Performance, Reflexivity, and Learning Through Biographical-Narrative Research

Quali a i e Inqui y 19(3) 189 –200 © The Au ho (s) 2012 Rep in s and pe mission: sagepub.com/jou nalsPe missions.na DOI: 10.1177/1077800412466223 h p://qix.sagepub.com The Value o Posi ioning Onesel o T ans o ming Reali y Li e-his o y/na a i e inqui y is one o he esea ch app oaches in he social sciences, ha is based on he con ic ion ha scien- i ic knowledge canno be gene a ed a a dis ance om eali y o is dubious ha do no imp o e people’s li es. In he 1920s, he Chicago School began o ca y ou analyses o immig an popula ions using hei biog aphies o li e s o ies.1 Resea ch akes a new di ec ion he e, aking in o accoun he c i icisms o adi ional esea ch. The popula i y and numbe o s udies using he li e-his o y/na a i e me hod ha e g own in ecen decades (Denzin, 1998; Denzin & Lincoln, 1994; Goodson & Sikes, 2001). Bu ke (1973) unde s ands s o ies o be “equipmen o li ing,” as hey a e ools ha allow us o unde s and, e lec , nego ia e, ans o m, and c ea e. Acco ding o Pujadas (2000), “ he e i aliza ion o humanis ic app oaches in he social sciences o e he pas wo decades can be in e - p e ed as a eac ion o he long-las ing hegemonic ole o posi i is pe spec i es om he 1940s o he 1970s” (p. 127). Na a i es ha e been used as a basis o p ocesses o pe - sonal and social ans o ma ion, and as mo i a ions o hese p ocesses, as well. Gende and in e cul u al esea ch has shown he ea u es and biases in ou his o y. Wi hou peo- ple’s es imonies, wi hou hei na a i es and in e p e a- ions, his o y canno be econs uc ed. Each indi idual has a pe sonal dimension as well as a collec i e one, making i possible o s udy pe sonal ci cums ances only in connec ion wi h he con ex s ha endow hem wi h meaning (Da ies & Gannon, 2006; Gonick, Walsh, & B own, 2011). Because o his, bo h discou ses and p ac ices a e included (Ma ín C iado, 1998), alida ing he use o na a i es among disad- an aged popula ions. Na a i e cap u es he p ocesses o economic, poli ical, and cul u al change om he pe spec i e o wo ke s and in con ex s ha need o social ans o ma ion. Simila ly, using his pe spec i e ega ding change, esea ch has been de eloped in he sphe es o eache aining (p o es- sional de elopmen o eache s), he de elopmen o school p og ams (p og am and ins i u ional imp o emen and inno- a ion), and s uden eaching in school. The big boom in li e-his o y/na a i e esea ch, hen, has o do wi h he p edominance and ele ance o social ac o s in he esea ch p ocess (Lincoln & Denzin, 2000). This app oach, wi h he in ol emen o “ egula people” in he esea ch, is applied o many ields (sociology, his o y, educa ion, psychol- ogy, e c.), making o al and w i en his o y an objec o mul i- disciplina y s udy. Wha e e he objec o be s udied (pe sonal and p o essional ajec o ies, people, con ex s, in e ac ions, meanings, e c.), he li e-his o y/na a i e me hod has 466223QIX19310.1177/1077800412 466223Quali a i e Inqui ySua ez-O ega © The Au ho (s) 2012 Rep in s and pe mission: sagepub.com/jou nalsPe missions.na 1Uni e si y o Se ille, Spain Co esponding Au ho : Magdalena Suá ez-O ega, Facul ad de Ciencias de la Educación, Dp o. MIDE (Mé odos de In es igación y Diagnós ico en Educación), Uni e sidad de Se illa; C/ Pi o ecnia, s/n (4.47) 41013-Se illa, Spain Email: [email p o ec ed] Pe o mance, Re lexi i y, and Lea ning Th ough Biog aphical-Na a i e Resea ch Magdalena Suá ez-O ega1 Abs ac This a icle p o ides a c i ical e lec ion on biog aphical-na a i e esea ch based on esea ch expe ience wi h quali a i e me hodology, pa icula ly wi h he applica ion o phenomenological and exis en ial me hods wi h u al women in p ocesses o socio-labo al ansi ion. Focusing on his me hodological app oach, his a icle will conside : (a) he use and impo ance o he biog aphical-na a i e app oach in social sciences, (b) he main ensions and pa adoxes ha exis oday in s udies based on in e p e a i e-c i ical me hods, (c) he biog aphical-na a i e esea ch p ocess using li e s o ies, hei phases, asks, and con ibu ions o science. Joining heo e ical and ield esea ch, he au ho shows how he biog aphical-na a i e me hod and i s pe o mance a o c i ical e lec ion and sha ed lea ning. The e lec ion on one’s own expe ience his me hod p o ides gi es a pe son a sense o au ho ship ega ding he li e, and con ibu es o he de elopmen and ans o ma ion o he pa icipan s. Keywo ds biog aphical-na a i e app oach, pe o mance, e lexi i y, lea ning, li e s o ies, eminis esea ch 190 Quali a i e Inqui y 19(3) o ma i e alue based on he p epa a ion o and e lec ion on one’s own his o y. Some au ho s speak o me a- aining o e e o he capaci y and unc ionali y o he e lexi e p ocesses ha li e-his o ies/s o ies gene a e (Laine, 2000). This is because his e e en p oduces a ea i ma ion o es- o a ion o one’s own sel , endowing he pe son wi h g ea e con idence and pe sonal au onomy. Adop ing his kind o app oach means conside ing he pa - icipan ’ subjec i e consciousness, emphasizing he ole o meanings, e lexi e knowledge, and wo ds (“ oice”) in shap- ing one’s own expe ience. Acco ding o Ga cía Pas o (2005), “ he concep o oice is ela ed o he acknowledgmen o he igh o exp ess onesel and o be aken in o accoun , each pe son as he o she is, wi hou he condi ion o ha ing o adop a s ange, imposed language o way o ep esen a ion (as de ined by he concep s o symbolic iolence and cul u al dominance)” (p. 180). Impo ance is gi en o hono ing he oice o hose who a e socially excluded. Lis ening o hei oices and o he sensi i e issues mani es ed h ough hei oices in ol es signi ying one’s own subjec i i y, acknowledging ha one is pa o socie y (Adams, 2008; Ellis, 2007). Following his line o easoning, he alue o w i ing and o ali y is highligh ed, inso a as “na a ion allows a dis- cou se ha is close o li e, o expe iences and o expe ience, a discou se ha can, in u n, w ap i sel na u ally a ound he exp ession o he hough s, he eelings, and he desi es o he people in ol ed” (A naus, 1995, p. 224). Acco dingly, li e-his o y/na a i e esea ch canno ake place wi hou a labo ious decons uc ion/ econs uc ion o iden i y. This idea is in e es ing o wo main easons. Fi s , due o he in luence ha he ansmission o cul u e can ha e on shaping iden i y, and second, based on a concep o he subjec as an ac i e being, a concep ha is necessa y when men ioning p ocesses o es uc u a ion o ans o - ma ion o one’s own expe ience. Bo h aspec s in e ac , because esea ch pa icipan s, as social ac o s in ol ed in c ea ing hei own his o y (Laine, 2000), cons uc ing and econs uc ing eali y om he pa icula meaning each asc ibes o i . Da ies and Gannon (2006) and Wolgemu h and Donohue (2006) ein o ce his idea when hey e e o each subjec ’s his o ical memo y. The desc ip ions o e en s o occu ences a e no asep ic; a he , hey a e na a ed wi h e e ence o pas expe iences and each indi idual’s sense o app op ia ing cul u e is shown. Following hese lines, and in ag eemen wi h he app oaches Gómez, Puig e , and Flecha (2011) p esen ega ding c i ical communica i e me hodology, my posi ion as a esea che in ends o espond o he dialogic na u e o he ela ionship be ween sciences i sel and he social si ua ions i s udies. Tensions in he Li e-His o y/ Na a i e Me hod? Li e-his o y/na a i e esea ch is insc ibed in an in e p e a i e app oach, h ough quali a i e and c i ical communica i e me hodology. Howe e , s udies ha a e de ined as li e- his o y/na a i e s udies a e o en no eally such, conside - ing he di icul ies in de ining concep s such as pa adigm, app oach, me hodology, and me hod. Today, he li e- his o y/na a i e me hod d ags some p oblems along wi h i . These p oblems come om he dicho omiza ion o no - malized science as i cons uc s duali ies and ca ego ies such as objec i i y-subjec i i y, con ol-na u aliza ion, pa - icipa ion-non-pa icipa ion, u h-e o . In sho , hese ca - ego ies lead us o exclude he pe son and his o he con ex , in endencies owa d he g ea es possible objec i i y by sepa a ing esea ch om he esea ched, and by in es iga - ing si ua ions ad hoc, ha a e almos a i icial, unde sup- posed neu ali y. Al hough oday esea ch on subjec i e in ol emen , as wi h conc e e, indi idual pe sons imme sed in a speci ic con ex , is gi en p io i y, duali ies ega ding subjec i i y and objec i i y and quali a i e-quan i a i e do, in ac , con- inue o appea . Re e ing o his, Bolí a (2002) men ions wo kinds o na a i e esea ch (pa adigma ic analysis and na a i e analysis), poin ing ou ha , e en hough bo h a e legi ima e o cons uc ing scien i ic knowledge, hey imply di e en o ms, esul s, and c i e ia o alida ion. This in o- duces a p oblem wi h espec o alidi y, and o e hical and scien i ic gua an ees, leading au ho s such as Taylo and Bodgan (1986) o poin ou he need o de e mine “ u h” c i e ia simila o hose ha go e n posi i is esea ch. This e e en o esea ch has become so p edominan in science ha , e en hough c i ical esea ch is gaining ecogni ion, we always end o wonde abou he “quali y” o ou da a, wi h quali y unde s ood o be alidi y and eliabili y, no only in he sense o well-done esea ch bu in he sense o he insis- en need o gene alize knowledge. When MacLu e (2011) e e s o “ up u es” in quali a i e esea ch, she also ocuses on hem om a adi ional hie a chical and lineal s uc u e o hough /knowledge: “We ha e a gued o new o ms o ela ionali y and esponsibili y, ye many o ou “ ield” encoun e s a e s ill egula ed by libe al-humanis e hics and no ions o “open” dialogue” (p. 998) The e lec ion is ou he e bu is closed down, when we s a e ha each me hod o echnique is good o ce ain objec i es and complemen a y me hodologies a e necessa y o s udy a p oblem p ope ly. We ag ee ha complemen a y me hods and echniques mean g ea e ichness (Flick, 2011), bu ou doub s eap- pea when we sugges ha , e en i we de ine ou sel es as quali a i e esea che s, we can ca y ou wi h us quan i a- i e in es iga ion. This depends mainly on he esea ch app oach, on he way we apply he echniques, and on he way we deal wi h he esul s ob ained (a quan i a i e analy- sis o quali a i e da a is possible). I knowledge is cons uc ed in in e ac ion wi h ano he by means o a play o subjec i i ies ha c oss one ano he (Adams, 2008; Da ies & Gannon, 2006; Gonick, Walsh, & B own, 2011), “na a i e is no only a me hodology; as B une (1988) poin ed ou , i is a way o cons uc ing eali y, Suá ez-O ega 191 so ha we could say ha me hodology is based on an on ol- ogy” (Bolí a , 2002, p. 4). The na a i e p ocess p o ides a c i ical communica i e o ganiza ion o esea ch (Gómez, Puig e , & Flecha, 2011) ha : (a) ein o ces he ela ions be ween esea che s and he people who pa icipa e in hei esea ch, (b) omen s an unde s anding o he p oblems by he people in ol ed, and (c) helps hem o gene a e solu- ions. I belie e ha e e yone is capable o analyzing and in e p e ing he o his own eali y, and ha esea ch empow- e s he pa icipan s and p o ides hem wi h ools o ac and ans o m hei eali y. This means ha we need o emphasize an in e p e a i e esea ch p ocess. Wolgemu h and Donohue (2006) op o “emancipa o y esea ch” wi h explici objec i es o imp o - ing and ans o ming people’s li es. Li e-his o y/na a i e esea ch in ol es a p ocess o e lec ing on and econs uc - ing expe ience na a ed by a pe son, some hing beyond he me e applica ion o quali a i e echniques, some hing mo e han jus ano he quali a i e me hodology o add o he lis . I e e s o a p ocess o in-dep h esea ch ha equi es in o- spec ion, p epa a ion, and he unde s anding o meanings based on phenomenology and he meneu ics. The e o e, ol- lowing Bou dieu (1980, 1985), and Husse l (1992), wha we a e in e es ed in is eaching i al and social expe ience jus as i appea s in i s e e yday mani es a ions. F om his pe spec i e, i is impo an o highligh he symbolic alue o he wo d and i s media capaci y, and his p ocess in ol es “pa icipa ing in i s pe son.” This app oach equi es a quali a i e and c i ical commu- nica i e me hodology o ga he ing da a om an in e nal pe spec i e (Salaza Pe ez & Cannella, 2011). This me hod- ology becomes ele an because he changes, mo e han in he numbe , a e in new ways o ela ing o o he s and o li ing. By paying a en ion o subjec i e issues, we can ma k he way o p oceed in esea ch, cha ac e izing he p o- cesses o en e ing, emaining in, and lea ing he scene, as well as he ela ion wi h he main cha ac e s. Howe e , ano he pa adox appea s he e: he ela ionship be ween wha he pa icipan says and wha she eally does comes up agains he ollowing ques ion i ou esea ch is accu a e: How su e a e we ha he in o man is elling us he u h, o how can we gain access o he ue o bes discou se?2 This issue subme ges us in wha Ceglowski, Bacigalupa, & Peck (2011) call “censho ship o quali a i e esea ch.” Quali a i e esea ches, and speci ically biog aphical-na a i e me h- ods, a e once again unde going a c i ical momen in he social sciences. Ba one (2007) sugges s new p edominances o gold s anda ds in esea ch, many o which, a om con- ibu ing quali y o he s udies and me hods ha a e applied, ques ions he esea che abou he kind o esea ch ha is mo e highly alued on he scien i ic le el, ace wi h ob ain- ing posi i e e alua ions o esea ch ac i i y. Thus, he u u e o na a i e inqui y in educa ional esea ch is in doub (Ceglowski, Bacigalupa, & Peck, 2011). Inc easingly, he numbe o publica ions o quali a i e inqui y is declining because hey exac a highe ime and p o essional cos , local s udies ha a o he unde s anding and ans o ma ion o social and educa ional phenomena a e disc edi ed, and he esea ch ca ee is “bu eauc a ized,” wi h quan i y being al- ued mo e han quali y in scien i ic p oduc ion (Sua ez- O ega, Ga cía-Mingo, & Ruiz-San Román, in p ess). Along hese same lines, he alidi y and us wo hiness o hese kinds o s udies is ques ioned (Bu e , 2000, 2005; Ellis, 2007; Polkingho ne, 2007; Zylinka, 2005). The Resea ch P ocess Th ough he Biog aphical-Na a i e App oach Using Li e S o ies In gene al, li e-his o y/na a i e3 esea ch has been de el- oped h ough he use o accoun s/li e-his o ies, ei he o al o w i en. This me hod agglu ina es di e en concep s such as e hnog aphy, case s udies, au obiog aphies and biog aphies, dia ies, le e s, pho og aphs, and pe o mance. Li e s o ies a e de ined as a con e sa ion/na a ion echnique and a e in ol ed in econs uc ing p ocesses o de elopmen o lea ning, based on he use o na a i e, o ali y, o w i ing. They in ol e e ospec i e na a ion by he pe son who is he main cha ac e o he s o y, based on a pa o he expe ience o app oaching i as a whole (B inkmann, 2011). Because o his, acco ding o Laine (2000), he analysis o p ac ices and/ o li e expe iences is ca ied ou om he complexi y o a mul idimensional iden i y. In he s o y, ha which is indi- idual goes along wi h ha which is collec i e, ui o he cul u al cons uc ion ha is p ojec ed on o i . Howe e , he subjec s’ ajec o ies and hei na a i es do no depend solely on he scena ios and con ex s in which hey occu , bu also on he decisions ha he people in ol ed make h ough- ou he na a ion (Wolgemu h & Donohue, 2006). Wha o ell and wha o say, as well as how o in e p e i ; depend on he cha ac e is ics o he p ocess, on he people who a e pa - icipa ing, and on he deg ee o hei awa eness be o e he accoun o s o y. Speci ically, we unde s and a li e-his o y/ na a i e in es iga ion o ha e he ollowing cha ac e is ics: • The pa icipan ’s subjec i e consciousness is gi en p io i y, wi h emphasis on he meanings and wi h an e ec on e lexi e knowledge. The pe son’s “au hen ici y” comes in o play (Cu is, 1978). • I ’s e e en ies o answe he ques ion o how people endow hei own li es, o speci ic momen s o hei li es, wi h meaning, showing in e es in subjec i e issues (Lieblich & Josselson, 1994). • Gi ing oice o people is conside ed ele an , especially gi ing oice o hose who a e socially excluded. The pe son who pa icipa es in he ac ion de elops e lexi e p ocesses ega ding he own exis ence, pu ing he desi es and u u e 192 Quali a i e Inqui y 19(3) p ojec s in o play, om he pas ha cha ac e izes he (Molinié, 2000; Pineau, 2000). • The li e-his o y/na a i e me hod makes cul u e impo an as a media ing elemen in people’s de elopmen p ocesses. Thus, each pe son’s li e acqui es meaning wi hin a g oup and om a social con ex o e e ence (Da ies & Gannon, 2006). Because o his, he social o collec i e na u e o he biog aphy is highligh ed ( oge he wi h i s indi idual na u e). A di e si y o s uc u es is in ol ed in he con ex , and so no only a e he mic o aspec s men ioned— he ones ha in e ene in people’s li es di ec ly—bu also he o he mac o aspec s, e e ing o he economic, poli ical, social, and cul u al con ex su ounding he phenomenon. The s o y is p oduced o cons uc ed be ween he pa icipan himsel and he sociocul u al and no - ma i e e e ence ac o s. Alonso (1999) ein o ces his idea when he e e s o each subjec ’s his o ical memo y. This can be seen because i is no an asep ic desc ip ion o he ac s o e en s ha is gi en; a he , hey a e na a ed wi h e e ence o pas expe iences, showing he meaning o cul u al app op ia ion in each indi- idual. As Ginne e and Blanche (2000, p. 189) explain, “each pe son becomes awa e ha hey come in o he wo ld a a speci ic momen in economic, poli ical, cul u al, and sci- en i ic his o y, and ies o unde s and he impac o hese e en s on his li e cou se.” In sho , he biog aphical me hod is in ima ely ela ed o he shaping o exis ence (Delo y- Monbe ge , 2004a, 2004b; Pineau, 2000). His o y shapes he pa icipan and he pa icipan simul aneously shapes his- o y, p oducing a bidi ec ional econs uc ion p ocess. Thus, he his o ical and sociocul u al dimension is inescapable o achie ing an unde s anding o e en s (Hamme sley & A kinson, 1994). This necessa ily equi es he in ol emen o he pa icipan in c ea ing he own s o y (Laine, 2000), conside ing he elemen s ha media e his p ocess. A Pa h Wi h i s Own Iden i y Based on my esea ch expe ience, li e s o ies a e c ea ed by successi e in e iews (a minimum o h ee ounds), using open o in-dep h in e iews. This is he kind o in e iew ha makes i possible o know and unde s and meaning ul expe iences in women’s li es, as hey in e p e , gi e mean- ing o, and explain hem. Ca ying ou hese in e iews, as Woods (1998) no es, “indica es a ee, open, democ a ic, bidi ec ional, and in o mal p ocess, in which indi iduals can show hem as hey a e, wi hou eeling ied o ce ain oles” (p. 82) Acco ding o Wolgemu h and Donohue (2006), he open in e iew is a necessa y bu no a su i- cien condi ion o doing emancipa o y esea ch. Na a i e inqui y is unde s ood “as in e en ion” (p. 1027), wi h he pu pose o implemen ing eeing and ans o ming (acco d- ing o Foucaul ’s and F ei e’s pedagogy). Fo his eason, he open na u e o he p ocess does no mean a lack o a en ion o issues o design o p epa a ion. Open in e - iews a e no in o mal con e sa ions; hey ha e, on he con a y, clea pu poses and in en ions, and equi e implici schemes in hei de elopmen . The schedule o ques ions, which is o ien a i e, becomes ele an in he p ocess and becomes mo e speci ic as he cycle o in e iews de elops. The schedule o ques ions is a lis o subjec s ha he in e - iew ocuses on. Simila ly, he ques ions become impo - an , because he esponses gi en by he pe son in e iewed depend la gely on he kind o issues o mula ed. Because o his, he ques ions in his kind o in e iew should be gen- e a i e (wi h guide ques ions and suppo ques ions) o s imula e he discou se. Following wha di e en au ho s sugges on his subjec (Go ees & LeComp e, 1988; Sp adley, 1979; Woods, 1998), o he di e en ia ing elemen s o in-dep h in e iews, in addi ion o he kind and o m o he ques ions, a e he explici pu pose o hese in e iews, he explana ions he in e iewe gi es o he in e iewee, a p ocess o mu ual lea ning, he in e pe sonal ela ionship es ablished in he p ocess, he oles adop ed by each pe son h oughou , he esea che ’s p e ious aining and expe ience, and he es ablishmen o he condi ions unde which he in e iews a e conduc ed. Al hough he e lec ion inc eases p og essi ely, he phase o de elopmen and in e iewing becomes mo e ele an in his kind o esea ch. The de elopmen p ocess is open, lexible, and complex, and equi es consensus and nego ia- ion be ween he pa icipan s (in e iewe and in e iewee). The ela ionship should be cha ac e ized by appo , al hough a i s he e is mu ual mis us un il he e has been mo e con ac . This ime equi es a gene al analysis o he si ua ion o be explo ed. To his end, he esea che should show a cons an a i ude o lis ening, a en ion, a ec i e in ol emen , and since i y. Rega ding he numbe o his o ies/s o ies, i is impo an o conside he c i e ion o sa u a ion o in o ma ion p o- posed by Denzin (1970), s ill applied in e hnog aphic esea ch. A ield o s udy should be s udied un il he inco - po a ion o a new case no longe con ibu es any hing new and is edundan wi h e e ence o p e iously ob ained in o - ma ion (Be aux, 1993). In gene al, he sa u a ion o speech ields occu s wi h a ela i ely low numbe o his o ies/ accoun s (conside ing ha e y ich p oduc ions a e ob ained om each in o man ). Ga he ing in o ma ion is one o he mos ime-consuming asks in li e-his o y/na a i e esea ch. F om he momen ha he i s da a is collec ed, he esea che begins he pa ial p e-analysis o he da um, lead- ing o cons an ques ions and wo king hypo heses ha o i- en he esea ch. To cap u e he meaning o he da a, he esea che mus emain in he ield long enough and no be in a hu y o lea e. Simila ly, he esea che should use Suá ez-O ega 193 in o ma ion ob ained by complemen a y echniques, his being undamen al o iangula ion he in o ma ion. En e ing he analy ic phase, I belie e ha c i ical inciden s, concep- ual maps, and biog ams a e use ul echniques o analyzing he in o ma ion (Sua ez-O ega, 2008): • C i ical inciden s make i possible o de ec he poin s o change in people’s li es, he mos mean- ing ul aspec s ha hey a e elling us abou o na a ing and ha ha e gi en meaning o hei expe iences. • Concep ual maps allow us o gi e meaning, a he beginning, o he da a, especially i he in o ma- ion is o ganized join ly wi h he pe son who is p o iding i . • Biog ams a e a mo e global, complex echnique ha makes i possible o es ablish people’s li e pa hs, highligh ing he mos ele an e en s o occu ences, hei ch onology, and he in e iew- ee’s in e p e a ions o e alua ions o hese e en s. I belie e ha biog ams should be p epa ed indi- idually, as hey will o ganize he in o ma ion ch onologically. When we analyze he in o ma ion, i is a good idea o seek discu si e cohe ence, e en hough he e may be con- adic ions in he discou se (Flick, 2011). These con adic- ions should be conside ed na u al, a sign ha p ac ices change o ha he pe son adap s o hem in di e en ways and hen he discou ses change. This is impo an o coun- e ac possible biases ha may appea , because he pa ici- pan does no always say wha she hinks o hink wha she says. In his sense, c oss-checks o he discou ses, wi h he same in o man and/o wi h o he s ( o example, c oss and pa allel li e-his o ies) a e a good idea. The analysis mus be ca ied ou case by case and in gene al, as his will help o iden i y di e en discou ses. To omen anspa ency in he discou ses, i is impo an o include obse a ion, conside symbolic elemen s (wha people wan o say bu don’ , wha is hal said, wha is said wi h ges u es o acial exp essions bu no e bally, and wha is na a ed ha a i s seems nonsensical) (Polkingho ne, 2007; Zylinka, 2005). All o his con ibu es ensions o he discou ses ha de ine discu si e eali ies and p ac ices. The esea che ’s ask is o ind he meaning in each na a ion. Also, when he esea che analyzes he discu si e in o ma- ion, she seeks he meaning o he na a ion and he change gene a ed in in o man s (Gómez, Puig e , & Flecha, 2011). Complemen ed wi h o he in o ma ion-ga he ing echniques, especially obse a ion echniques, his e e en inc eases he c edibili y o he esea ch and he e aci y o he da a (Taylo & Bodgan, 1986). “This con as is a key elemen o C i ical Communica i e Me hodology and helps explain i s ans o ma i e po en ial. In he dialogue be ween hese wo ypes o knowledge new knowledge a ises, knowledge ha is adap ed o he p oblems he subjec s a e acing and includes speci ic p oposals o imp o e he si ua ion” (Gómez, Puig e , & Flecha, 2011, p. 237). Once he p ocess o analyzing he in o ma ion is con- cluded, he nex job is o p epa e he epo o he esul s. This epo should be o ganized acco ding o he mos ele- an in o ma ion p o ided by he in o man s, wi h an a emp o e lec he sequence o analysis and he di e en dis- cou ses. The w i en epo should be clea and simple and should accu a ely p esen he da a ob ained. To do his, i is impo an o e u n he pa ial and o al in o ma ion o he in o man s, compa ing in e p e a ions and/o analyses wi h hem. When i comes ime o w i e he epo , i is impo an no o lose he ichness, he dynamic na u e, and he i aci y o he p ocess, al hough his is ha d o e lec when wha he in e iewe has expe ienced wi h he in e iewee mus be pu down on a icle. I is impo an , he e o e, o include e e - ences o he people and he con ex s, espec ing he e hical no ms ega ding he anonymi y o he in o ma ion, e u ning he in o ma ion o he people who p oduce i , and espec ing he decision o include o exclude discu si e ma e ial. Doing and Valida ing Biog aphical-Na a i e Resea ch Doing he Resea ch . . . T ans o ming he Li es o Spanish Ru al Women Li e his o y is one o he mos po en echniques o bene i - ing lea ning and exis en ial de elopmen . This is e en ue in he ield o ca ee o ien a ion and when we wo k wi h disad an aged g oups o u al women. To s udy women’s p o essional ajec o ies,4 he p e ious expe iences hey ha e had on di e en i al le els mus be aken in o accoun . The con ex i sel and he his o ical pe iod in which he women li e mus be added o hese analy ic dimensions. Speci ically, he 40 women who pa icipa ed in he s udy belong o ou u al con ex s in Andalusia (Spain). They we e be ween 35 and 55 yea s old and had de eloped hei li es in he pe iod o he 1950s and 1960s, when he e we e no many aining o p o essional oppo uni ies o women. Thei li e plans we e condi ioned by a pa ia chal sys em, limi ed o ca ying ou he adi ional oles o wi e, mo he , and housewi e. These a e he oles he women we wo ked wi h de o ed hemsel es o o mos o hei li es. To ca y ou his esea ch, we el i was necessa y o use li e s o ies as he main echnique o women’s sel - e lec ion, sel -awa eness, and sel -de e mina ion. We conside his echnique o be a means o p o essional eo ien a ion, con- ibu ing o p o essional p epa a ion and li e p ojec s acco d- ing o he women’s new in e es s and expec a ions. The 194 Quali a i e Inqui y 19(3) objec i e was o analyze women’s p o essional de elop- men om he pe spec i e o pas , p esen , and u u e, essen ial o p epa ing li e s o ies. This pe spec i e ma ks he esea ch ans e sally. Fi s , we in ended o explo e he women’s aining and wo k si ua ions o unde s and he changes ha we e aking place in hei li es. Second, we wished o become amilia wi h he e e ences ha hey had acqui ed in he pas in hei li es, o ind meaning in he p esen , and o es ablish he possible meaning on which his p esen is based. Thi d, we wan ed o know abou he wom- en’s in e es s, desi es, and expec a ions, es ablishing hei pa hs owa d u u e p o essional/li e imp o emen . The amewo k o his s udy was an in e p e a i e-c i ical app oach o esea ch, di ec ed owa d sel -explo a ion and econs uc ing expe ience. I was amed in e ms o a quali- a i e me hod and, speci ically, used a biog aphical-na a- i e me hod. Pineau (2000) highligh s he ela ionship be ween na a i e and cons uc i is , and sys emic lea ning p ocesses. This is p ecisely whe e li e his o y, as a echnique o p o essional explo a ion, c ys alliza ion, and speci ica- ion, becomes especially in e es ing (Pa on, 2009; Pa on & MacMahon, 2006). This is because his p ocedu e ies o espond o how people endow hei own li es o speci ic momen s and si ua ions in hem wi h meaning and/o sig- ni icance. I is pa icula ly use ul o “accompany, o ien , gi e ise o, and acili a e he cons uc ion o pe sonal p oj- ec s” (Josso, 2000, p. 71). The main s a egy chosen o his esea ch p ocess, o he a o emen ioned easons, was he li e his o y/s o y. This echnique p o ides an in-dep h, sys emic, and in ensi e analysis ca ied ou indi idually by he women. I also con- ibu es a diach onic ision (as well as a synch onic one) ha allows us o know and unde s and he objec o s udy. Acco ding o Laine (2000), he analysis o li e p ac ices and/o expe iences is ca ied ou om he complexi y o a mul idimensional iden i y. Howe e , he ajec o ies o he pa icipan s and hei na a ions do no depend solely on he scenes o con ex s whe e hey de elop, bu also on he deci- sions ha he people in ol ed made h oughou he na a- ion. Wha hey ell and wha hey say, as well as he way hey in e p e i , depends on he cha ac e is ics o he p o- cess, on he people who pa icipa e, and on he deg ee o awa eness o le el o e lec ion hey ha e eached ega d- ing he si ua ion, be o e elling he s o y. The women who pa icipa ed in he li e s o ies we e selec ed ollowing c i e ia o di e si y o p o iles and maxi- mum a iabili y o he in o man s. Aspec s such as age, pe - sonal and p o essional si ua ion, in ol emen in aining ac i i ies, con ex o o igin, and a ailabili y o pa icipa e in he esea ch we e aken in o accoun . P epa ing one’s own li e s o y implies con inuous di ec in ol emen and ac i e pa icipa ion. This is a key aspec and people who pa ici- pa e in analy ic p ocesses o his kind mus be awa e o his. Rega ding he numbe o s o ies aken, i is impo an o conside he c i e ia o in o ma ion sa u a ion. This occu ed in ou s udy a e eigh cases. An o ien a i e ques ion guide was used as a ool o c e- a ing he li e s o ies. This guide was made up o a se ies o clichés o be explo ed, clichés ha we e o de ed (as a ime sequence) and ha allowed bo h he in e iewe and he in e - iewee o si ua e hem when i came o asking and elling/ na a ing, espec i ely. In gene al, h ee biog aphical s ages we e de eloped: - In he i s s age, a gene al ske ch o he ajec o- ies co e ed by he women was ob ained, placing he emphasis on he p e ious (pas ) e e ences ha cha ac e ize hem. In his sense, issues ela ing o he ci cums ances in which he in o man s we e bo n and g ew up, he mos meaning ul s ages o miles ones in hei li es, and hei p e ious and p esen p o essional si ua ions, we e discussed. A he end o his s age, a balance o all he con- ibu ions was made, highligh ing ele an poin s o gi e he accoun s con inui y. He e a e some b ie examples o he discou ses p esen ed by he women in his s age o hei biog aphies. In 1957 when I was bo n, you can imagine how ew esou ces he e we e and how people li ed. My a he wo ked as a ield hand and my mo he helped him and ook ca e o he house. The e we e ha de imes when less money came in because a ming was e y uns able. I emembe my childhood as nice, in spi e o he po e y . . . I inished p ima y school and wan ed o wo k, I needed o help ou a home and I had o wo k a wha e e I could, seasonal wo k in he ields, cleaning houses, aking ca e o child en, o sewing. My amily did no ha e su icien economic means, he e we e p oblems, lo s o p oblems, ha esul ed in my pa en s sepa a ing when I was g own up, and I had a eally bad ime wi h ha and i a ec ed me a lo . (In o man , Ma ía) I was bo n in 1958 and I was he i s gi l o six boys. A he beginning you don’ ealize, bu hen you s a disco e ing how his can change you li e, especially i you pa en s’ way o hinking and he way o hink- ing o he whole pe iod is so igid, whe e women a e seen as jus o ma ying, ha ing child en, and de o - ing hemsel es o aking ca e o e e yone else. Tha is kind o how my li e was: wo king, wo king, and wo king mo e o o he s, nobody paying me any- hing, no being able o de o e mysel o s udying and seeking a p o essional u u e. (In o man , Concha) - In he second biog aphical s ages, in-dep h wo k was done on he in o man s’ speci ic si ua ions, al hough Suá ez-O ega 195 emphasis was placed on explo ing a se ies o opics in each case. Speci ically, he second s age ocused on explo ing he p esen dimension (p o essional/ li e ansi ions). The way he women pe cei ed and in e p e ed ansi ional momen s (p o essional/li e change) was emphasized, as well as he way hey e alua ed hem wi h espec o he u u e. O he issues, such as he subjec i e meaning o wo k, he cen ali y o he job ole, li es yles, sel -concep , and he women’s p o essional and i al ep esen a- ions, we e also conside ed. A ew sho examples will show he discou ses he women p oduced in his s age o he biog aphies: When I didn’ ha e hese p oblems, I could app oach li e di e en ly, akes cou ses now and hen and look o a job. Fo me, ge ing ma ied ep essed me, because, since I didn’ ha e an educa ion o a s able job . . . oh, yes, I qui he job ha I did ha e. Now I am igh ing o ollow wha I le behind, now I ealice, bu , o cou se, a lo o ime has gone by and you a e mo e awa e o you li e. (In o man , Ana) ( . . . ) wo k also made an impo an ma k on me, wo k, wo k when I s a ed o wo k in houses, ha ’s a job ha i seems like you can’ ge ou o i , you wan o wo k a some hing else and he only wo k you ha e is cleaning and maybe you ind some hing else… bu cleaning, you know? (In o man , Angeli a) He e, wha kind o jobs a e you going o look o ? The e a en’ any jobs he e, yes, I mean, I’m on he lis o job acancies a he own hall, and i hey ake on ano he gi l, i will be me because I’m i s on he lis , bu ha won’ sol e any hing a all o me. I he e a e oli es, I’ll go pick oli es . . . I wo k a wha e e comes up in he illage. (In o man , Rosa). ( . . . ) now, once summe is o e , I am going o see wha I kinds o hings I can do, how I can do hem… because he main hing is ime, and I ha e ime, and he desi e, I wan o lea n, he hing is, I don’ ha e much suppo om o he s, bu , oh well. I also hink I ha e o decide on my own ( . . . ). So, he u h is, I would like o ind a job, an op ion ha I like and ha makes me eel mo i a ed and ha I am de eloping mysel , some hing ha I ha e ne e had, you know? Tos ay I ha e a job and I ge paid o i , I hink ha ha is e y impo an o a pe son, I ell my daugh e ha . (In o man , Au o a) - In he hi d s age, emphasis was gi en o explo - ing he women’s p ojec ions o he u u e and on p o essional/li e planning. A his poin , p e ious aspec s con e ged wi h hose being explo ed ( u u e aspec s), es ablishing connec ions among signi ican miles ones. Issues ega ding he wom- en’s p o essional p ojec ions (job alues, in e es s, and decision-making), he deg ee o de ini ion o speci ici y o p o essional/li e plans, and he cha - ac e is ics o hese plans, as well as he aspec s ha condi ion women in eo ien ing hei ca ee s we e deal wi h. In his inal s age, he women we e also asked o e alua e he p ocess subjec i ely, analyzing i s unc ional quali ies as a lea ning me hod.5 Now I will p esen some b ie examples o he women’s discou ses in his s age o hei biog aphies: Yes, s a you own business, i s iskie , bu ha ’s all he e is, and i also depends on . . . i wo ks well o you, igh ? A leas o me, i le s you o ganize you - sel di e en ly, i ’s no eigh hou s s aigh and ha - ing o lea e he child en a his pe son o ha pe son’s house, so, in ha way, i ’s easie , you can do i mo e easily, bu wo k ha hey hi e you o . . . no, o cou se no , hing’s a e bad, bu , well, i we can ge ou sel es s a ed up in sel -employmen , se up ou own business. S a ing is always e y bad because you can’ manage i igh away . . . bu , anyway, li le by li le, hings a e going well, he e a e a lo o people li ing he e and he illage is ge ing be e , i ’s a iny illage, bu no so small as no o ha e any hing ( . . . ) I’m ying o ha e a s able job, s a ing a small business, o a leas ying o. (In o man , Ca men) I’d like o wo k in he heal h sec o , bu , come on! Since I’m no p epa ed o do ha , I wouldn’ mind being in he adminis a ion ( . . . ) I someones says I could wo k as a salespe son in a shop o aking ca e o clien s, I wouldn’ mind ha , ei he ( . . . ) (In o man , Ma ía) Some ba ie s o s a ing o wo k . . . I you hink abou i , I don’ ha e any hing, no documen ha ce i- ies any o he hings I can do, and I hink i ’s a icious ci cle because, like I said, I’m in a ba because I know how o do ha kind o wo k and I would p o e i wi h he expe ience I ha e, bu I can’ e en p o e ha because I wasn’ insu ed, so i ’s ha d o ind wo k, e y ha d (silence). I ’s ha d o be able o wo k because you ha e no expe ience, bu i you don’ wo k you’ll ne e ge any, and we always end up in he same place, i ’s always he same, you don’ wo k because you don’ ha e expe ience, and i hey ne e hi e you, you can ne e p o e i . (In o man , Me cedes) Th ee successi e in e iews we e ca ied ou wi h each o he women, las ing app oxima ely an hou and a hal each. 196 Quali a i e Inqui y 19(3) P io o hese in e iews, he women we e each con ac ed again, and he equi emen s and gene al app oach o he esea ch, wha hey would be asked o do, and he asks hey would need o unde ake we e explained and nego ia ed. Pe sonal e lec ion was equi ed, as well as pe sonal in e - es and a commi men o he ask. Thus, a cycle o biog aph- ical in e iews began, whe e he pe son as a whole came in o play. Wi h he pe son’s commi men o he esea ch and a clea delimi a ion o he oles, appo was es ablished be ween he women and us. In o ma ion was ga he ed in he i s in e iew, and was ansc ibed, coded, and analyzed in an explo a o y manne be o e he nex con ac ( he second in e iew), in an a emp o in e p e he ma e ial and ob ain elemen s o unde s and i o he nex ( hi d) in e iew. A e he successi e in e iews, imp o emen s in he p o- cess o ca ying ou he in e iews which will, la e , be shaped in o his o ies, we e made. Once he p ocess was comple ed, ich quali a i e ma e ial was a ailable, which could hen be analyzed in a global ashion. This ma e ial was gi en back o he pa icipan s h ough he pa ial epo s made a he end o each biog aphical s age. Once his p o- cess was o e , he women analyzed he inal epo globally. Using his analy ic wo k, he women sha ed hei biog ams and li e his o ies, hey sha ed hei expe iences and desi es, and hey iden i ied common ba ie s o job inse ion ha we e he s a ing poin o c ea ing possible solu ions o hei si ua ions o p o essional/li e ansi ion. Fo me, my spouse was an impo an ba ie , well, my spouse and, speci ically, ma iage, because ha ’s whe e all my p oblems came om, because he was a eal male chau inis and, i ook me a long ime o ealice how I was li ing. (In o man , Au o a) ( . . . ) My lack o aining . . . In he pe iod when I g ew up he e we e no oppo uni ies o women, he e we e no economic esou ces, he e we e no means e en in he illages, hey we e eally backwa d. (In o man , Me cedes) Mo he hood eally made a ma k on me, o good and o bad. I’m no so y, bu i ’s ue ha , since he esponsibili y was all mine, I had o qui my job and I ha en’ been able o s a o s udy again un il now, now ha my child en a e g own up. (In o man , Ca men) ( . . . ) one p oblema I see is ha we a e ha dly gi en any o ien a ion abou how o ge a job, and also ha he e is no mucha id o women who wan o s a hei own businesses. (In o man , Rosa) Valida ing he Resea ch . . . Beginning Wi h Onesel , he Value o Subjec i e Expe ience Al hough he women p o ided a lo o esul s ha deal wi h explo ing and planning hei p o essional/li e ajec o ies in his esea ch, (e.g., Suá ez-O ega, 2008, 2009a, 2009b), we will desc ibe he subjec i e e alua ions o he p ocess o wo king wi h hem in his sec ion. The p ocess ollowed a emp s o ca y ou he oca ional de elopmen s ages p oposed by Pelle ie (1986, 1995) wi h he women, s ages ha deal wi h explo ing, c ys allizing, iden i ying, and ca - ying ou oca ional de elopmen . The i s s age ocused on p o essional explo a ion. We wo ked wi h he women o iden i y hei needs and necessa y p o essional skills, o eo ien hei p o essional p ojec s. Al hough he women de eloped mo e skills o p o essional explo a ion, his p ocess was, acco ding o hem, a s a ing poin o p ojec - ing hei li es, an achie emen in i sel : “By hinking abou mysel , abou my li e, I am lea ning o plan wha I wan o do, o cla i y my hinking. I ha e seen he connec ions be ween wha has happened o me and my p esen si ua ion, and I ha e been able o unde s and why I eel he need o change p o essionally now, as well as pe sonally, because hese aspec s a e ela ed”(Focus g oup: women). The women’s subjec i e e alua ion o hei own p o- cesses con ibu ed some me hodological e e ences o con- s uc ing women’s p ojec s. These p ocesses helped us de ec he women’s s ong need o ela e o o he people, people wi h whom hey can alk and sha e hei expe iences and eelings. In his sense, he in o man s highligh ha he way he esea che lis ened was posi i e, because i e lec ed he eeling o alue ha hey ha e abou hei own li es when hey a e conside ed objec o s udy. The ime de o ed o he in e iews ein o ced he in o man s’ own eelings. These women’s needs o es ablish ela ionships wi h o he women and o ha e ime o hemsel es and o encou age sel -explo a ion we e e lec ed: “This whole p ocess has been e y use ul o me, because you can ealize hings on you own, bu since you don’ alk and hink abou hem, since you don’ e lec on hem, you don’ eally become awa e o how hey in luence ce ain aspec s o you li e. Nobody had shown so much in e es in my own li e, in how I had el and in how I eel igh now” (Focus g oup: women). Doing he in e iews and explo ing speci ic aspec s ha he main cha ac e s alued ga e hem he chance o na a e, explo e, and e alua e hei li e expe iences. I also ga e hem he chance o become mo e awa e o he li e e en s hey had expe ienced, and o gi e hem meaning based on hei own desi es and expec a ions. In his sense, he in e - iew p ocess se ed o ein o ce hei decision-making and o unde s and hei conce ns and mo i a ions ega ding he wo ld o wo k, linked o hei li e plan. The wo k ca ied ou o selec , desc ibe, in e p e , and analyze he meaning ul miles ones in hese women’s li es made i easie o hem o become mo e cohe en conce ning hei li e ajec o ies, making hem eel ha hey we e in cha ge o hei own li es. In addi ion, he analysis o hei li e ajec o ies allowed hem o iden i y gende s e eo ypes and o he condi ioning ac o s, as well as some o hei own sel -limi a ions, and e en de ec possible sou ces o suppo o p o essional de elopmen . The p ocesses o in ospec ion and e lec ion, Suá ez-O ega 197 oge he wi h de ec ing limi ing and acili a ing aspec s o hei ca ee s, led hem o become awa e o he si ua ions ha hey expe ienced and o mo e owa d ac ion mo e suc- cess ully: “I hink ha hese in e iews help you o cla i y, o emembe hings ha ha e happened o you, o unde - s and hem . . . hey help you o hink abou wha you eally wan in li e, and i you’ e no eally clea abou you ideas, hey gi e you clues ha make you see hings mo e clea ly. They ha e also helped me o become awa e o some o he aspec s ha we e making my li e di icul , as well as o people, cen e s, and esou ces ha can help me o imp o e my u u e” (Focus g oup: women). Th oughou his p ocess, i was impo an o he women o be able o p ojec hei own di icul ies, ea s, and unce - ain ies, and o pe cei e he esea che ’s complici y. Gi ing hem a elease o hese di icul ies le hem become awa e, li le by li le, o he si ua ion hey we e expe iencing, ana- lyzing he si ua ion om each woman’s speci ic eali y. I also se ed o gi e he women mo e con idence, become pe sonally and p o essionally mo i a ed, o make hem wish o inno a e and o do hings di e en ly om how hey had done hem in ea lie li e s ages. The con idence he women gained in his p ocess also allowed hem o elimi- na e, li le by li le, esis ance o change, o pe cei e change as possible, and o eel ha hei li es belonged o hem, ha hey we e in cha ge o hei li es: “This p ocess has s imu- la ed me, i has encou aged me, I ha e been able o alk abou hings and sha e expe iences wi h o he women, and ha makes you eel be e abou you sel , and makes you eadie o change. Jus alking does you good, i mus be ha I hadn’ e e alked abou such pe sonal hings . . ., and, also, you e lec a lo on wha has happened o you, abou wha you wan now, abou wha you would like change . . . I’ e lea ned, go en o know mysel be e , and become mo i a ed o do hings, no jus o hink abou doing hem, because I ha e also ealized ha e e y hing’s no closed when you’ e o y yea s old, bu ha he e a e chances o do hings” (Focus g oup: women). The p ocess hey expe ienced allowed hem o accep li e he way i had been, e balize i , in e p e i , and ew i e i . They lea ned abou hemsel es and hey also de eloped he skills o iden i y needs and o make hei li e plan con- c e e, li le by li le. Voca ional choice and decision-making played a ele an ole, s a ing wi h he way hey ca ied ou he di e en li e oles ha hey pu in o play. This gene a ed sa is ac ion in hese women and also acili a ed he wom- en’s p og ess and sel -de e mina ion: “Pa hs ha help o e lec on li e, which enable you o make sense o a lo o hings ha happen o you, disco e hings abou you sel es, and also a way o lea n ha i is no jus o now, bu o o he imes, la e .” “Re lec ing on my ca ee and disco e - ing aluable in o ma ion abou my li e has made me eel sa is ied wi h mysel and mo e secu e in my u u e deci- sion-making” (Focus g oup: women). Conclusions and Discussion The biog aphical-na a i e me hod has ce ain po en ials o social and educa i e esea ch, such as he ollowing. (1) The possibili y o compa ing mac o and mic o pe spec i es (Da ies & Gannon, 2006), one o he limi a ions o quan i a i e esea ch; (2) A e lexi e, dynamic, eme gen , p og essi e design, ha makes i possible o cons an ly c e- a e new o ms o in e ac ion and esponsibili y among he pa icipan s, and be ween he pa ici- pan s and he esea che , o gene a e an “open dialogue” (MacLu e, 2001), and o con ibu e alid consensual esponses o he objec o s udy; (3) The da a-ga he ing echniques make possible desc ip ions and cha ac e iza ions ha a e ue o eali y possible. Speci ically, pe o mance in e - iews (o s o ies) a e cha ac e ized as a “ e lexi e, dialogic, o pe o mance in e iew” (B inkmann, 2011, p. 24), whe e people can mani es hei desi es, eelings, and imaginai es abou hei li es in a u opian way and c ea e o he possible o ms o being and being in he wo ld; (4) People a e no educed o a iables bu a he conside ed as a whole. I makes i possible o know people and o people o know hemsel es, o unde s and he key poin s on which hey ha e buil hei li es, as well as some o he mos impo an e e ences on which he p esen need o change es s; (5) The li e-his o y na a i e me hod con ibu es o cons uc ing indi idual and collec i e iden i y (Gonick, Walsh, & B own, 2011). This is mainly due o he e lec ion ha i in ol es. People who pa icipa e de elop e lexi e p ocesses ega d- ing hei own exis ence and pu hei own desi es and u u e p ojec s in o play, based on a pas ha cha ac e ized his exis ence; (6) Re lec ion on one’s own expe ience gi es a pe son a sense o au ho ship ega ding he li e, leading he o become awa e o i , o posi ion he sel , and o cla i y he li e-op ions (Gine e & Blanche, 2000). In his sense, i makes i easie o he indi idual o lea n a cons an pe son- en i onmen adap i e, sel - egula o y p ocess, which can be used once i is lea ned, mo e and mo e au onomously, in each li e ansi ion. (7) In addi ion, in he cou se o he esea ch, he peo- ple who pa icipa ed –including he esea che - modi ied hei schema o hinking and ac ing (Tanggaa d, 2009). Bo h pa s in e ene in ec e- a ing con e sa ional eali y, p oducing knowledge h ough he in e subjec i i ies pu in o play o