Key Data and Information Requirements in the Context of Current Debates on Water Management - SWAN Project Deliverable: Technical Report, May 2014

Au ho s: M. F. Pi a, B. Ped egal, N. He nández- Mo a, N. Limones, and L. del Mo al (Uni e si y o Se ille) Wi h subs an ial con ibu ions om: S. Nedko , T. T enko a, and K. Boyano a (Bulga ian Academy o Sciences Na ional Ins i u e o Geophysics, Geodesy and Geog aphy-BAS-NIGGG) ?"@A#")*B@"'C=<' "#$!%&'&!&()!*(+,-.&'/,(!0#12/-#.#('3!/(!'4#!5,('#6'!,+! 52--#('!%#7&'#3!,(!8&'#-!9&(&:#.#('! Se en h F amewo k P og am FP7 G an Ag eemen INCO-20011-7.6 Co e pic u e cap ions: Top pic u e: Tajo-Segu a Wa e T ans e (Guadalaja a) Leand o Mo al Bo om pic u e: Via Ri e (Se ille) Clemen e Delgado P ojec Ti le Sus ainable Wa e Ac ion Ne wo k - SWAN G an Ag eemen 294947 Deli e able i le KEY DATA AND INFORMATION REQUIREMENTS IN THE CONTEXT OF CURRENT DEBATES ON WATER MANAGEMENT Deli e able name DEL 3.1, TASK 3.2 Au ho s Ma ía Fe nanda Pi a, Belén Ped egal, Nu ia He nández-Mo a, Na alia Limones y Leand o del Mo al - Uni e si y o Se ille Wi h subs an ial con ibu ions om: S oyan Nedko , Tanya T enko a and K emena Boyano a, Bulga ian Academy o Sciences Na ional Ins i u e o Geophysics, Geodesy and Geog aphy (BAS-NIGGG) Re iewe s F anck Poupeau (CNRS), F ancesc La- Roca (Uni e si y o Valencia) and Hoshin V. Gup a (Uni e si y o A izona) Due da e o deli e able Mon h 24 (Ap il 2014) Ac ual submission da e May, 2014 Dissemina ion le el X PU Public PP Res ic ed o o he p og am pa icipan s (including he Commission Se ices) RE Res ic ed o a g oup speci ied by he conso ium (including he Commission Se ices) CO Con iden ial, only o membe s o he conso ium (including he Commission Se ices) Deli e able s a us e sion con ol Ve sion Da e Au ho s 1.0 Janua y 4 h, 2014 Ma ía Fe nanda Pi a, Belén Ped egal, Nu ia He nández-Mo a, Na alia Limones y Leand o del Mo al - Uni e si y o Se ille 2.0 Feb ua y 2 h, 2014 Ma ía Fe nanda Pi a, Belén Ped egal, Nu ia He nández-Mo a, Na alia Limones y Leand o del Mo al - Uni e si y o Se ille 3.0 Ma ch 6 h, 2014 Ma ía Fe nanda Pi a, Belén Ped egal, Nu ia He nández-Mo a, Na alia Limones y Leand o del Mo al - Uni e si y o Se ille Wi h subs an ial con ibu ions om: S oyan Nedko , Tanya T enko a and K emena Boyano a, Bulga ian Academy o Sciences Na ional Ins i u e o Geophysics, Geodesy and Geog aphy (BAS-NIGGG) Final Ma ch 25 h, 2014 Ma ía Fe nanda Pi a, Belén Ped egal, Nu ia He nández-Mo a, Na alia Limones y Leand o del Mo al - Uni e si y o Se ille Wi h subs an ial con ibu ions om: S oyan Nedko , Tanya T enko a and K emena Boyano a, Bulga ian Academy o Sciences Na ional Ins i u e o Geophysics, Geodesy and Geog aphy (BAS-NIGGG) TABLE OF CONTENTS ! Execu i e summa y!"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""!#! 1.!In oduc ion and backg ound!""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""!$%! 2.!Cu en pa adigms in he managemen o wa e esou ces and hyd ologic isks: Resul ing in o ma ion needs!"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""!$&! 3.!Economic conside a ions in e ol ing wa e managemen deba es!""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""!&'! 4.!New in o ma ion echnologies and wa e esou ces managemen : New oppo uni ies and demands esul ing om hei a ailabili y.!""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""!'(! 5.!Modeling hyd o-social sys ems: e lec ions abou key in o ma ion and da a equi emen s.!""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""!('! 6.!T anspa ency and public pa icipa ion as key componen s o he new wa e go e nance: Resul ing in o ma ion needs.!"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""!()! 7.!Some inal ema ks and ques ions o u he discussion.!"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""!##! 8.!Acknowledgemen s!""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""!#*! 9.!Re e ences!""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""!#)! ! ! ! ! ! EXECUTIVE SUMMARY 5 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY This Deli e able builds on he i e main hemes ha s uc u e he wo k o SWAN p ojec wi h espec o he issues o key da a and in o ma ion equi emen s o wa e managemen : CURRENT PARADIGMS IN THE MANAGEMENT OF WATER RESOURCES AND HYDROLOGIC RISKS Wa e managemen goals, me hodologies, concep ual app oaches and ins i u ional amewo ks ha e e ol ed signi ican ly o e he pas 30 yea s. These ans o ma ions ha e been s imula ed by he p omo ion o he In eg a ed Wa e Resou ces Managemen (IWRM) pa adigm by expe s, academics, manage s and in e na ional ins i u ions. Howe e , he applica ion o IWRM aces esis ance om de endan s o he p e iously domina ing in as uc u al and esou ce-o ien ed hyd aulic pa adigm. I is also challenged by he con adic ions and limi a ions ha eme ge om he p ac ical expe iences in i s implemen a ion a di e en scales. F om a gene al pe spec i e, c i icism agains he hyd aulic pa adigm and he eme gence and consolida ion o IWRM can be unde s ood as being a pa , in he wa e policy a ena, o he his o ical shi om he pos -wa Keynesian egula ion model o he cu en neo-libe al globaliza ion sys em o , in mo e speci ic e ms, om he “adminis a i e a ionalism” s age o he cu en “neo-p i a iza ion” end. Inc easing a en ion is being paid o he po en ial in e connec ions be ween he encou agemen o wa e go e nance, a cen al ocus o he IWRM app oach, wi h wide global socio-economic p ocesses ha challenge exis ing democ a ic ins i u ions. The wide hegemonic economic hough in which IWRM p esc ip ions a e in eg a ed, pa icula ly he commodi ica ion p ocesses and mone a y educ ionism o na u al esou ces and he p eeminence o he i e basin as he na u al scale o wa e esou ces managemen , is also coming unde sc u iny. F om an epis emological pe spec i e, he adi ional sepa a ion o social and na u al sciences has igno ed he o e lap o bo h ields o knowledge, which esul s in he limi ed heo e ical and me hodological de elopmen o hei join analysis, as well as he pauci y o a ailable da a o managemen . The conside a ion o wa e as a socio-ecological pa imony equi es linking biophysical and socioeconomic a iables, a signi ican challenge gi en he cu en knowledge and modeling capabili ies. The e is a s ong need o in o ma ion on he complexi y o socio- hyd ological sys ems, which a e e lexi e, adap i e, non-linea and complex, and ha e eed- EXECUTIVE SUMMARY 6 back loops, eme ging p ope ies and non-p edic able esponses o managemen in e en ions. In he con ex o he e ol ing pa adigm o wa e managemen he ecogni ion hese knowledge limi a ions a e o i al impo ance. ECONOMIC CONSIDERATIONS IN EVOLVING WATER MANAGEMENT DEBATES The pa adigm o IWRM inco po a es wo basic economic p inciples: cos eco e y and he pollu e -pays p inciple. Ne e heless, unde cu en ecosys em-based app oaches o wa e esou ces managemen , he goal has become o p o ec and enhance he se ices p o ided o socie y by he good unc ioning o aqua ic ecosys ems. I would he e o e be app op ia e o subs i u e he e m o pollu e pays o he mo e ambi ious concep o paymen o he de e io a ion o ecological unc ion o wa e ecosys ems o , mo e b oadly, o loss o ecosys em se ices. The pe sis ence o he adi ional hyd aulic pa adigm and s anda d economic pe spec i es limi ou abili y o igo ously and comp ehensi ely calcula e cos s ha a e ou side hei s anda d analy ical and accoun ing amewo ks. Unde s anda d economic p ac ice, en i onmen al conside a ions a e ex e nali ies ou side he sys em, impac s ha esul om he use and consump ion o wa e bu a e no compensa ed h ough he wa e p icing sys em. The main obs acle o o e come his scena io is he di icul y o p ecisely quan i ying o aluing he deg ada ion o complex na u al ecosys ems ha esul om human ac ions. I is di icul o ansla e ha deg ada ion in o eplacemen cos s and de e mine he p ice o pay by hose ha ha e caused i . The di icul y o iden i ying and aluing ecosys em se ices de i es om he di e si y o dimensions ha a e encompassed by he concep (p oduc i e, ecological, cul u al, e c.). Fu he mo e, ecosys em se ices o en esul om in e ela ions be ween di e en ecosys em componen s, hus adding complexi y o any sys ema iza ion and e alua ion a emp . E en he classi ica ion o ecosys em se ices in non-o e lapping ca ego ies is p oblema ic. Many o hese knowledge limi a ions a e o some ex en insu moun able, inhe en o he complexi y o socio- na u al sys ems. Ins i u ional a angemen s a e necessa y o deal wi h hese unce ain ies (in he sense o igno ance) and he need o manage wa e esou ces and associa ed ecosys ems in his unce ain and pa ially unde s ood con ex . I may he e o e be necessa y o shi he emphasis om he quan i ica ion and de e minis ic app oach o alua ing ade-o s and EXECUTIVE SUMMARY 7 managemen al e na i es, owa d a mo e delibe a i e app oach, whe e in e es ed ac o s can join ly discuss alues, p e e ences, isks and al e na i es. NEW INFORMATION TECHNOLOGIES AND WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT The p oli e a ion o in o ma ion and communica ion echnologies (ICT) has caused p o ound changes in he a ailabili y o in o ma ion abou ou plane , in i s s o age and p ocessing capabili ies, i s dis ibu ion and dissemina ion. These p ocesses also pe ain o wa e - ela ed in o ma ion, so ha he a ailabili y o key da a o sus ainable wa e managemen is e ol ing in ela ion wi h he de elopmen o he ICTs. Tha is pa icula ly ele an in a con ex o a g owing social and poli ical suppo o open go e nmen and open da a s anda ds. Howe e , he e emain signi ican challenges o ake ull ad an age o he oppo uni ies o e ed by he ICTs, challenges ha de i e om he ine ias o exis ing models o in o ma ion gene a ion and managemen . In he Eu opean Union he e ha e been se e al ini ia i es ha a emp o ha monize exis ing public in o ma ion sys ems, limi duplici ies and edundancies and imp o e public access o in o ma ion. Howe e , public adminis a ions a e s ill eluc an o accep he public igh o access en i onmen al in o ma ion and, o a la ge ex en , ha e no eo ganized hei in o ma ion managemen p ocedu es and sys ems in o de o acili a e knowledge gene a ion and in o ma ion in eg a ion. The pending issue o wa e policy in he ield o in o ma ion is o ensu e ha in o ma ion gi es ise o knowledge uly use ul o pa icipa o y planning and managemen . This implies he need o acili a e he condi ions in which knowledge is p oduced h ough collabo a i e me hods and is dissemina ed and sha ed in an open, ee and easy way, in acco dance wi h he cha ac e is ics and po en iali ies o he new ne wo ked socie y. The collabo a i e gene a ion o in o ma ion has, su ely, ins i u ional implica ions conce ning changes in he geome ies o powe , ha is, po en ial changes in he iden i y o he agen s ha con ol in o ma ion and, as a esul , he decision-making p ocesses. MODELING HYDRO-SOCIAL SYSTEMS: REFLECTIONS ABOUT KEY INFORMATION AND DATA REQUIREMENTS Adap ing wa e managemen o cu en challenges equi es aking sys emic app oach o wa e esou ces, o e coming he simple, educ ionis and s a ic pe spec i es ha s ill pe sis . The de elopmen and use o dynamic modeling echniques o de elop hyd o-social models can help EXECUTIVE SUMMARY 8 us mo e in he igh di ec ion. Building dynamic models is a labo ious p ocess since i equi es going beyond he equi emen s o adi ional hyd ologic model building. Dynamic models inco po a e he iews and pe spec i es o manage s, decision make s and s akeholde s in he cha ac e iza ion and diagnos ic phases, as well as in he de ini ion o objec i es and managemen al e na i es. This app oach enables he combina ion o he analys ’s echnical expe ise wi h he ange o incommensu able pe spec i es ha a ec socio-ecological sys ems. The combina ion wi hin he same model o na u al and social pa ame e s— he essence o hyd o-social models—, implies such le el o complexi y ha he models can only hope o ep esen speci ic geog aphic and hyd o-social eali ies. I equi es a new ins i u ional and echnical amewo k o o e come cu en limi a ions o he in ol emen o he public and s akeholde s in he de ini ion o wa e managemen al e na i es. The lack o good quali y in o ma ion is he mos signi ican limi ing ac o o a success ul modeling exe cise o complex hyd o-social eali ies. Scale aspec s o knowledge bases a e also impo an , pa icula ly in o de o be e unde s and how o consolida e in o ma ion ga he ed a di e en spa ial le els. B idging scales enables be e in eg a ion o local knowledge in o global models and da a se s, ha is, in eg a ion o scien i ic and indigenous knowledge, which may s eng hen he accu acy and con ibu e o i s ansla ion in o e ec i e policy s a egies add essing global en i onmen al changes. TRANSPARENCY AND PUBLIC PARTICIPATION AS KEY COMPONENTS OF THE NEW WATER GOVERNANCE T adi ional anspa ency and public pa icipa ion e o s ha e ocused on he need o dissemina e in o ma ion o he public a he han on collabo a i e gene a ion o in o ma ion o wa e planning and managemen . This has been he dominan a ional comp ehensi e planning app oach, whe e public pa icipa ion is no inhe en o he planning p ocess, bu a he ins umen al o imp o e knowledge in he diagnos ic phase. The emphasis on public pa icipa ion mechanisms o legi imize public policy decision-making p ocesses ound i s heo e ical g ounding in he delibe a i e democ acy heo e ical amewo k. Howe e , a e mo e han wo decades o gene al accep ance and widesp ead implemen a ion o his app oach, he e is a g owing body o wo k ha is c i ically ques ioning he limi s o he pa icipa o y go e nance pe spec i e o na u al esou ces managemen and i s ue impac on 2. CURRENT PARADIGMS IN THE MANAGEMENT OF WATER RESOURCES AND HYDROLOGIC RISKS: RESULTING INFORMATION NEEDS 15 implemen a ion. In i s 2011 policy s a emen , he Ame ican Wa e Resou ces Associa ion (AWRA) ecognized hese limi a ions by s a ing ha : "IWRM su e s om a lack o clea de ini ion, he lack o s anda d measu es o ack he success o IWRM plans and p ojec s, and he absence o guidance o hose in ol ed in planning and p ojec de elopmen ". F om an applied pe spec i e, o ins ance, Gio dano and Shah (2013) discuss se e al examples in Asia and A ica whe e in e na ional lending ins i u ions pushed o he app o al o wa e policies aligned wi h IWRM, wi h mixed esul s. F om a mo e heo e ical s andpoin , Molle (2009) is c i ical wi h he s a us o "ni ana" concep o he IWRM p esc ip ions, while Pahl-Wos l e al. (2011 and 2012) ques ion he possibili y o exis ing "panaceas" and a gue ha wa e managemen equi es a u he e olu ion along di e en axis: • F om cen al con ol o poly-cen ic go e nance, whe e he de ini ion o he p oblems, he al e na i es and he solu ions a e he esul o a coope a i e p ocess be ween di e en ac o s and managemen cen e s; • F om p esc ip i e solu ions o adap i e managemen app oaches ha acili a e lea ning and adap a ion o a changing eali y and o e ol ing unde s andings o he p oblem; • F om sepa a e app oaches o disc e e en i onmen al p oblems owa d an in eg a ed app oach ha anscends disciplines, geog aphical and p o essional bounda ies, and a eas o expe ise. Some ad anced o mula ions o IWRM, as he Eu opean Wa e F amewo k Di ec i e (Di ec i e 2000/60/EC), ad oca e o he inco po a ion o a wide ange o a eas o expe ise and opinions h ough he en i e decision-making p ocess: om p oblem iden i ica ion and de elopmen o al e na i es, o he implemen a ion o solu ions (WFD, 1s conside a ion). Howe e , om a c i ical pe spec i e inc easing a en ion is paid o he po en ial in e connec ion be ween he encou agemen o wa e go e nance app oaches wi h wide global socio-economic p ocesses ha ques ion cu en democ a ic ins i u ions and de ol e powe owa d highe (EU, WTO, IMF, e c.) o lowe ins i u ional le els (NGOs, municipali ies, e c.) (Heynen e al., 2007, Swyngendow, 2011). The p eeminence o he i e basin as he na u al scale o wa e esou ces managemen (Mos e e al., 2008), a cen al ocus o he IWRM app oach, is also coming unde sc u iny. In he con ex o he complexi y o socio-hyd ological sys ems, he deba e abou spa ial i o he 2. CURRENT PARADIGMS IN THE MANAGEMENT OF WATER RESOURCES AND HYDROLOGIC RISKS: RESULTING INFORMATION NEEDS 16 de ini ion o adequa e physical and ins i u ional bounda ies becomes pa icula ly ele an . The delimi a ion o managemen bounda ies exclusi ely in physical e ms does no su icien ly ecognize he exis ence o he mul iple geog aphies—poli ical, socioeconomic, cul u al—o socio-ecological sys ems ( an Mee kee e al., 2013). C i ics acknowledge he undeniable and signi ican physiog aphic cha ac e is ics o he wa e shed, bu also a gue ha he e is no na u al hyd ologic scale ha canno be echnically challenged. Au ho s such as Budds & Hinojosa (2012); Cohen & Da idson (2011); Del Mo al & D'O (2014); Molle (2009), o Moss (2012), poin o he di e si y, ambigui y and lack o commonali y o he di e en phenomenon ha a e used o de ine he wa e shed: mic o and mac o-wa e sheds o i e basins, sub- basins, adminis a i e bounda ies, o e lapping su ace and g oundwa e bounda ies, e c. Addi ionally, hei lack o coincidence wi h exis ing ins i u ional and socio-cul u al bounda ies, u he complica e he adi ional challenges o ope a ional coo dina ion wi h key sec o al policies such as ag icul u e, en i onmen al and na u al esou ces policy, o egional and u ban land use planning, o name jus a ew. . In his con ex , new and complemen a y managemen app oaches a e being p oposed ha aim o ein o ce exis ing managemen p esc ip ions and mo e explici ly inco po a e he concep s o hyb idi y be ween he social and he na u al (wa e scapes), complexi y and unce ain y ha unde lie he new wa e managemen pa adigm. Socio-ecosys em based managemen , polycen ic go e nance (Os om, 2010), eco-adap i e managemen (Hui ema e al., 2009), o he eme ging concep o wa e secu i y (Cook and Bakke , 2012; S addon and James, 2012; Ma inez Co ina e al., 2010) a e only some o he new o e ised concep s ha a e gaining ac ion. The eme gence o he wa e secu i y concep In he con ex o hese deba es, i is una oidable o make a speci ic e e ence o he no ion o wa e secu i y. As Cook and Bakke (2012) poin ou , o e he las decade he wa e secu i y concep has eme ged om i s o iginal niche in s udies o in e na ional secu i y and hyd opoli ics o become much mo e widely used. To some ex en i seems e en o be supplan ing he hegemonic posi ion hi he o occupied by he “sus ainable wa e ” concep (S addon and James, 2012). Acco ding o UNESCO (2008), “Wa e secu i y in ol es p o ec ion o ulne able wa e sys ems, p o ec ion agains wa e ela ed haza ds such as loods and d ough s, sus ainable de elopmen o wa e esou ces and sa egua ding access o 2. CURRENT PARADIGMS IN THE MANAGEMENT OF WATER RESOURCES AND HYDROLOGIC RISKS: RESULTING INFORMATION NEEDS 17 wa e unc ions and se ices.” The abo e de ini ion subsumes key ideas o he “sus ainable wa e managemen ” pa adigm as cons i u i e de ini ional elemen s whils also impo ing he ideas o ecosys em unc ions and se ices, he isk o clima e- ela ed hyd ological haza ds, and wa e as an objec o geopoli ical secu i y discou se. The idea o wa e secu i y assumes ha people's undamen al in e es s a e in sa is ying demands o wa e - ela ed se ices such as ood, ibe , was e disposal and sani a ion. Thus, socie y's ocus is no on he use o wa e pe se bu on he se ices and bene i s p o ided pe uni o wa e used (Ma ínez Co ina e al., 2011). S addon and James (2012) poin ou ha he g adual shi om ‘sus ainabili y’ o ‘secu i y’ implies con inuing a cou se o ac ion unde s ood o be wo king (i.e. owa ds sus ainable wa e use), bu also inco po a ing a ecogni ion o a widening and deepening u gency. Wa e secu i y is coun e posed o he implied (and undesi able) ou come o wa e insecu i y: a s a e o un eliable supplies o wa e o accep able quali y. Wa e secu i y is cen ally conce ned wi h he po en ial isks bo h in e ms o igh s o wa e and h ea s ha exis om ex e nal ac o s (which may be human o non-human) o e wa e . While he sus ainabili y discou se ecognizes he possibili y o “ unning ou ”, i ne e heless ends o cons i u e i sel in e ms o he achie emen o an ecological balance. The secu i y discou se, by con as , is based mo e on h ea s han oppo uni ies and he e o e ends o de ine he policy op ions nega i ely; policies ha will p e en sub-op imal ou comes as much as hose ha will b oke op imal ones. Mo e han a decade ago Ul ich Beck, al hough om ano he pe spec i e, had en isioned he gene al con ex in which wa e secu i y can be amed. De eloping his no ion o global isk socie y long be o e he c edi c unch o 2008 and he aus e i y agendas ha ha e ollowed, he s a ed ha “collec i e li e pa e ns, p og ess and con ol capaci y, ull employmen and exploi a ion o na u e ypical o he i s mode ni y, ha e been unde mined by i e in e ela ed p ocesses: globaliza ion, indi idualiza ion, gende e olu ion, unde employmen and global isks (such as he ecological c isis and he collapse o global inancial ma ke s). The eal poli ical and heo e ical challenge o he second mode ni y is he ac ha socie y mus simul aneously mee all hese challenges" (Beck, 2002 (1999): 2). 2. CURRENT PARADIGMS IN THE MANAGEMENT OF WATER RESOURCES AND HYDROLOGIC RISKS: RESULTING INFORMATION NEEDS 18 Wha a e he new in o ma ion equi emen s in he e ol ing wa e managemen pa adigm T adi ional wa e managemen ocused on he p ocu emen o new wa e esou ces o mee demand. Da a equi emen s we e he e o e limi ed and ocused p ima ily on quan i a i e es ima es o a ailable esou ces and consump ion, as well as chemical wa e quali y pa ame e s inso a as chemical pollu ion may a ec exis ing uses. Fu he mo e, economic in o ma ion was limi ed o basic budge a y es ima ions o planned in es men s since cos eco e y, when i exis ed, was limi ed o ai ly na owly de ined wa e use le ies and ees. The inc easingly domina ing wa e managemen pa adigm ecognizes he complex and mul i ace ed na u e o wa e and he e o e has addi ional in o ma ion equi emen s ha can be summa ized as ollows: • En i onmen al in o ma ion and, mo e speci ically, in o ma ion on biological as well as chemical quali y o wa e esou ces and associa ed aqua ic ecosys ems, in o de o espond o new ecosys em-based managemen goals. • Socioeconomic in o ma ion, which becomes essen ial in he ansi ion om a echnoc a ic managemen app oach wi h cen alized and hie a chical decision making p ocesses, whe e social ac o s a e ecipien s o managemen decisions, owa d mo e pa icipa i e decision p ocesses, a pa o a new managemen cul u e ha inco po a es ins i u ional lea ning and adap a ion. • Economic in o ma ion on he cos s o wa e se ices and associa ed p ices, bu accoun ing o he mul i unc ional cha ac e is ics o wa e om which mul iple ecosys em se ices de i e. Tha is, he economic in o ma ion mus ake in o accoun no only he inancial cos s o se ice p o ision, bu also he ecosys emic implica ions o hese se ices and he associa ed cos s (en i onmen al and esou ce cos s, in he language o he WFD). • De elopmen o syn he ic and sus ainabili y indica o s: he weal h o da a a ailable makes i necessa y o de elop indica o s ha p esen his in o ma ion in a manne ha is concise, ag eed upon and easily unde s ood, in o de o acili a e con inuous moni o ing and e alua ion o hese complex socio-ecological sys ems. Howe e , as Ga nåsjo de e . al (2012) poin ou , hese indica o s comp ise no only a selec ion o ac s in some echnical 2. CURRENT PARADIGMS IN THE MANAGEMENT OF WATER RESOURCES AND HYDROLOGIC RISKS: RESULTING INFORMATION NEEDS 19 sense. The choices in ol ed in he de elopmen o he indica o s a e subjec i e and espond o unde lying "na a i es" ha a e condi ioned by socie al in e es s and implici alues embedded in he da a-gene a ing p ocesses. The e o e, he de elopmen o he da a and assessmen s needs o be delibe a ed in a poli ical p ocess eaching ag eemen s o poli ical ac ion In he con ex o he new equi emen s, wha a e he main de iciencies o cu en ly a ailable in o ma ion o wa e esou ces managemen ? The p ima y limi a ions o cu en ly a ailable da a and in o ma ion a e hose ha de i e om he need o o e come he na u e-socie y dualism ha s ill is a he co e o he hyd aulic managemen pa adigm. The e is a s ong need o in o ma ion on he complexi y o socio- hyd ological sys ems, which a e e lexi e, adap i e, non-linea and complex, and ha e eed- back loops, eme ging p ope ies and non-p edic able esponses o managemen in e en ions. The conside a ion o wa e as a socio-ecological pa imony equi es linking biophysical and socioeconomic a iables, a signi ican challenge gi en cu en knowledge and modeling capabili ies. The adi ional sepa a ion o social and na u al sciences has igno ed he o e lap o bo h ields o knowledge, which esul s in he limi ed heo e ical and me hodological de elopmen o hei join analysis, as well as he pauci y o a ailable da a o managemen . The e a e signi ican gaps in knowledge in wha e e s o he e icacy o he measu es implemen ed o imp o e he heal h o aqua ic ecosys ems. Cu en esea ch in in eg a i e analysis and in e -disciplina y modeling is p oducing inc easingly obus in o ma ion and knowledge, bu he di e si y and complexi y o na u al ecosys ems impose signi ican es ic ions on he ans e abili y o he esul s om one spa ially de ined case o ano he . These limi a ions in he unde s anding o he unc ioning o biophysical sys ems and hei esponses o managemen in e en ions also apply o he social dimension o socio-hyd ological sys ems. As a esul , a emp s o p ecisely alue he componen s o hese sys ems, hei unc ioning and in e ela ions do no seem easible. In o ma ion and da a need o be p esen ed in a anspa en manne , speci ying hei o igin and he limi a ions and unce ain ies hey necessa ily inco po a e. 2. CURRENT PARADIGMS IN THE MANAGEMENT OF WATER RESOURCES AND HYDROLOGIC RISKS: RESULTING INFORMATION NEEDS 20 Ne e heless, scien is s wo k on he de elopmen o models ha a ge hose gaps. Examples a e he so called s ess- esponse models, which a e used o he de elopmen o indica o s o analysis o human-en i onmen al sys ems. Acco ding o Regions o Sus ainable Change (RSC) pa ne ship’s Low-Ca bon Indica o s Toolki , hey a e ou 1: • P essu e – S a e – Response (PSR) model, de eloped by he Canadian scien is An hony F ied in he 1970s and adop ed by O ganiza ion o Economic Co-ope a ion and De elopmen ’s (OECD) S a e o he En i onmen (SOE) g oup2. • D i ing o ce – S a e - Response (DSR) model is a a ia ion o he PSR model, adop ed by he Uni ed Na ions Commission on Sus ainable De elopmen (UNCSD) 3 • D i ing o ce – P essu es – S a e – Impac - Response (DPSIR) model, used by Eu opean En i onmen Agency4,5, Eu os a and Eu opean ins i u ions. • F amewo k o he De elopmen o En i onmen S a is ics (FDES) which was de eloped in 1984 and endo sed in 1995 and de eloped in 2013 by he UN S a is ical Commission6. Acco ding o Bu kha d and Mülle (2008), he PSR model p o ides a good basis o he analyses o en i onmen al issues and he DSR model is mo e ocused on he human demand and ac i i ies ha a ec he en i onmen . Fo o e all analyses and desc ip ion o he componen s and in e ela ions in he human-en i onmen al sys ems, he DPSIR model is conside ed o be he mos applicable and inds he b oades ecogni ion. The pu pose o he model is o iden i y and desc ibe he p ocesses and in e ac ions wi hin he human- en i onmen al sys ems in a manne ha emphasizes he in ini e cause-e ec chain o ela ionships in pas , u u e and ecen de elopmen s (Bu kha d and Mülle , 2008) (see Figu e 1).The Uni ed S a es En i onmen al P o ec ion Agency (EPA) p o ides “Tu o ials on Sys ems Thinking using he DPSIR F amewo k”7 ha includes also examples o he applica ion o he model o di e en issues, including wa e managemen and i e basin managemen . !"#$$%&''((()*+,%*-./,$)-*0'1231,4$-*+'123/5)%#%6%40/7(#4$89/$#-3-:-01/+8,428;/8<+/38$-83/=/:-%81231,4$-*8+8-*8 1231,4$-*8+/$" >"#$$%&''((()?4-)-*0'40'40412?-'%*-0*499/+'/2':/43'$--:;-5'@/?/*'03AB!CA)%3?" B"#$$%&''((()<2)-*0'/+4'+<+$3/=',+3',+3AD1231D;%B)%3?" E"#$$%&''14>3/,)/()//4)/<*-%4)/<'F2-(:/30/D;4+/'G*49/(-*F+'3-,!H!!I>" J"#$$%&''((()//4)/<*-%4)/<'%<;:1,4$1-2+'KLM>J" N"#$$%&''<2+$4$+)<2)-*0'<2+3'/2=1*-29/2$'?3/+)#$9" C"#$$%&''((()/%4)0-='0/3'$<$-*14:'123/5)#$9" 2. CURRENT PARADIGMS IN THE MANAGEMENT OF WATER RESOURCES AND HYDROLOGIC RISKS: RESULTING INFORMATION NEEDS 21 How can we manage he unce ain y associa ed wi h ou unde s anding o socio- na u al p ocesses and i s in luence on esou ce a ailabili y and hyd ological isks? The concep o unce ain y can be unde s ood unde h ee di e en pe spec i es (Wynne, 1992): • Technical (o con en ional) unce ain y which e e s o he una ailabili y o da a and, mo e gene ally, in o ma ion and knowledge. In his case he p oblem is ela ed o he lack o eliabili y o ho oughness o he his o ical da a, a equen si ua ion in hyd ology. In o de o o e come his p oblem scien is s de elop models, hus simpli ying complexi y. Some o he unce ain ies ela ed o he hyd ological in e se me hods (hyd ological modeling) a e hose associa ed wi h: (1) model pa ame e es ima es and (2) model pa ame e esolu ion (see Vasco e al., 1997) o , mo e impo an ly, (3) model s uc u al unce ain y (comple eness/adequacy) (Gup a and Nea ing, 2014; Gup a e al., 2012, and Gup a e al., 2008). Figu e 1. DPSIR-based model o human-en i onmen al sys ems (Sou ce: Bu kha d and Müle , 2008) 2. CURRENT PARADIGMS IN THE MANAGEMENT OF WATER RESOURCES AND HYDROLOGIC RISKS: RESULTING INFORMATION NEEDS 22 • Unce ain y in e ms o inde e mina ion. In hese si ua ions he sys em pa ame e s and hei in e ela ionships a e unknown, since hey a e so complex, and consequen ly he model esul s become comple ely un eliable. • Unce ain y in e ms o igno ance, which occu s when 'we igno e wha we do no know'. In he con ex o he e ol ing pa adigm o wa e managemen hese knowledge limi a ions a e o i al impo ance: we ecognize ha unce ain y is ine i able when dealing wi h socio- ecological sys ems. We mus he e o e s i e o unde s and i s ele ance in he sys em we a e s udying and, o he ex en possible, iden i y he po en ial luc ua ions and hei epe cussions on he es o he sys em being modeled. The need o adequa ely manage unce ain y in complex sys ems is he mos ele an ac o , in an epis emological sense, which demands mul i- disciplina y app oaches and he pa icipa ion o a di e si y o ac o s and in e es s in decision- making p ocesses. 3. ECONOMIC CONSIDERATIONS IN EVOLVING WATER MANAGEMENT DEBATES 23 3. ECONOMIC CONSIDERATIONS IN EVOLVING WATER MANAGEMENT DEBATES The pa adigm o IWRM inco po a es wo basic economic p inciples: cos eco e y and he pollu e -pays p inciple. Howe e , unde cu en ecosys em-based app oaches o wa e esou ces managemen , he goal is no longe only o a ain good chemical quali y. Ra he he goal is o p ese e and es o e adequa e ecosys em o m and unc ion o , unde Wa e F amewo k Di ec i e (WFD) e minology, good s a us (chemical and ecological o su ace wa e s, and chemical and quan i a i e o g oundwa e ). In b oade e ms, he goal has become o p o ec and enhance he se ices p o ided o socie y by he good unc ioning o aqua ic ecosys ems, ha is, o use an ecosys em app oach (Wallis e al., 2011; SCBD, 2004) o esou ce managemen . I would he e o e be app op ia e o subs i u e he e m o pollu e pays o he mo e ambi ious concep o paymen o he de e io a ion o ecological unc ion o wa e ecosys ems o , mo e b oadly, o loss o ecosys em se ices. The WFD, pe haps he mos ambi ious legal ini ia i e o inco po a e economic conside a ions in o wa e managemen p ac ice, uses his b oade app oach and es ablishes ha he cos o wa e se ices should inco po a e bo h en i onmen al and esou ce cos s, in addi ion o he inancial cos s associa ed wi h he p o ision o hese se ices, and equi es adap ing he wa e p icing sys em acco dingly (A . 9, WFD). I also equi es ha he P og am o Measu es ha is adop ed in each Ri e Basin Managemen Plan o achie e good s a us objec i es (A . 11, WFD) is designed so ha he combina ion o measu es selec ed is he mos cos -e ec i e in ela ion o he es ablished goals (Annex IIIb o WFD and Eu opean Commission, 2003). Howe e , he p ac ical implemen a ion o hese equi emen s has been challenging, in spi e o conce ed e o s on he pa o he Commission o es ablish common guidelines (see o ins ance Eu opean Commission, 2003), and he epo s om he DG Eco 2 Wo king G oup)8. The e alua ion o he expe ience o he i s hyd og aphic dis ic s' planning cycle (2009-2015) shows ha signi ican amoun o wo k s ill needs o be done o adequa ely de ine en i onmen al and esou ce cos s and es ablish ag eed upon me hodologies o hei calcula ion (Eu opean Commission, 2012). F om he pe spec i e o he economic assessmen o wa e policy 8 Eu opean D a ing G oup (DG Eco 2) was se up in Sep embe 2003 unde he Common Implemen a ion S a egy (CIS) Wo king G oup ‘In eg a ed Ri e Basin Managemen ’ (WG 2B).1 WG 2B asked he DG Eco 2 o p epa e a non-binding in o ma ion shee on he de ini ion and assessmen o en i onmen al and esou ce cos s in he con ex o he implemen a ion o he WFD and o p esen p ac ical examples o he calcula ion o ERC om he Membe S a es (Gö lach and In e wies, 2004). 3. ECONOMIC CONSIDERATIONS IN EVOLVING WATER MANAGEMENT DEBATES 24 measu es, mo e wo k is also necessa y o de elop a common me hodological app oach o he calcula ion o cos -e ec i eness o he measu es (T emole Consul ing, 2006; Be bel e al. 2011). Di e en easons can help explain hese challenges. Acco ding o Na edo (2013 and 2006), hey esul om a educ ionis app oach o wa e managemen : on one hand he con inuing dominance o he hyd aulic pa adigm ha ea s wa e exclusi ely as a p oduc i e (economic) esou ce and, on he o he , a s anda d economic app oach o cos eco e y ha conside s wa e as an inpu o economic ac i i ies and he e o e alued exclusi ely in mone a y e ms. These limi ed pe spec i es ail o accoun o he complex eali y o wa e and i s associa ed ecosys ems, pa icula ly since many o he social bene i s o ecosys em se ices p o ided by well- unc ioning aqua ic ecosys ems, a e no exchanged in he ma ke place and he e o e canno be alued in mone a y e ms. La Roca (2013 and 2011) also poin s ou ha , in addi ion o clea me hodological challenges o es ima e inancial and en i onmen al cos s o wa e se ices, he e has been a signi ican esis ance o inco po a e economic c i e ia in o wa e esou ces managemen om adi ional wa e use s ha ha e s i ed o main ain hei his o ic p i ileges, ob aining p i a e bene i s om he use o cheap wa e esou ces while ex e nalizing he cos s o impac s o his use. The pe sis ence o he adi ional hyd aulic pa adigm and s anda d economic pe spec i es he e o e limi ou abili y o igo ously and comp ehensi ely calcula e cos s ha a e ou side hei s anda d analy ical and accoun ing amewo ks. Di e en app oaches a e being p oposed o o e come hese limi a ions. O e he pas ew yea s he e has been an inc easing amoun o academic and p ac ical wo k de eloped ha ad oca es he use o an ecosys em app oach o inco po a e he wide ange o se ices and bene i s p o ided by aqua ic ecosys ems (Wallis e al., 2011; Vlachopoulou e al. 2013; Sp ay and Blacks ock, 2013) while a he same ime wa ning o he po en ial isks in ol ed in using his app oach oo na owly (La Roca, 2013). Na edo (2013) p oposes a b oade eco-in eg a i e app oach o adequa ely accoun o he complex, mul i ace ed na u e o wa e esou ces and he cos s associa ed wi h i s use. 3. ECONOMIC CONSIDERATIONS IN EVOLVING WATER MANAGEMENT DEBATES 31 Se ices (IPBES)13. The e a e also a signi ican numbe o ini ia i es a he Eu opean and global le el. USA ini ia i es in he a ea o ecosys em se ices include: he ecosys em se ice esea ch cen e o he Uni ed S a es En i onmen al P o ec ion Agency (EPA)14 which includes En i oA las15, a web-based ool ha combines maps, g aphs, analysis ools, and in e p e i e in o ma ion o he Uni ed S a es; he Na ional Ecosys em Se ices Pa ne ship (NESP)16; he Uni ed S a es Depa men o Ag icul u e (USDA) Fo es Se ice ini ia i e “Valuing Ecosys em Se ices”17; and he Global Obse a o y o Ecosys em Se ices (GOES)18. The classi ica ion ypologies o ecosys em se ices also e ol e h ough ime ( o a e iew see Haines-Young and Po schin, 2009). The s a e o he a o he di e en ca ego ies excludes Suppo ing se ices om he lis . A p ojec unde aken by he Eu opean En i onmen al Agency (EEA) de eloped a Common In e na ional Classi ica ion o Ecosys em Se ices (CICES). The classi ica ion and he epo can be ound on he websi e: h p://cices.eu/ The concep o ecosys em se ices inds b oad acknowledgemen in he Eu opean Union legisla ion, o ins ance in he EU Biodi e si y S a egy o 202019, he En i onmen Ac ion P og amme o 202020, o he Bluep in o Sa egua d Eu ope's Wa e s21. The di icul y o iden i ying and aluing ecosys em se ices de i es om he di e si y o dimensions ha a e encompassed by he concep (p oduc i e, ecological, cul u al, e c.). Fu he mo e, ecosys em se ices o en esul om in e ela ions be ween di e en ecosys em componen s, hus adding complexi y o any sys ema iza ion and e alua ion a emp . E en he classi ica ion o ecosys em se ices in non-o e lapping ca ego ies is p oblema ic. Howe e , a s ic pa i ion o he se o ecosys ems se ices, in exhaus i e and mu ually exclusi e classes, is a necessa y condi ion whe e e an a i hme ic app oach is en isaged ( o ins ance o a oiding double accoun s) (La Roca, 2014, pe sonal communica ion). In e ms o cos s, Na edo (2013) highligh s he di icul y o aluing en i onmen al ac o s ha a e no di ec ly associa ed wi h he quan i y o quali y (physical and chemical po en ials) o wa e as 13 h p://www.ipbes.ne / 14 h p://www.epa.go / esea ch/ecoscience/eco-se ices.h m 15 h p://en i oa las.epa.go /en i oa las/index.h ml 16 h p://nicholasins i u e.duke.edu/ini ia i es/na ional-ecosys em-se ices-pa ne ship#.UuEyouXZCc_ 17 h p://www. s. ed.us/ecosys emse ices/index.sh ml 18 h p://www.goes.msu.edu/index.c m 19 h p://ec.eu opa.eu/en i onmen /na u e/biodi e si y/comm2006/2020.h m 20 h p://ec.eu opa.eu/en i onmen /newp g/ 21 h p://ec.eu opa.eu/en i onmen /wa e /bluep in /pd /COM-2012-673 inal_EN_ACT-co .pd 3. ECONOMIC CONSIDERATIONS IN EVOLVING WATER MANAGEMENT DEBATES 32 a esou ce, ha is, ac o s ha suppo li e o p o ide ecosys em se ices. The me hodology he p oposes o aluing he en i onmen al cos s o wa e se ices can be empo ally and spa ially adap ed, bu he calcula ion o he ecosys em cos s canno be adap ed o such p ecise app oaches. Impac s on wa e ela ed ecosys ems ha e g ea e i e e sibili ies han he balance o he hyd ologic cycle, hus complica ing he es ima ion o eplacemen cos s. The g ea es challenge de i es om he ansi ion om ine ma e ials (wa e ) o he li ing wo ld (wa e - dependan ecosys ems), which also esponds o physical and chemical laws, bu canno be explained exclusi ely h ough hem. The in e ela ionships be ween li ing o ganisms, human socie y and he geog aphical spaces whe e hey occu can be exp essed in e ms o he p o ision o ecep ion o ecosys em se ices. The complexi y and mul iple ami ica ions o hese in e ela ions make hei sys ema ic e alua ion di icul . The a emp is u he complica ed by he di icul y o seg ega ing he aqua ic componen o en i onmen al cos s om o he cos s o conse ing and es o ing o ganisms, ecosys ems and landscapes wi hin he geog aphical space being analyzed, since hey a e closely in e wined. P og ess he e o e needs o be made in he unde s anding o socio- ecological sys ems and he e ec s o hese in e ela ionships. Many o he knowledge limi a ions discussed in his sec ion a e o some ex en insu moun able, inhe en o he complexi y o socio-na u al sys ems. Ins i u ional a angemen s a e necessa y o deal wi h hese unce ain ies (in he sense o igno ance) and he need o manage wa e esou ces and associa ed ecosys ems in his unce ain and pa ially unde s ood con ex . I may he e o e be necessa y o shi he emphasis om he quan i ica ion and de e minis ic app oach o alua ing ade-o s and managemen al e na i es, owa d a mo e delibe a i e app oach, whe e in e es ed ac o s can join ly discuss alues, p e e ences, isks and al e na i e ou comes (La Roca, 2013). In his sense he dynamic modeling app oach discussed below can be seen as a s ep in his di ec ion. In spi e o he limi a ions discussed in his sec ion, he e a e ini ia i es ha a e a emp ing o p o ide guidelines o aluing ecosys em se ices, such as he Economics o Ecosys ems and Biodi e si y (TEEB)22. Based on i s wo k, he EC issued he epo “A syn hesis o app oaches o assess and alue ecosys em se ices in he EU in he con ex o TEEB”23. This epo , 22 h p://www. eebweb.o g/ 23 h p://ec.eu opa.eu/en i onmen /na u e/biodi e si y/economics/pd /EU%20Valua ion.pd 3. ECONOMIC CONSIDERATIONS IN EVOLVING WATER MANAGEMENT DEBATES 33 oge he wi h he Mapping and Assessmen o Ecosys ems and hei Se ices in Eu ope (MAES)24 discussion pape , a e key documen s aiming o suppo EU Membe S a es in add essing one o he main ac ions o he EU Biodi e si y S a egy25, Ta ge 2, Ac ion 5. This Ac ion aims o map and assess he s a e o ecosys ems and hei se ices in he na ional e i o ies o EU Membe S a es by 2014, assess hei economic alue, and p omo e he in eg a ion o hese alues in o accoun ing and epo ing sys ems a EU and na ional le el by 2020. O he pla o ms ha in eg a e in o ma ion on di e en ini ia i es, ools and p ac ices o he alua ion o ecosys em se ices o decision-making a e he Na u e Valua ion and Financing Ne wo k26 and Ecosys em Valua ion27. The app op ia e choice o indica o s is a key s ep in he p ocess o measu ing ecosys em se ices o en i onmen al needs, and hese pla o ms p o ide a se o possible indica o s o each se ice. S aub e al. (2011) also sugges a se o indica o s o ecosys em se ices. The EEA published a Co e Se o Indica o s (CSI) Guide28 add essing en i onmen al issues, hough i is no ocused on he ecosys em se ice analysis. All hese esou ces can supplemen a esea ch on wa e ela ed ecosys em se ices, a e he se ices o impo ance and in e es a e ecognized. 24 h p://ec.eu opa.eu/en i onmen /na u e/knowledge/ecosys em_assessmen /pd /MAESWo kingPape 2013.pd 25 h p://ec.eu opa.eu/en i onmen /na u e/biodi e si y/comm2006/pd /2020/1_EN_ACT_pa 1_ 7%5B1%5D.pd 26 h p://www. sd.nl/na u e alua ion 27 h p://www.ecosys em alua ion.o g/uses.h m 28 h p://www.eea.eu opa.eu/publica ions/ echnical_ epo _2005_1 4. NEW INFORMATION TECHNOLOGIES AND WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT: NEW OPPORTUNITIES AND DEMANDS RESULTING FROM THEIR AVAILABILITY 34 4. NEW INFORMATION TECHNOLOGIES AND WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT: NEW OPPORTUNITIES AND DEMANDS RESULTING FROM THEIR AVAILABILITY The p oli e a ion o in o ma ion and communica ion echnologies (ICT) has caused p o ound changes in he a ailabili y o in o ma ion abou ou plane ( emo e sensing, GPS, spa ial clima e senso s, e c.); in i s s o age and p ocessing capabili ies (da abase managemen , geog aphic in o ma ion sys ems, cloud compu ing, e c.); and in i s dis ibu ion and dissemina ion (in e ne , web se ices, web-based applica ions, mapping echnologies, mobile applica ions, e c.). These p ocesses ob iously also pe ain o wa e esou ces in o ma ion, so ha he a ailabili y o key da a o sus ainable wa e managemen will e ol e in ela ion wi h he de elopmen o he ICTs. ICTs ha e changed socie y. The con inuous inc ease in compu ing powe and he g ow h o he In e ne ha e changed he way in which socie y manages in o ma ion. New echnologies like as e compu e s, b oadband in e ne , huge s o age and cloud compu ing c ea e new en i onmen o da a and in o ma ion sha ing. The In e ne p o ides communica ion in as uc u e o coun less ne wo ks associa ing human beings and he en i onmen . In e ne connec ion allows emo e managemen o he moni o ing sys ems o senso s obse ing ac o s such as soil mois u e, c op wa e e en ion and wea he in o ma ion. In o ma ion sha ing abou na u al and man-made sys ems on a global scale is c ucial o sol ing c i ical p oblems (Loca ion ma e s: Spa ial s anda ds o he In e ne o Things, Sep embe , 2013, h p://www.i u.in / echwa ch). Obse a ion and managemen sys ems (senso s, imaging and geospa ial p ocessing) we e c ea ed by di e en p o essional communi ies o sol e di e en kinds o p oblems. A se o specialized ICT a e he Geog aphic In o ma ion Technologies (GIT), which help o collec , manage, and analyze da a abou he esou ces, landscape ea u es, and socio- economic cha ac e is ics o an a ea in space and ime. Thei capabili y o isualize spa ial in o ma ion is an impo an ea u e o communica ion, dissemina ion and knowledge sha ing. GITs include he ICT ools as Geog aphic In o ma ion Sys ems (GIS), Global Posi ioning Sys ems (GPS), Remo e Sensing (RS) and Web-based ools. GITs a e inc easingly used in combina ion. The s eng h o each echnology is applied o deal wi h in eg a ed app oaches. Web-based ools p o ide new ways o in o ma ion sha ing and eal- ime da a isualiza ion, Remo e Sensing (RS) p o ides Ea h’s su ace images, and he de elopmen o web GIS can 4. NEW INFORMATION TECHNOLOGIES AND WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT: NEW OPPORTUNITIES AND DEMANDS RESULTING FROM THEIR AVAILABILITY 35 be ega ded as a majo ad ancemen opening many new oppo uni ies, such as eal- ime maps, equen da a upda es and sha ing o spa ial in o ma ion by use s all o e he wo ld. Th ough GIS o e lay unc ions, knowledge om di e en disciplines is b ough oge he , enabling spa ial modeling o p ocesses and dynamics o local human-ecosys em in e -linkages (h p://www.in o esou ces.ch/pd / ocus07_3_s.pd ). The e ec o wi eless echnologies on socie y is emendous and p o ound. Wi eless communica ions be ween de ices can be p o ided by he cell phone in as uc u e. O he physical ne wo king echnologies such as RFID (Radio- equency iden i ica ion), WLAN (Wi eless Local A ea Ne wo k) and Blue oo h a e be e sui ed o communica ion be ween senso s and mechanical sys ems. Wi eless ne wo ks a e inc edibly aluable in eme gencies and disas e s. The explosi e g ow h o mobile communica ions p o ides a wide ange o oppo uni ies. A mobile phone can also be hough o as a senso . Sma phones ypically include a gy oscope, accele ome e s, GPS, Wi-Fi, Blue oo h, sound, ligh , ime, nea - ield communica ions (NFC), compass, came a e c. New ICT also wi h emendous po en ial a e Ubiqui ous Senso Ne wo ks (USN), ne wo ks o in elligen senso nodes ha could be deployed “anywhe e, any ime, by anyone”. USN could gene a e applica ions in a wide ange o ields, including en i onmen and habi a moni o ing, disas e managemen , secu i y, in elligen anspo sys ems e c. The main componen s o a USN a e Senso Ne wo k, Ne wo k In as uc u e and Access, and Middlewa e. USN can be used in h ee b oad ca ego ies: de ec ion, acking and moni o ing (e.g. de ec empe a u es exceeding a pa icula h eshold, ack wo ke s in dange ous wo k-en i onmen s, moni o inhospi able en i onmen s, beha iou o animals in hei indigenous habi a e c.). Cu en ly, he elecommunica ions indus y is unde going a e olu ion as i mig a es om oday’s sepa a e ne wo ks ( o oice, mobile, da a e c.) o a single, uni ied IP-based nex - gene a ion ne wo k (NGN). The new compu ing pa adigms o Cloud and G id compu ing also o e mo e oppo uni ies o da a and in o ma ion managemen h ough p o ision o new se ices as SaaS (So wa e as a Se ice), IaaS (In as uc u e as a Se ice), PaaS (Pla o m as a Se ice) and SOA (Se ice- O ien ed A chi ec u e). This dis ibu ed compu ing con ibu es o enhance ea u es such as 4. NEW INFORMATION TECHNOLOGIES AND WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT: NEW OPPORTUNITIES AND DEMANDS RESULTING FROM THEIR AVAILABILITY 36 ubiqui ous access, eliabili y, scalabili y, i ualiza ion, exchangeabili y, loca ion independence, cos -e ec i eness e c. The esou ces ha can be sha ed in g ids and clouds could be physical (compu a ional powe , s o age de ices, communica ion capaci y) and i ual (so wa e, applica ions, se ices). Ad ances in echnologies allows us o collec inc easing amoun o scien i ic da a (in expe imen s, obse a ions, simula ions e c.), which espec i ely leads o a leap o wa d in he de elopmen o da a s o age, p ocessing, handling and analysis. The p og ess de e mines he de elopmen o new a eas o knowledge such as da a mining, scalabili y, a i icial in elligence (AI) and many o he s. In he ield o IWRM he p opaga ion o Sma Wa e Managemen (SWM) in ag icul u e, domes ic and indus ial wa e use sec o s, as well as he wide aspec s o socioeconomic de elopmen is associa ed wi h many public bene i s. Fo example Sma me e ing echnologies play an impo an ole in eal ime measu ing o wa e consump ion, leak iden i ica ion a he consume le el and may con ibu e o change consume s’ awa eness abou hei wa e use. Sma wa e -me e ing echnology can enable wa e u ili y companies o ack usage mo e accu a ely a he consume le el and implemen wa e -p icing plans o encou age wa e conse a ion29. Wa e use in manu ac u ing plan s can also be managed mo e e icien ly using ICT. Ano he example o SWM is he use o SCADA (Supe iso y Con ol And Da a Acquisi ion) in wa e and sewage sys ems in big ci ies o gauge and con ol lows, which p o ides moni o ing and analysis ools o wa e manage s. These sys ems can be in eg a ed in o Web-based a chi ec u es. The use o Ea h Obse a ion (EO) echnologies such as sa elli e based moni o ing can be e y use ul as i can p o ide a cos -e ec i e al e na i e o complemen o ield da a collec ion. The main ad an age o EO da a is ha i p o ides co e age o e la ge and emo e a eas wi h sys ema ic, epe i i e da a cap u es. Fo example, lood isk s udies use LiDAR (Ligh De ec ion and Ranging) echnology o c ea e highly accu a e Digi al Ele a ion Models (DEMs) o imp o ed loodplain mapping. EO p oduc s ange om simple sa elli e images o mo e complex emo e sensing applica ions such as clima e change de ec ion, mapping o land co e and land !"#$%%&'(()))*+%,*+-%(-.%(+%,-.)/(+//,./(!011(01(23*4/&5# 4. NEW INFORMATION TECHNOLOGIES AND WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT: NEW OPPORTUNITIES AND DEMANDS RESULTING FROM THEIR AVAILABILITY 37 use, snow co e maps, we land and wa e quali y moni o ing, pollu ion sou ce de ec ion, and o he p ojec -speci ic moni o ing, and analysis se ices30. Wea he o ecas ing and clima e moni o ing has also bene i ed g ea ly om ICT de elopmen . The Wo ld Wea he Wa ch sys em o obse a ion includes h ee co e componen s31: Global Obse ing Sys em (GOS), Global Telecommunica ion Sys em (GTS) and Global Da a P ocessing and Fo ecas ing Sys em. Sa elli e image y and ae ial pho og aphy p o ide isual in o ma ion assis ing wa e manage s in mo e accu a e dis ibu ion o a ailable wa e esou ces. The UAVs (Unmanned Ae ial Vehicles) can be used in we land mapping, i e hyd aulic modeling, soil mois u e moni o ing e c. ICT use can play a c ucial ole in en i onmen al p o ec ion, mi iga ion o local e ec s o clima e change, ene gy e iciency, disas e managemen , wa e u ili y business and a wide ange o many o he ields in e connec ed wi h IWRM. Wha a e he challenges and oppo uni ies o he new sou ces o in o ma ion ha a e p o ided by ICTs? ICTs open a wide a ay o possibili ies o ob ain, p ocess and dissemina e in o ma ion o wa e esou ces managemen . The la e is pa icula ly ele an in a con ex o a g owing social and poli ical suppo o open go e nmen and open da a s anda ds. In ac i could be a gued ha he in o ma ion inno a ions ha de i e om he e olu ion o new in o ma ion echnologies will gi e way o a new and mo e e icien public adminis a ion. Howe e , he e emain signi ican challenges o ake ull ad an age o he oppo uni ies o e ed by he cons an ly e ol ing ICTs, challenges ha de i e om he ine ias o exis ing models o in o ma ion gene a ion and managemen and ha limi he po en ial o hese new echnologies o ans o m in o ma ion in o knowledge. Some examples se e o illus a e he magni ude o hese ine ias (Mo ei a, 2013): • Only small pe cen age o he WWW con en s (4% ou o abou 8 billion web pages, acco ding o he pe son in cha ge o he Spa ial In o ma ion Sys em o Andalusia egional !"#$%%&'(()))*+,-./*+0,(+1(-+2+.-/$(-+/+343152%.%361(0+7.,8%*$%98# !:#$%%&'(()))*3%,*31%(1+%(3%,1+)2(322,+2(;"::(":(!<*.2&=# 4. NEW INFORMATION TECHNOLOGIES AND WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT: NEW OPPORTUNITIES AND DEMANDS RESULTING FROM THEIR AVAILABILITY 38 go e nmen ) a e a ailable h ough publicly a ailable sea ch engines such as Google. The e o e abou 96% o digi al in o ma ion is p o ec ed by access codes ( he so-called deep WEB) (Mo ei a, 2013). • Public adminis a ions use a wide a ay o p og ams and applica ions ha eques pe sonal in o ma ion om he public. Howe e , oo o en hese applica ions a e independen o one ano he and do no ake ad an age o po en ial syne gies o de elop "one-s op" go e nmen p ocedu es. These would be possible i go e nmen s changed hei da a managemen app oach. • The in o ma ion used o wa e esou ces managemen is o en exclusi ely local, in spi e o he a ailabili y o global in o ma ion ha would allow o di e en managemen scales. Wha a e he p ima y limi a ions o a luen exchange o in o ma ion among di e en public adminis a ions? Ine ias om he pas and a high le el o mis us be ween di e en adminis a ions esul in he coexis ence o di e en sys ems o o ganiza ion, con ol and dissemina ion o in o ma ion o each ins i u ion. While exis ing echnology allows o he exis ence o a single in o ma ion sys em, in o ma ion gene a ion and dissemina ion con inues o be poly-nuclea and dispe se. Each in o ma ion p o ide , ei he indi idually o collec i ely, gene a es i s own in o ma ion s uc u e and expec s o he s o adap o i , ins ead o wo king collec i ely o in eg a e in o ma ion wi hin a common sys em. In he Eu opean Union he e ha e been se e al ini ia i es ha a emp o ha monize exis ing public in o ma ion sys ems, limi duplici ies and edundancies and imp o e public access o in o ma ion. The INSPIRE Di ec i e (Di ec i e 2007/2/EC es ablishing an in as uc u e o spa ial in o ma ion wi hin he EU); exis ing legisla ion on he igh o public access o en i onmen al in o ma ion (Law o Access o Public In o ma ion 55/2000, Di ec i e 2003/4/CE and hei a ious na ional ansposi ions; and he Di ec i e on he e-use o public sec o in o ma ion, Di ec i e 2003/98/EC, known as he 'PSI Di ec i e') a e landma k s eps in his di ec ion. Howe e , public adminis a ions a e s ill eluc an o accep he public igh o access en i onmen al in o ma ion and an indi idualis ic app oach con inues o domina e in o ma ion managemen . Public adminis a ions ha e s ill la gely no eo ganized hei in o ma ion managemen p ocedu es and sys ems in o de o acili a e knowledge gene a ion and 4. NEW INFORMATION TECHNOLOGIES AND WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT: NEW OPPORTUNITIES AND DEMANDS RESULTING FROM THEIR AVAILABILITY 39 in o ma ion in eg a ion. On he con a y, hey main ain adi ional p ocedu es bu ely on in o ma ion echnologies o ca y hem ou . This esul s in a signi ican con adic ion be ween he g ea po en ial o he ICTs and he indi idualis ic app oach o in o ma ion gene a ion and managemen ha con inues o p edomina e. Ano he dimension o his issue deals wi h he lack o a en ion o he new expe iences o dis ibu ed and collabo a i e da a gene a ion ad oca ed by he ICT. I is necessa y o pay a en ion o and enhance he di e en pla o ms o social exchange and collabo a ion ha allow o ging social lea ning and knowledge on wa e . The pending issue o wa e policy in he ield o in o ma ion is o ensu e ha in o ma ion gi es ise o knowledge uly use ul o pa icipa o y planning and managemen . This implies he need o acili a e he condi ions in which knowledge p oduced h ough collabo a i e me hods is dissemina ed and sha ed in an open, ee and easy way, in acco dance wi h he cha ac e is ics and po en iali ies o he new ne wo ked socie y. The collabo a i e gene a ion o in o ma ion has, su ely, ins i u ional implica ions conce ning changes in he geome ies o powe , ha is, po en ial changes in he iden i y o he agen s ha con ol in o ma ion and, as a esul , he decision-making p ocesses. F om a echnical poin o iew, he in eg a ion o a ious da a ypes om di e en sou ces in common da a s anda ds is a p oblem ha has o be sol ed by he join e o s o many in e na ional o ganiza ions o s anda diza ion. The s anda ds enable managemen in e ope abili y among mul i-use sys ems, ools and solu ions wi hin he he e ogeneous en i onmen . The s anda ds and speci ica ions in end o achie e consis en managemen o in e connec ed elemen s. Se e al o ganiza ions a e wo king on s anda diza ion issues: he Open Geospa ial Conso ium (OGC), he Wo ld Wide Web Conso ium (W3C), TeleManagemen Fo um (TMF), Globus Alliance, Open G id Fo um (OGF) and many o he s. The OGC collabo a es wi h o e wen y di e en S anda d De elopmen O ganiza ions. Geospa ial s anda ds mus mee many in e ope abili y equi emen s and he OGC has begun wo k on GIS- ela ed in e ope abili y issues since 1994 and has ackled Ea h imaging, Web Mapping, and GML. Fo example KML (Keyhole Ma kup Language) is an encoding s anda d enabling use s' unique spa ial da a o be displayed on he map p o ided by Ea h b owse s (Google Ea h, Bing Maps o WebGL Ea h). Exis ing In e ne s anda ds, such as HTTP, XML, SSL/TLS, de eloped a W3C, IETF, e c., a ange o di e en wi eless s anda ds such as 2G 4. NEW INFORMATION TECHNOLOGIES AND WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT: NEW OPPORTUNITIES AND DEMANDS RESULTING FROM THEIR AVAILABILITY 40 (e.g., GSM), 2.5G (e.g., GPRS) 3G/WiMAX (e.g., IMT), play an impo an ole in he IT communica ion. GML is a join OGC/ISO s anda d ha de ines an XML g amma o encoding and exchanging geospa ial con en . GML is a pa o he in e ope abili y pla o m enabling a single so wa e p og am o con ol and access da a om mul iple Ea h-imaging de ices on sa elli es o ae ial pla o ms. GML is embedded in in e na ional encoding s anda ds o domains such as wea he , a ia ion, hyd ology, geology, eme gency esponse e c. S anda ds’ ha moniza ion is c i ical o ensu e in e ope abili y, ease o implemen a ion and ne wo ks ope a ions. As he e a e s ill many s anda diza ion gaps, he in es men s in de eloping and implemen ing open spa ial s anda ds could b ing addi ional socioeconomic alue. Da a quali y con ol and i s implica ions o wa e planning The quali y o hyd ologic da a highly condi ions wa e planning p ocesses and ou comes. The e a e di e en possible easons o he poo quali y o hyd ologic da a: • In many ins ances, hyd ologic in o ma ion used is no su icien ly p ecise because cen alized planning ins i u ions a e emo ed om (and no coo dina ed wi h) local sou ces o knowledge and in o ma ion. In he ecen ly comple ed WFD planning cycle, some Eu opean coun ies such as Spain, ound ha i e basin plans elied on as amoun s o in o ma ion gene a ed by la ge Ri e Basin Agencies. This in o ma ion was o en no locally alida ed and was some imes inaccu a e. Decen alized and coope a i e ne wo k planning ins i u ional a angemen s could se e o o e come hese limi a ions by in o ming and complemen ing cen ally p oduced models and plans wi h local knowledge and expe ise, hus p o iding o obus da a quali y con ol mechanisms. Ne wo k planning would allow o he mul iplica ion o esou ces (s a , echnologies, in eg a ion and coope a ion) and inc ease he us bo h in he in o ma ion being gene a ed as well as be ween playe s in he planning p ocess. • In he Eu opean Union, he WFD planning p ocess has esul ed in a signi ican imp o emen in he quan i y, quali y and a ailabili y o wa e esou ces in o ma ion (hyd ological, chemical, biological, e c.). Howe e , he signi ican budge a y es ic ions ha a e esul ing 5. NEW MODELING HYDRO-SOCIAL SYSTEMS: REFLECTIONS ABOUT KEY INFORMATION AND DATA REQUIREMENTS 47 The dominance o he physical cha ac e is ics as he de ining ac o o managemen and analysis is cu en ly being ques ioned, as was discussed in sec ion 3 abo e. In wha pe ains o he wa e - e i o y ela ionships, changes in scale p o oundly a ec he design, beha io and ou come o he models ha ep esen hem. Ve y o en modele s only ha e access o in o ma ion on a small pa o he space- ime con inuum in which p ocesses ake place, hus condi ioning he unde s anding o eali y and, he e o e, model concep ualiza ion, es ablishmen o pa ame e alues and calib a ion. In e ms o he empo al dimension, i is clea ha complex sys ems can p esen dis o ions o e ime o impe cep ible lows in sho ime- ames. Modele s he e o e a o wo king wi h long ime-se ies o inpu and calib a ion da a. A e he e e ec i e ways o modeling and inco po a ing in o ma ion on abs ac a iables such as changes in beha io ? Some models al eady inco po a e his kind o in o ma ion—changes in wa e consump ion pa e ns by i iga o s o wa e use changes as a esul o expec ed in lows o new sou ces o wa e such as desalina ed o ans e ed esou ces—in hei own in e nal s uc u e as well as in he gene a ion o possible scena ios (Hu limann e al., 2009). The key o model hese a iables is o ca e ully desc ibe he de e mining ac o s, wha se s hem o , how hey ope a e and how hey a ec o he a iables. The e o e, he co ec concep ualiza ion o he model is essen ial and in u n equi es a signi ican amoun o in o ma ion abou he socioeconomic componen s. The main challenge is ha hese a iables do no espond o s aigh o wa d ules o laws like hose ha go e n physical p ocesses. They a e complex beha io s and phenomenon, andom, unce ain and highly e lexi e ha e ol e in ime and space and a e a ely documen ed in a sys emic ashion. These limi a ions make hei inco po a ion as a iables in a model di icul and challenging (Al isi e al., 2007). In o de o calib a e and es ablish he pa ame e alues o model a iables o which he e a e no empi ical da a se ies i is necessa y o ho oughly e iew exis ing in o ma ion abou simila sys ems in o de o adap his in o ma ion o he eali y being simula ed. A he same ime, i is impo an o ely on local and s akeholde expe ise, a key inpu o limi unce ain y. 5. NEW MODELING HYDRO-SOCIAL SYSTEMS: REFLECTIONS ABOUT KEY INFORMATION AND DATA REQUIREMENTS 48 Depending on he goal o he modeling exe cise, he abundance and le el o de ail o he a iables being used can a y om hei iden i ica ion as an elemen o magni ude o conside , o he inclusion o ime-se ies o es ima i e unc ions de eloped om consul a ions wi h expe s o bibliog aphical e iew. Howe e i is impo an o keep in mind ha some imes simple models can p o ide e y good esul s i ca e ully de ined and calib a ed. An excess o in o ma ion and de ail is no always equi ed. 6. TRANSPARENCY AND PUBLIC PARTICIPATION AS KEY COMPONENTS OF THE NEW WATER GOVERNANCE: RESULTING INFORMTION NEEDS 49 6. TRANSPARENCY AND PUBLIC PARTICIPATION AS KEY COMPONENTS OF THE NEW WATER GOVERNANCE: RESULTING INFORMATION NEEDS T adi ional anspa ency and public pa icipa ion e o s ha e ocused on he need o dissemina e in o ma ion o he public a he han on collabo a i e gene a ion o in o ma ion o wa e planning and managemen . This has been he dominan a ional comp ehensi e planning app oach, whe e public pa icipa ion is no inhe en o he planning p ocess, bu a he ins umen al o imp o e knowledge in he diagnos ic phase. In he con ex o his app oach public pa icipa ion is no seen as a means o he common iden i ica ion o objec i es, s a egies and al e na i es, o o decision making. The mos ad anced e sions o he IWRM pa adigm such as he WFD, d aw upon his expe ience and inco po a e public pa icipa ion as an ac o go e nance whe e, s a ing om a pa icipa ed iden i ica ion o p oblems, possible al e na i e solu ions a e join ly iden i ied. This e ised app oach implies ha p oblems, goals and objec i es should be iden i ied oge he wi h he public and s akeholde s, who also pa icipa e in he iden i ica ion o al e na i e s a egies, measu es and p oposed ac ions. The g owing ecogni ion o he complexi y and unce ain y associa ed wi h socio-ecological sys ems necessa ily demands his new epis emological app oach o public pa icipa ion. In his new con ex , anspa ency equi emen s imply ha he in o ma ion ha is gene a ed du ing wa e planning and managemen p ocesses mus be accessible o he public, bo h in e ms o physical accessibili y h ough in e ne as well as in e ms o in o ma ion ha is unde s andable by di e en audiences. Public pa icipa ion also equi es he use o public o ums o deba e and exchange o in o ma ion. Public inpu on p oblem diagnosis, de ini ion o objec i es and al e na i es needs o be aken in o accoun and in luence managemen decisions. In he EU, en i onmen al legisla ion in gene al, and wa e legisla ion in pa icula egula e he igh o public access o en i onmen al in o ma ion (Di ec i e 2003/4/CE) o he equi emen o public pa icipa ion p ocesses (a . 14, Di ec i e 2000/60/CE). T anspa ency, in o ma ion and public pa icipa ion equi emen s a e closely in e ela ed since he la e equi es publicly accessible good quali y in o ma ion o decision-making. 6. TRANSPARENCY AND PUBLIC PARTICIPATION AS KEY COMPONENTS OF THE NEW WATER GOVERNANCE: RESULTING INFORMTION NEEDS 50 The emphasis on public pa icipa ion mechanisms o legi imize public policy decision-making p ocesses ound i s heo e ical g ounding in he delibe a i e democ acy heo e ical amewo k (Cohen, 1989; Fishkin, 1991; Gu man & Thompson, 2004). Howe e , a sys ema ic amewo k o he e alua ion o he ou comes and impac o collabo a ion in wa e planning o en appea s lacking—bo h in e ms o moni o ing and e alua ing he quali y o he collabo a i e p ocess, and in e ms how i may ha e in luenced wa e managemen ou comes. The lack o igo in applying co e concep s equen ly esul s in wa e planne s, and hei go e nmen agency supe iso s ope a ing in an en i onmen whe e e ms such as ‘in ol e’, ‘consul ’, ‘collabo a e’ and ‘pa ne ’ e ain a cul i a ed ambigui y. Some (see Poh Ling Tan e al., 2008) ha e claimed ha he ou comes expec ed o delibe a i e o ms o collabo a ion a e naï e and un ealis ic unde sco ing limi a ions o cu en poli ical and social heo ies o collabo a ion, delibe a ion and social lea ning. Fu he mo e, a e mo e han wo decades o gene al accep ance and widesp ead implemen a ion o his app oach, he e is a g owing body o wo k ha is c i ically ques ioning he limi s o he pa icipa o y go e nance app oach o na u al esou ces managemen and i s ue impac on inal decisions (Rancié e, 2006, and Swyngedouw, 2011). This c i ical wo k is amed wi hin he deba es o pos -poli ics o pos -democ acy in he con ex o he global neolibe al globaliza ion p ocesses. In a pape on linking science wi h en i onmen al decision-making ha summa ized he conclusions o he 10-yea SAHRA33 esea ch p ojec (scien i ic s a ing poin o he wo k o SWAN) i s au ho s conclude wi h he ollowing s a emen (Liu e al., 2008): "Finally, al hough in ol ing he s akeholde s and decision-make s in he en i e p ocess o model de elopmen , implemen a ion, and analysis can help enhance he anspa ency and c edibili y o he modeling esul s, he e migh s ill exis addi ional limi a ions o decision-make s no selec ing a scena io due o poli ical o o he conce ns/conside a ions." A simila us a ion was exp essed by Andalusian wa e manage s in he con ex o he SWAN Semina on New pa adigms in wa e esou ces and isks managemen : Key wa e da a and in o ma ion o sus ainabili y, held a he Uni e si y o Se ille in Janua y 2013; o by he p e ious di ec o o he Ca alan Wa e Agency in he inal semina o he PART-DMA34 esea ch p ojec held in Ba celona in No embe 2012. Wha mo i a es he ex e naliza ion (del Mo al, 2013) o key ope a ional and inal decisions ollowing delibe a i e planning and decision-making p ocesses? Whe e do he so-called 33 See: h p://www.sah a.a izona.edu/ o mo e in o ma ion. 34 h p://blogs.uab.ca /pa dma/ 6. TRANSPARENCY AND PUBLIC PARTICIPATION AS KEY COMPONENTS OF THE NEW WATER GOVERNANCE: RESULTING INFORMTION NEEDS 51 "poli ical" decisions come om? Why don' hey i wi hin he logic o scien i ic, in eg a ed and pa icipa o y decision-making p ocesses ha p ecisely aim o unde s and, an icipa e and d i e sus ainable decisions? Don' hese scien i ic and policy p ocesses aim o in eg a e science wi h en i onmen al decision making o a leas unde s and unde wha condi ions his in eg a ion can ake place? The ollowing pages o e some p elimina y ideas and pe spec i es on o hese ques ions. To wha ex en a e EU legal equi emen s on anspa ency and public pa icipa ion ul illed in hyd ologic planning p ocesses unde he WDF in Spain? The Spanish expe ience wi h pa icipa o y wa e planning p ocesses in he con ex o he WFD has had mixed esul s (Balles e and Pa és, 2013; Espluga e al., 2011; He nández-Mo a and Balles e , 2010). Spanish wa e policy is s ill la gely imme sed in he old hyd aulic pa adigm, whe e public pa icipa ion is unde s ood as a means o dissemina ing in o ma ion and legi imizing policy decisions ha a e s ill aken wi hin he closed adi ional wa e policy communi y (i iga o s, hyd oelec ic company and la ge cons uc ion companies) qui e independen o mo e open and pa icipa o y p ocesses. Fu he mo e, lea ing aside conside a ions abou he o mal and subs an i e quali y o he public pa icipa ion p ocesses unde aken in he di e en i e basin planning dis ic s, oo o en he e has been a poli ical ex e naliza ion o key planning decisions. I is howe e impo an o ecognize ha some p og ess has been made in e ms o anspa ency in wa e planning and managemen , albei modes and une en. The Spanish b anch o T anspa ency In e na ional unde akes a pe iodic compa a i e analysis o anspa ency in wa e planning and managemen in he di e en i e basin managemen agencies in Spain (se De S e ano e al., 2012; and T anspa encia In e nacional-España, 2013). The esul ing Index o T anspa ency in Wa e Managemen (INTRAG o Índice de T anspa encia en la Ges ión del Agua) has been applied in 2010, 2011 and 2013, and showed ha o e all anspa ency imp o ed om an a e age o 51.2 in 2010, o 59.6 in 2011 and 62.9 o e 100 in 2013. Howe e , esul s di e signi ican ly o di e en agencies anging om 33,5 o 93,5 o e 100 in 2013, as well as be ween he di e en elemen s being e alua ed35 (see able !"#$%&#'%&(#)*+%&',-)%*#.((/# h p://www. anspa encia.o g.es/INTRAG/INTRAG_A%C3%91OS_ANTERIORES.h m # 6. TRANSPARENCY AND PUBLIC PARTICIPATION AS KEY COMPONENTS OF THE NEW WATER GOVERNANCE: RESULTING INFORMTION NEEDS 52 2), which shows he p og ess made by some and ha he e is s ill signi ican oom o imp o emen . Table 2. Componen s and a iables o he 2013 T anspa ency Index o Wa e Managemen Componen s Subcomponen s Numbe o a iables In o ma ion abou he i e basin managemen agency Basic ins i u ional in o ma ion 5 Wa e - ela ed laws and egula ions 1 Rela ions wi h he public and s akeholde s Public in o ma ion and a en ion 12 Public pa icipa ion 2 T anspa ency in he planning p ocesses 16 T anspa ency in wa e managemen and use Wa e managemen 12 In o ma ion on wa e uses 5 Compliance wi h cu en legisla ion 5 Economic and inancial anspa ency Accoun ing and budge a y in o ma ion 4 T anspa ency on income and expenses 4 T anspa ency in public con ac ing and licensing Public con ac ing p ocedu es 4 Rela ions and ope a ions wi h pu eyo s and con ac o s 8 Follow up and con ol o public wo ks 2 Sou ce: www. anspa encia.o g.es The INTRAG is a good example o a use ul indica o o anspa ency in wa e managemen . I s concep ual app oach is comp ehensi e and lexible enough o be applicable o o he coun ies o egions (in ac , B azil and Po ugal a e cu en ly adap ing he index o hei own ins i u ional se ings). I is made up o 6 componen o hema ic a eas which e e o he main a eas o ac i i y o he agencies esponsible o wa e managemen in Spain (Table 2). Howe e , INTRAG only e alua es he in o ma ion being made a ailable o he public, ha is, ac i e anspa ency. I does no measu e he quali y o he in o ma ion o i s usabili y, o he esponse o he Ri e Basin Agencies o he eques s o in o ma ion om he public, ha is, he compliance wi h he igh o in o ma ion legisla ion, which is also impo an legal obliga ions. 6. TRANSPARENCY AND PUBLIC PARTICIPATION AS KEY COMPONENTS OF THE NEW WATER GOVERNANCE: RESULTING INFORMTION NEEDS 53 Wha ype o in o ma ion is pa icula ly ele an o in o m public pa icipa ion p ocesses o wa e go e nance? The in o ma ion equi ed o in o m public pa icipa ion p ocesses o wa e go e nance depends upon he wa e planning and managemen goals. In he con ex and logic o he WFD, ully in line wi h he IWRM pa adigm, he in o ma ion equi ed mus acili a e answe ing he ollowing planning and managemen ques ions: • How much wa e do we ha e, and who uses i ? • Wha is he cu en s a e o ou wa e s (ecological, chemical, quan i a i e)? • Wha is he cos o cu en and equi ed wa e se ices ( inancial, en i onmen al and esou ce cos s)? • Wha a e ou goals? • Wha measu es can we implemen in o de o achie e hem and wha is he mos cos - e ec i e combina ion o measu es? • How is he implemen a ion o he measu es helping us achie e ou goals? Do we need o adap ou P og am o Measu es o be e each ou goals? A he same ime, he in o ma ion p o ided mus mee se e al equi emen s: quali y and eliabili y; ease o access (in e ne ); egula ly upda ed; su icien and adequa e o in o m planning, pa icipa ion and managemen objec i es; de ailed and aceable; and adap ed (accessible in e ms o con en ) o he di e en publics. A e he e posi i e expe iences ha can help us ad ance along hese lines? Public pa icipa ion and anspa ency a e essen ial componen s o decision-making p ocesses aimed a join ly iden i ying challenges, al e na i es and po en ial solu ions. Public pa icipa ion mus be p esen a e e y s ep o he planning and decision making p ocess: om he collabo a i e de elopmen o in o ma ion ( o ins ance h ough he in eg a ion o in o ma ion and knowledge om di e en ins i u ions and sou ces, pa icula ly local knowledge); he ecogni ion and inco po a ion o di e en in e p e a ions o eali y and associa ed p oblems ( o ins ance ough di e en modeling app oaches); and he de elopmen o poly-cen ic and sha ed decision-making mechanisms. Exis ing wa e managemen challenges equi e public pa icipa ion p ocesses ha a e no pu ely o mal bu , a he , subs an ial and poli ically-binding, 6. TRANSPARENCY AND PUBLIC PARTICIPATION AS KEY COMPONENTS OF THE NEW WATER GOVERNANCE: RESULTING INFORMTION NEEDS 54 ha is, mo ing up he ladde o public pa icipa ion o iginally p oposed by A ns ein in 1969 (see Table 3). Table 3. The ladde o public pa icipa ion in wa e managemen Suppo o local ini ia i es Highe le els o pa icipa ion – delega ion o powe . Join ac ion Collabo a i e e o s (wo king g oups) o deal wi h and esol e speci ic p oblems. Co-decision Join de ini ion o p oblems and al e na i e solu ions. Public consul a ion Selec ion be ween p ede e mined al e na i es. Limi s inpu o ideas and does no allow o he join de ini ion o p oblems, no he pa icipa ed e alua ion o he implemen a ion p ocess. In o ma ion Necessa y bu insu icien condi ion o public pa icipa ion. Uni-di ec ional. Sou ce: Adap ed om A ns ein (1969) 7. SOME FINAL REMARKS AND QUESTIONS FOR FURTHER DISCUSSION 55 7. SOME FINAL REMARKS AND QUESTIONS FOR FURTHER DISCUSSION 1. IWRM is he domina ing pa adigm o sus ainable wa e managemen oday. The Wa e F amewo k Di ec i e ep esen s pe haps he mos ambi ious and complex legal e o o pu he p inciples o IWRM in o p ac ice in he EU’s membe s a es. O he na ional legisla ions also inco po a e IWRM p esc ip ions. Howe e , his model aces esis ance om he p e iously domina ing hyd aulic pa adigm, as well as he con adic ions ha eme ge om he p ac ical expe iences in i s implemen a ion a di e en scales ( om egional o global). The c i icisms ha i has ecei ed in he ecen pas ocus on he ollowing main aspec s: • The i e basin as he undispu ed scale o in eg a ed managemen and wa e go e nance. While i may be he ideal scale o hyd ologic cha ac e iza ion, i s app op ia eness as he ideal scale o go e nance is unde dispu e. • The la ge hegemonic economic hough in which IWRM p esc ip ions a e in eg a ed, pa icula ly he commodi ica ion p ocesses and mone a y educ ionism o na u al esou ces. • The weaknesses and ailu es o public pa icipa ion p ocesses ha ha e accompanied ac ual wa e esou ces planning and managemen expe iences and ha a e an in eg al pa o he IWRM heo e ical amewo k. 2. Wa e managemen oday p esen s signi ican in o ma ion challenges. In o ma ion mus simul aneously ul ill equi emen s ha a e o some deg ee opposed and an agonis ic bu also mu ually necessa y, in close in e ac ion wi h one ano he o , as Edga Mo in would say, dialogically ela ed (see Mo in 1977, 80). • In o ma ion e sus da a; • In o ma ion needed o imp o e managemen e sus in o ma ion dissemina ion o imp o e anspa ency and acili a e public pa icipa ion; • Real e sus modeled da a; • Quan i a i e e sus quali a i e da a; • Real ime e sus delayed da a; • Physical e sus socioeconomic da a; 7. SOME FINAL REMARKS AND QUESTIONS FOR FURTHER DISCUSSION 56 • Con en ional ne wo k e sus new ne wo ks ( emo e sensing, e c.) da a. 3. The p o ound pa adigm shi in wa e managemen has had impo an implica ions o in o ma ion and da a equi emen s. The ansi ion om he p omo ion o hyd aulic in as uc u es as he p ima y wa e policy goal o economic and ecosys em-based wa e managemen , and he ecogni ion o wa e as a pa imony has equi ed no only new in o ma ion, bu also new me hodologies o ga he ing and gene a ing his in o ma ion. Some o he main new deba es abou he limi a ions and insu iciencies o he now discu si ely dominan o IWRM pa adigm e ol e a ound he ollowing issues: • Es ima ing he cos s associa ed wi h ecosys em es o a ion is in ini ely mo e complex han calcula ing he cos s associa ed wi h wa e lows, since hese can be simpli ied h ough he balance o he hyd ologic cycle. • The alua ion o ecosys em se ices equi es using me ics o he han mone a y alua ion, as well as si e-speci ic s udies. The me hodologies and in o ma ion necessa y o hese alua ions a e s ill unde de elopmen . • The inco po a ion o he social dimension b ings wi h i elemen s o complexi y and unce ain y in addi ion o hose inhe en o na u al sys ems. The e o e he unde s anding, ep esen a ion and managemen o wa e as an eco-social pa imony poses new challenges ha equi e in o ma ion ha is s ill being de eloped. 4. The selec ion o he scale o wa e managemen has di ec implica ions o in o ma ion and da a a ailabili y and equi emen s: local e sus global scale o in o ma ion ga he ing; cen al planning (models) e sus local planning ( eal ne wo k da a). Rela ed o his issue he nex ques ions a ise: • Wha a e he possibili ies and eal po en ial o di e en al e na i es o in o ma ion gene a ion and wha a e he di icul ies and challenges inhe en o each choice? • Wha a e he ins i u ional condi ions o i s implemen a ion? • A e public in o ma ion sys ems o ganized o acili a e he knowledge gene a ion and in o ma ion exchanges o a e he e s ill impo an imbalances be ween he po en ial o he new ICTs and he indi idualis ic beha io ha s ill domina es in o ma ion managemen ? 9. REFERENCES 63 HAINES-YOUNG, R.H. and POTSCHIN, M.B. (2009): Me hodologies o de ining and assessing ecosys em se ices. Final Repo , JNCC, P ojec Code C08-0170-0062, 69 pp. HALPERN, J., GOMEZ- LOBO, A., and FOSTER, V. (2013): In o ma ion and Modeling Issues in Designing Wa e and Sani a ion Subsidy Schemes. Policy Resea ch Wo king Pape s. HANNERZ, F. and LANGAAS, S. (2007): “Es ablishing a Wa e In o ma ion Sys em o Eu ope: Cons ain s om Spa ial Da a He e ogenei y”. Wa e and En i onmen Jou nal 21 (3). h p://onlinelib a y.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1747-6593.2007.00073.x/abs ac . HERNÁNDEZ-MORA, N. (2013): La anspa encia y la pa icipación pública como ins umen os undamen ales de la nue a gobe nanza del agua: las necesidades de in o mación consecuen es. A ailable a : h p://www.upo.es/gh /gies /GIEST/o os_documen os/870_PonenciaKD_N_He nandez.pd HERNANDEZ-MORA, N. and A. BALLESTER (2010): "Public pa icipa ion and he ole o social ne wo ks in he implemen a ion o he Wa e F amewo k Di ec i e in Spain", Ambien alia Special Issue – Ten yea s o he Wa e F amewo k Di ec i e: An O e iew om Mul iple Disciplines. A ailable a : h p://hdl.handle.ne /10481/21688 HEYNEN, N.; MCCARTHY, J.; PRUDHAM, S. and ROBBINS, P. (eds.) (2007) Neolibe al En i onmen s: False p omises and unna u al consequences. London-New Yo k: Rou ledge. HURLIMANN, A., DOLNICAR, S. and MEYER, P. (2009): “Unde s anding beha io o in o m wa e supply managemen in de eloped na ions – A e iew o li e a u e, concep ual model and esea ch agenda”. Jou nal o En i onmen al Managemen 91 (1): 47-56. HUTCHINSON, CH.F., R.G. VARADY AND S. DRAKE (2010): “ Old and New: Changing Pa adigms in A id Lands Wa e Managemen ”, in G. Schneie -Madanes, M.-F. Cou el (eds.), Wa e and Sus ainabili y in A id Regions, Sp inge Science & Business Media, pp. 311-332 KANDZIORA, M., BURKHARD, B., MÜLLER, F. (2013): In e ac ion o ecosys em p ope ies, ecosys em in eg i y and ecosys em se ice indica o s – A heo e ical ma ix exe cise. Ecological Indica o s, 38, 54-78. KIRCHNER, J. W. (2006): “Ge ing he Righ Answe s o he Righ Reasons: Linking Measu emen s, Analyses, and Models o Ad ance he Science o Hyd ology”. Wa e Resou ces Resea ch 42 (3). 9. REFERENCES 64 LA ROCA, F. (2013) La inco po ación de los se icios ecosis émicos a la ges ión del agua, P oceedings o he VIII Cong eso Ibé ico de Ges ión y Plani icación de Agua "Cambio de planes: Análisis c í ico del p ime ciclo eu opeo de plani icación hid ológica y la expec a i a de planes comunes pa a España y Po ugal en 2015", Lisbon, Po ugal, Decembe 5-7,2013. A ailable a : h p:// e is as.lis.ulusiada.p /index.php/8cigpa/a icle/ iew/321 LA ROCA, F. (2011) Balance de la polí ica de ecupe ación de los cos es de los se icios del agua en el Es ado Español, 2000-2010, P oceedings o he VII Cong eso Ibé ico sob e Ges ión y Plani icación del Agua “Ríos Ibé icos +10. Mi ando al u u o as 10 años de DMA” 16/19 de eb e o de 2011, Tala e a de la Reina. A ailable a : h p://www. nca.eu/ ii-cong eso LIU, Y., GUPTA, H., SPRINGER, E. and WAGENER, T. (2008): “Linking science wi h en i onmen al decision making: Expe iences om an in eg a ed modeling app oach o suppo ing sus ainable wa e esou ces managemen ”, En i onmen al Modelling & So wa e, 23, 846-858. MARTÍN-ORTEGA, J., GIANNOCCARO, G. and BERBEL, J. (2011): "En i onmen al and Resou ce Cos s Unde Wa e Sca ci y Condi ions: An Es ima ion in he Con ex o he Eu opean Wa e F amewo k Di ec i e", Wa e Resou ces Managemen , 25:1615–1633 MARTÍNEZ FERNÁNDEZ, J. and ESTEVE SELMA, M. A. (2004): “The dynamics o wa e sca ci y on i iga ed landscapes: Maza ón and Aguilas in sou h-eas e n Spain”. Sys em Dynamics Re iew 20 (2): 117 - 137. MARTÍNEZ FERNÁNDEZ, J. (2013): La modelización de los sis emas hid osociales. Necesidades de in o mación y da os cla e. A ailable a : //www.upo.es/gh /gies /GIEST/o os_documen os/868_PonenciaKD_Julia_Ma inez.pd . MARTÍNEZ FERNÁNDEZ, J., ESTEVE SELMA, M. A., BAÑOS GONZÁLEZ, I., CARREÑO, F. and MORENO, A. (2013): “Sus ainabili y o Medi e anean i iga ed ag o-landscapes”. Ecological Modeling 248: 11-19. doi:10.1016/j.ecolmodel.2012.09.018. MARTINEZ-CORTINA, L., GARRIDO, A. and LOPEZ-GUNN, E. (2010) Re- hinking wa e and ood secu i y: ou h Bo in Founda ion wa e wo kshop. Re-Thinking Wa e and Food Secu i y: Fou h Bo in Founda ion Wa e Wo kshop [A ailable a : h p://www. undacionbo in.o g/ bwa e -wo kshop-40sep embe -200941-8216 e45 hinking- wa e -and- ood-secu i y8217-semina ios-in e nacionales_ undacion-bo in-a eas-de- ac i idad_obse a o io-de- endencias-8691267687.h m 9. REFERENCES 65 MILLENNIUM ECOSYSTEM ASSESSMENT (2005): Ecosys ems and Human Well-being: Syn hesis, Island P ess, Washing on, DC. A ailable a : h p://www.millenniumassessmen .o g/documen s/documen .356.aspx.pd REID, W.V., BERKES, F., WILBANKS, T.J. and CAPISTRANO, D. (eds.) (2006). B idging Scales and Knowledge Sys ems: Concep s and Applica ions in Ecosys em Assessmen , Island P ess, Washing on, DC. MOLLE, F. (2009): “Ri e -basin planning and managemen : The social li e o a concep ” Geo o um, 40(3), 484-494. MOREIRA, J. M. (2013): Los nue os pa adigmas en la ges ión de los ecu sos y los iesgos híd icos y las necesidades consecuen es de da os e in o mación pa a una ges ión sos enible del agua. A ailable a : www.upo.es/gh /gies /GIEST/o os_documen os/865_PonenciaKD_JM_Mo ei a.pd MORIN, E. (1977): La Me hode I: la Na u e de la Na u e. Pa is: Seuil. T ansla ed in o English: Me hod: Towa d a S udy o Human Na u e: Vol. I, The Na u e o Na u e. New Yo k: Pe e Lang Pub. Inc., 1992. MOSS, T. (2012): "Spa ial i , om panacea o p ac ice: implemen ing he EU Wa e F amewo k Di ec i e", Ecology and Socie y 17(3): 2. MOSTERT, E. , M. CRAPS and C. PAHL-WOSTL (2008): "Social lea ning: he key o in eg a ed wa e esou ces managemen ?", Wa e In e na ional, 33:3, 293-304 NAREDO, J. M. (2013): Cos es y cuen as del agua. Ap oximación a los ecu sos na u ales y el medio ambien e desde el en oque ecoin eg ado . Disponible en: h p://www.upo.es/gh /gies /GIEST/o os_documen os/867_PonenciaKD_Na edo.pd . NAREDO J. M. (2007): "Cos es y cuen as del agua. P opues as desde el en oque ecoin eg ado ", Keyno e pape p esen ed a he Semina on Wa e Cos s and Wa e Accoun s in Ca alonia in ela ion o he WFD, Ca alan Wa e Agency, 18-19 June 2007. A ailable he e. NAREDO, J. M. (2006) Las aíces económicas del de e io o ecológico y social. Más allá de los dogmas, Siglo XXI de España, Mad id OSTROM, E. and COX, M. (2010): “Mo ing beyond Panaceas: A Mul i-Tie ed Diagnos ic App oach o Social-Ecological Analysis”. En i onmen al Conse a ion 37 (4): 451- 463. 9. REFERENCES 66 PAHL-WOSTL, C., LEBEL, L., KNIEPER, C., NIKITINA, E. (2012): “F om applying panaceas o mas e ing complexi y: Towa ds adap i e wa e go e nance in i e basins” En i onmen al Science & Policy, 23, 24-34. PAHL-WOSTL , C., P. JEFFREY, N. ISENDAHL & M. BRUGNACH (2011) Ma u ing he New Wa e Managemen Pa adigm: P og essing om Aspi a ion o P ac ice, Wa e Resou ces Managemen , 25: 837–856. POH LING TAN, JACKSON, S., OLIVER, P., MACKENZIE, J., PROCTOR, W. and AYREET, M. (2008) Collabo a i e Wa e Planning: Con ex and P ac ice. Li e a u e Re iew. Volume 1 h p://npsi.go .au/ iles/p oduc s/ ack/pn21213/pn21213.pd PEDRAZA, E. A. (2007): E ec os de Escala sob e la Simulación del Flujo de Agua Supe icial en Á eas U banas usando modelos basados en la Onda Cinemá ica. Tesis Doc o al de la Uni e sidad Nacional de Có doba. h p://www.e n.unco .edu/a chi os/doc o ado_cs_ing/ped aza/TESIS_RP_Capi ulo_03_ .pd PITA, M.F., DEL MORAL, L. PEDREGAL, B., LIMONES, N. and N. HERNÁNDEZ-MORA (2014) "Nue os Pa adigmas en la Ges ión de Recu sos y Riesgos Híd icos: Da os e In o mación Necesa ios pa a una Ges ión In eg ada del Agua", Bole ín de Geóg a os Españoles (accep ed). RACO, M. (2013): S a e-led P i a iza ion and he Demise o he Democ a ic S a e. Wel a e Re o m and Localism in an E a o Regula o y Capi alism, Wey Cou Eas , Ashga e Publishing L d. RANCIÈRE, J. (2006). Ha ed o democ acy. London: Ve so. REISNER, M. (1986) Cadillac dese : The Ame ican Wes and i s disappea ing wa e . New Yo k: Viking Penguin. SCBD (SECRETARIAT OF THE CONVENTION ON BIOLOGICAL DIVERSITY) (2004). The ecosys em app oach (CBD guidelines). Mon eal: Sec e a ia o he Con en ion on Biological Di e si y; 2004 [50 pp.]. SPRAY, C and BLACKSTOCK, K (2013) Op imizing Wa e F amewo k Di ec i e Ri e Basin Managemen Planning Using an Ecosys em Se ices App oach, CD2012_17. A ailable online a : c ew.ac.uk/publica ions 9. REFERENCES 67 STADDON, CH. & JAMES, N. (2012) Wa e Secu i y: genealogy o a new pa adigm, Wo king Pape #2, SWAN P ojec . Uni e si y o Wes England, B is ol G oup o Wa e Resea ch. STAUB, C., OTT, W. ET AL. (2011): Indica o s o Ecosys em Goods and Se ices: F amewo k, me hodology and ecommenda ions o a wel a e- ela ed en i onmen al epo ing. Fede al O ice o he En i onmen , Be n. En i onmen al s udies no. 1102: 17 S. A ailable a : p:// p.wsl.ch/ALR/Pape s/pape s_ALR_2a/Indica o s_Ecosys e_Goodand_Se ices.pd SWYNGEDOUW, E. (1999) “Mode ni y and Hyb idi y: Regene acionismo, he P oduc ion o na u e and he Spanish Wa e scape, 1890-1930”, Annals o he Associa ion o Ame ican Geog aphe s, 89 (3), pp. 443-465. SWYNGEDOUW, E. (2007) “Dispossessing H2O”, IN: Neolibe al En i onmen s: False p omises and unna u al consequences, Heynen, N., J. McCa hy, S. P udham and P. Robbins (eds.) Rou ledge, pp. 51-62. SWYNGEDOUW, E. (2011) “In e oga ing pos -democ a iza ion: Reclaiming egali a ian poli ical spaces”, Poli ical Geog aphy, 30(7):370-380 TRANSPARENCIA INTERNACIONAL-ESPAÑA (2013) INTRAG esul s 2013 - T anspa ency Index o Wa e Managemen in Spain. A ailable a : h p://www. anspa encia.o g.es/in ag/INTRAG_2013/%C3%8Dndice_INTRAG_2013.h m TRÉMOLET CONSULTING (2006) Analysis o membe s a es and Pilo i e basin submissions on he s a e o play o cos -e ec i eness analysis in he WFD. A d a epo o he depa men o en i onmen , ood and u al a ai s, UK. A ailable a : h p:// andd.de a.go .uk/Documen .aspx?Documen =EP01032_4622_FRP.doc UNESCO (2008): Da a Requi emen s o In eg a ed U ban Wa e Managemen . U ban Wa e Se ies. h p://books.google.es/books/abou /Da a_Requi emen s_ o _In eg a ed_U ban_W.h ml?hl=e s&id=DPnbl oGn00C. UNIVERSITY OF LJUBLJANA (2012): P ojec : “Quali a i e Modeling om Da a”. h p://www. i.uni-lj.si/en/ esea ch/p ojec s/8889/p ojec .h ml. USACE (2010) "Na ional Repo : Responding o Na ional Wa e Resou ces Challenges, Building S ong Collabo a i e Rela ionships o a Sus ainable Wa e Resou ces Fu u e", U.S. A my Co ps o Enginee s, Washing on, D.C., Augus 2010, page 28. 9. REFERENCES 68 U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY SCIENCE ADVISORY BOARD [USEPA- SAB], (2009). Valuing he P o ec ion o Ecological Sys ems and Se ices. A epo o he science ad iso y boa d. EPA-SAB-09-012/ May 2009/ www.epa.go /sab VALERO, A., UCHE, J., VALERO, A. MARTÍNEZ. A, NAREDO, J.M. and ESCRIU, J. (2006): Fundamen als o Physical Hyd onomics: A new app oach o assess he en i onmen al cos s o he Eu opean Wa e F amewo k Di ec i e. A ailable a : h p:// eide.cps.uniza .es:8080/pub/publici .ns /codigospub/0386/$FILE/cp0386.pd VAN MEERKERK, I., A. VAN BUUREN & J. EDELENBOS (2013) "Wa e Manage s’ Bounda y Judgmen s and Adap i e Wa e Go e nance. An Analysis o he Du ch Ha ing lie Sluices Case", Wa e Resou ces Managemen , 27:2179–2194 VASCO, D. W., DATTA-GUPTA, A. AND LONG, J. C. S. (1997): “Resolu ion and unce ain y in hyd ologic cha ac e iza ion”, Wa e Resou ces Resea ch 33, (3): 379-397 VLACHOPOULOU, M., COUGHLIN, D., FORROW, D., KIRK, S., LOGAN, P., and VOULVOULIS, N. (2013): "The po en ial o using he Ecosys em App oach in he implemen a ion o he EU Wa e F amewo k Di ec i e" Science o he To al En i onmen 470–471: 684–694 WALLIS, C., SEON-MASSIN, N., MARTINI, F. and SCHOUPPE, M. (2011): "Implemen a ion o he Wa e F amewo k Di ec i e: When ecosys em se ices come in o play". 2nd “Wa e Science mee s Policy” E en , B ussels, 29 & 30 Sep embe 2011 WHITE, G. F. (ed.) (1956) The Fu u e o A id Lands: Pape s and Recommenda ions om he In e na ional A id Lands Mee ings, Washing on, DC: Ame ican Associa ion o he Ad ancemen o Science, 257–271. (Publica ion no. 43 o he AAAS). h ps://ia600401.us.a chi e.o g/12/i ems/ u u eo a idland00whi / u u eo a idland00whi .pd [las day consul ed 16 h Feb ua y 2014] WILLAARTS, B., VOLK, M. y AGUILERA, P. (2012): “Assessing he Ecosys em Se ices Supplied by F eshwa e Flows in Medi e anean Ag oecosys ems”. Ag icul u al Wa e Managemen 105: 21- 31. WRIGHT, S. (2007): "Decision-Making in he Eu opean Wa e F amewo k Di ec i e: he Po en ial Consequences o a Neoclassical App oach", Con e ence o he Aus alia and New 9. REFERENCES 69 Zealand Socie y o Ecological Economics (ANZSEE) "Re-in en ing Sus ainabili y: A Clima e o Change", 24 pages: h p://cu is.ku.dk/ws/ iles/8072379/W igh _S ua .pd WYNNE, B. (1992): “Unce ain y and En i onmen al Lea ning: Reconcei ing Science in he P e en a i e Pa adigm” Global En i onmen al Change, 2, (June), 111-127.