educated men” (100) as “[woman’s] position in the home of freedom has been different from her brother’s” (94). Nevertheless, she is well-aware of the fact that “[s]till some ‘patriotic’ emotion, some ingrained belief in the intellectual superiority of her own country over other countries may [have] remain[ed]” (99), considering this to be the reason why such a large number of women rushed to volunteer to do war-work without hesitating. Taking all this into consideration, it seems obvious that being a pacifist, whatever your motives were, was not an easy task during World War I in Britain . However, it is very interesting to note that the conception of pacifism was not the same in the United States than in the United Kingdom, as the former did enter the war later on (April 6, 1917) and pacifism was a much rooted movement in the country, due to its origins and recent bellicose events, such as the Civil War. This will be proven with the selection of pacifist women chosen, as it contains the experience of both American and British pacifist women. 6. American and British Pacifist Women Having already analyzed the true context and meaning of the term ‘pacifism’ as well as the overall context of the Great War in both Britain and the United States, the focus of attention will be placed on the three different pacifist women that are part of the present corpus: Jane Addams, Mabel St Clair Stobart and Rose Macaulay. Addams has been chosen as she represents the most participative role of women within pacifism, so she can be considered as a role model who needs to be taken into account. On the other hand, Stobart and Macaulay have been chosen because of their active participation in the war effort and, especially, because the actions they performed were hand in hand with their pacifist beliefs. 6.1. Jane Addams Jane Addams (1860-1935) is known as the ‘mother’ of social work. An American pioneer, she is well-known because of her leading role in women’s suffrage and world peace. Addams played a paramount, though somehow disregarded role during WWI, because it did not follow the patriotic trend of the period. Addams was against WWI and criticized American President Woodrow Wilson’s decision of declaring war to Germany. While many “criticized pacifists’ passivity and argued that they had no constructive role to play in advancing Wilson’s ideals of democracy” (Agnew 2017: 6), Addams would recall her deepening sense of “spiritual alienation” (Agnew 2017: 6) as the war progressed. As a matter of fact, Addams describes in her memoir Peace and Bread in Time of 239 Revista Internacional de Culturas y Literaturas, ISSN: 1885-3625 DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.12795/RICL.2020.i23.17 War (1922) how “[s]olitude has always had its demons” (143), making her and other pacifists feel as outsiders, as the majority of people supported Wilson’s call for arms. This led her to feel as if she was trapped in an “unnatural desert into which the pacifist was summarily cast out” (143). As author Agnew recalls, “[f]rom the outset of the war in Europe, Addams acted boldly and contrarily to accusations that pacifists were passive and lacked patriotism. In 1915, she joined the Fellowship of Reconciliation, a new Christian pacifist organization” (2017: 7). Addams’ pacifism is easily distinguished because of her drawing on the language of biology, as she was highly influenced by Darwin: “[s]he offered the image of biological growth proceeding from a differentiated ‘mother cell’ as a metaphor for pacifists’ impetus for social change” (Agnew 2017: 14). Moreover, Addams had a personal interpretation of this mother cell which was related to woman’s innate sensitiveness to human life. Furthermore, Addams was convinced of the sanctity of life, which was a primer in her pacifist beliefs. According to Addams, “[t]housands of people in this United States and Europe had become so convinced that the sanctity of life was an accepted tenet of civilization that they deemed war had become forever impossible” (1915: 65). Nevertheless, and as a consequence of the outbreak of the war, “[t]his belief [was] rudely overturned, and we [were] at the foot of the ladder, beginning again to establish the belief that human life is sacred above all else that the planet contains” (1915: 65). Thus, the sanctity of life is Addam’s former defense of pacifism, which also goes hand in hand with feminism, as Addams links woman’s position and role in society to the pacifist movement. According to Addams, she would never “assert that women are better than men— even in the heat of suffrage debates [she has] never maintained that— but we would all admit that there are things concerning which women are more sensitive than men, and that one of these is the treasuring of life” (1915: 65). All this sensitiveness became clear due to the caring attitude of women towards the young, the elders and people in special needs. Thus, Addams appealed to this metaphor to foster women’s activism against the destruction of war. Indeed, Addams believed that a “state founded upon tribal ideals of patriotism ha[d] no place for women within its councils” (1915: 64). Consequently, Addams argues that “[w]omen have a right to protest against the destruction of that larger ideal of the state […] in which they can play no part” (1915: 64). For that purpose, the presence of women in political and social spheres is required, as they are the ones to stop brutal force through equality. When it comes to the Great War, it must be noted that, for Addams, the bellicose event contradicted her ideals of humanism, community and peace. Having met Leo Tolstoy (1828- 1910) at his Russian farm, Addams spent most of her time thinking about war and peace, which led her to attend to peace conferences and to publish Newer Ideals of Peace (1907), where she provides a positive idea of peace as a dynamic social process. As a consequence, and following her emphasis on the role of women within pacifism, she chaired the Women’s Peace Party and, 246 Revista Internacional de Culturas y Literaturas ISSN: 1885-3625 DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.12795/RICL.2020.i23.17 Amster, R., Finley, L. and Pries, E. Peace Studies between Tradition and Innovation, Cambridge Scholars Publishing, United Kingdom, 2015. Asselin, K. C. Women in World War I, Abdo Publishing, Minnesota, 2016. Barash, D. P. and Webel, C. Peace and Conflict Studies, SAGE, United Sates off America, 2016. Brybon, G. Women Workers in the First World War, Routledge, USA, 2015. Brassard, G. 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