Father involvement and marital relationship during transition to parenthood: Differences between dual and single-earner families

Sho i le: T ansi ion o pa en hood: Fa he in ol emen and ma i al ela ionship Full i le: Fa he in ol emen and ma i al ela ionship du ing ansi ion o pa en hood: Di e ences be ween dual- and single-ea ne amilies. Au ho s: SUSANA MENÉNDEZ* Mª VICTORIA HIDALGO** LUCÍA JIMÉNEZ** Mª CARMEN MORENO** A ilia ion: *Uni e si y o Huel a, Spain. **Uni e si y o Se ille, Spain. Da e o pos age: Decembe 17 h, 2009. Co espondence conce ning his a icle should be add essed o Susana Menéndez Ál a ez-Da de ([email p o ec ed]). Depa amen o de Psicología E olu i a y de la Educación. Uni e sidad de Huel a. Campus del Ca men, A da. T es de Ma zo s/n, 21001 Huel a, Spain. Sho i le: T ansi ion o pa en hood: Fa he in ol emen and ma i al ela ionship Full i le: Fa he in ol emen and ma i al ela ionship du ing ansi ion o pa en hood: Di e ences be ween dual- and single-ea ne amilies. Da e o pos age: Decembe 17 h, 2009. Abs ac Resea ch in o he p ocess o becoming mo he o a he shows e y conclusi ely ha his impo an li e ansi ion is accompanied by bo h a dec ease in ma i al quali y and a mo e adi ional di ision o labou . In his pape hese changes a e analyzed wi h special emphasis on he ela ionships be ween hem and explo ing he ole played in his p ocess by he mo he ’s wo k s a us. Resul s showed a signi ican link be ween he de elopmen o ma i al quali y and iola ed expec a ions ega ding a he in ol emen on child ea ing. Dual-ea ne amilies we e cha ac e ized by a speci ic pa e n o changes, wi h g ea e s abili y han single-ea ne amilies in ma i al and pa en al oles du ing ansi ion o pa en hood and a signi ican ole played by spouse suppo as a pa ne , bu no as a pa en . Key wo ds: Fa he in ol emen , ma i al quali y, ansi ion o pa en hood, mo he ’s wo k s a us. Resumen: La in es igación sob e el p oceso de con e i se en mad e o en pad e mues a, de mane a muy concluyen e, que es a impo an e ansición e olu i a suele es a ca ac e izada po un dec emen o en la calidad de la elación de pa eja y po una adicionalización en la di isión de las a eas den o del hoga . En es e a ículo se analizan ambos ipos de cambios p es ando especial a ención a la elación en e los mismos, y se explo a el papel que juega en ellos el hecho de que la muje abaje o no ue a del hoga . Los esul ados indican que exis e una impo an e elación en e el desa ollo de la elación de pa eja y la iolación de expec a i as espec o a la implicación del pad e en la c ianza y el cuidado del bebé. Las pa ejas en las que ambos miemb os abajan ue a del hoga ienden a es a ca ac e izadas po una mayo es abilidad en los oles como pa eja y como p ogeni o es du an e la ansición, y po el signi ica i o papel que en es e p oceso juega el apoyo del cónyuge como pa eja y no como p ogeni o . Palab as cla e: Implicación pa e na, calidad de la elación de pa eja, ansición a la pa e nidad y la ma e nidad, es a us labo al de la mad e. Acknowledgemen s: The esea ch desc ibed in his a icle was conduc ed as pa o he p og amme Coope a ion in Ma e nal-In an Educa ion Ac i i ies, un by he Public Sani a y Se ice o Andalucía (Spain) and he Depa men o De elopmen al and Educa ional Psychology (Uni e si y o Se ille, Spain) unde he di ec ion o he P o esso Jesús Palacios. In Spain, as well as in o he Eu opean coun ies, he g owing p esence o women in he labo o ce has cons i u ed a salien cha ac e is ic o ecen changes in ou social o ganiza ion. The pe cen age o wo ke women has d ama ically inc eased om 29.79% in 1989 o 51.57% in 2009 (Na ional S a is ic Ins i u e, 2010). Acco ding o sociological analyses (i.e., Albe di, 1995; Iglesias de Ussel, 1998) his ele an change has p o oked a complex p ocess o e-de ini ion and e-nego ia ion o male and emale oles, as well as a g owing equali y in oles pe o med by bo h men and women in di e en domains, pa icula ly in amily con ex . As a consequence, social sciences ha e shown a g owing in e es in examining possible changes in he male ole as a he s, pa icula ly pa e nal pa icipa ion in child ea ing. The ex en and ype o a he in ol emen in he ca e o his child en is b oadly concep ualized as a complex and mul idimensional cons uc , wi h bo h cogni i e/a i udinal and beha io al componen s (Engle & Leona d, 1995; Pa ke, 2002; Pleck, 1997). The e o e, schola ships ha e examined a i udinal ace s o pa e nal ole as cen al cons uc s o unde s anding a he in ol emen , like gene al ideology abou pa e nal and ma e nal oles in he amily, wi h special e e ence o he le el o adi ionalism o gende ideology and ole a i udes, as well as he a he ’s in es men in his pa e nal iden i y (Bulanda, 2004; Gaun , 2005, 2006; McB ide, B own, Bos , Shin, Vaughn & Ko h, 2005; Pa e na & Ma ínez, 2006, 2009; Rane & McB ide, 2000). In addi ion o he app oach desc ibed abo e, esea che s ha e been in e es ed in he ex en and ype o a he in ol emen in speci ic child ea ing asks. F om his pe spec i e, and acco ding o Lamb (Lamb, Pleck, Cha no & Le ine, 1987), a he in ol emen has been concep ualized as he le el o men pa icipa ion in child daily li e in h ee di e en ways: The amoun o ime and he ype o asks which a he s a e usually in ol ed in (a) in e ac ing di ec ly wi h he child, (b) being physically o emo ionally a ailable o accessible o he child, and (c) assuming esponsibili y o he child’s ca e and wel a e. Lamb’s h ee-pa model has been b oadly empi ically examined and con inues o be an impo an guide o esea ch on a he in ol emen in child ea ing. Ne e heless, he majo i y o he s udies ha e been cen e ed on he amoun and ype o child ea ing asks ha a he s pe o m in he daily li e o hei child en, ha is, he in e ac ion le el desc ibed in Lamb’s h ee-pa model. The p esen s udy is an a emp o examine a he in ol emen (pa icula ly a he ’s di ec pa icipa ion in child ea ing asks) du ing he ansi ion o pa en hood, one o he majo li e ansi ions o he adul age. Despi e he impo an changes Spanish amilies ha e unde gone du ing he pas decades in ela ion o bi h a es (i.e., a dec ease o bi h age -a e age numbe o child en pe women has allen om 2.8 in 1975 o 1.4 in 2009- o a delay in he iming o mo he hood -a e age age a ma e ni y was 28.8 in 1975 and 30.87 in 2009-; Na ional S a is ics Ins i u e, 2010), becoming a pa en emains a common expe ience o mos women and men in Spain, and con inues o be a no ma i e li e ansi ion du ing adul hood. De elopmen al esea ch in o he p ocesses o con inui y and change ha ake place du ing he ansi ion o pa en hood o e s conclusi e e idence ha becoming a mo he o a a he is a c i ical ime o he ma i al ela ionship, and one o he mos di icul ansi ions o couples. So, childbi h ends o be accompanied by an inc ease in con lic be ween pa en s, combined wi h a s ong educ ion in join ime and ac i i ies as pa ne s and an o e all lowe sa is ac ion wi h he ma i al ela ionship (Belsky & Ro ine, 1990; Cowan & Cowan, 2000; Feldman, 2000; Law ence, Nylen, & Cobb, 2007; Le y-Shi , 1994). Howe e , hese esul s mus be examined mo e p ecisely. Fi s , he nega i e changes expe ienced a e, on a e age, s a is ically signi ican bu wi h a mode a e clinical ele ance. Second, when analyses ex end beyond he cen al endencies in he da a, a ma ked a iabili y be ween amilies eme ges (Belsky & Ro ine, 1990; Cowan & Cowan, 2000; Law ence e al., 2007). Finally, s udies also show a high le el o con inui y wi hin each couple. Thus, pa ne s wi h a sa is ac o y ela ion be o e hei baby’s bi h a e likely o con inue enjoying a posi i e ma i al ela ionship a e becoming pa en s, despi e any sligh and empo a y de e io a ion. Simila ly, o couples wi h p oblems o unde a ce ain amoun o p essu e, becoming pa en s ends o agg a a e any al eady exis ing p oblems (Cowan & Cowan, 2000). S udies ha e also e y conclusi ely shown a s ong endency o sex- yping in he di ision o labou , wi h a signi ican inc ease in women’s commi men o domes ic asks a e he ansi ion (Belsky, Lang, & Hus on, 1986; Cowan & Cowan, 2000; Goldbe g & Pe y-Jenkins, 2004). Rega ding child ea ing, he s udies ha ha e explo ed p ena al expec a ions and a he ’s ac ual in ol emen a e baby’s bi h ha e ound ha he expec a ions a e e y op imis ic and inconsis en wi h a he ’s pa icipa ion in subsequen mon hs (Belsky e al., 1986; Cowan & Cowan, 2000; Goldbe g & Pe y-Jenkins, 2004). This disc epancy was desc ibed by Belsky (1985) as iola ed expec a ions, e e ing o he expe ience o pa en s who ace a eali y qui e di e en om he one hey had an icipa ed. Howe e , again s udies ha e shown ha le els o a he in ol emen be o e and a e he baby’s bi h a e closely ela ed. Thus, signi ican changes occu owa ds mo e adi ional sex oles bu wi hin impo an and signi ican in a amily con inui y. Summing up, he ansi ion o pa en hood is a c i ical ime o ma i al and pa en al oles, wi h a se ies o changes ha a e nega i e in sign and mode a e in magni ude, bu a he same ime hese changes a e cha ac e ized by signi ican con inui y. Li le is known abou he ela ionship be ween hese oles and, speci ically, be ween he changes in ma i al and pa en al oles du ing he p ocess o becoming pa en s. Howe e , his li e ansi ion can only be ully unde s ood i a sys emic amewo k is adop ed. The p ocesses o change ha men and women go h ough when becoming pa en s —on bo h indi idual and in e pe sonal le els— a e in e ela ed and mu ually in luen ial (Belsky & Ro ine, 1990; Cowan & Cowan, 2000). Speci ically, se e al s udies ha e ound ma i al sa is ac ion and a he in ol emen o be in e ela ed issues du ing he ansi ion o pa en hood: g ea e p ena al ma i al sa is ac ion end o be ela ed o mo e a he in ol emen in child ea ing (Belsky & Ro ine, 1990; Feldman, 2000; Lee & Dohe y, 2007). The mu ual in luence o he oles as pa ne s and pa en s is no only a ma e o he s eng h o hese issues bu is also ela ed o he pa e ns o change in hese oles. The e is empi ical e idence ha a he in ol emen is a ac o clea ly linked o he dec ease in ma i al sa is ac ion du ing he ansi ion o pa en hood. In he analysis ca ied ou by Le y-Shi (1994; Le y-Shi & Is aelash ili, 1988), he deg ee and ex en o he dec ease in ma i al sa is ac ion was mainly explained by he le el o a he ’s pa icipa ion in child ea ing. Cowan and Cowan (2000) epo ed simila esul s, bu he e he nega i e e ec o pa en hood on he pa ne s’ ela ionship was mainly mi iga ed by he deg ee o disc epancy be ween p ena al expec a ions and ac ual a he in ol emen , ha is, he iola ed expec a ions desc ibed by Belsky (1985). I seems ha iola ed expec a ions o a he in ol emen in child ea ing a e especially c i ical o he de elopmen o ma i al quali y, so ca ing o he baby p oduces mos o he new and p essing demands ha pa ne s ace when becoming pa en s (Feldman, 2000; Goldbe g & Pe y-Jenkins, 2004; Le y-Shi , 1994). Li le is known abou he ole played by unde going he ansi ion o pa en hood in a single o a dual-ea ne amily. In esea ch abou a he in ol emen , whe he o no Ne e heless, co ela ion analyses e ealed signi ican ela ions in all he opics be ween T1 and T2. INSERT TABLE 1 HERE To explo e he ole ha mo he ’s wo k s a us plays in hese ela ions, we pe o med addi ional analyses. Fi s , wo mul i a ia e analysis o a iance (MANOVA) we e pe o med a T1 and T2 sepa a ely including mo he ’s wo k s a us as independen a iable and ma i al quali y, a he in ol emen , pa ne suppo o pa en hood, and pa ne suppo o gene al ma e s as dependen a iables. These analyses showed signi ican di e ences be ween pa en s om single- and dual-ea ne amilies a T1, F (4, 138) = 3.45, p < .01, and T2, F (4, 138) = 2.83, p < .05. Subsequen uni a ia e ANOVAs indica ed ha hese di e ences we e explained pa icula ly by a he in ol emen , F (1, 141) = 5.04, p < .05 a T1 and F (1, 141) = 10.37, p < .01 a T2, and pa ne suppo o pa en hood, F (1, 141) = 3.73, p < .05 a T1. Second, he main e ec o mo he ’s wo k s a us was included in he mul i a ia e epea ed measu ed analysis p esen ed a he beginning o his sec ion, showing ha he model was nea ly signi ican o he se o he opics assessed, F (4, 138) = 2.18, p = .07. Thi d, ollowing Riley’s (1990) sugges ion, we pe o med wo sepa a e mul i a ia e epea ed measu ed analyses o single- and dual-ea ne amilies in o de o explo e di e ences be ween T1 and T2 in he di ec sco es. The esul s ob ained (see Table 2) showed signi ican di e ences o pa en s om single-ea ne amilies, F (4, 96) = 7.83, p < .001, pa icula ly o ma i al quali y, F (1, 99) = 21.65, p < .001, a he in ol emen , F (1, 99) = 15.81, p < .001, and pa ne suppo o gene al ma e s, F (1, 99) = 5.03, p < .05. INSERT TABLE 2 HERE Bi a ia e co ela ion analyses o change sco es we e un o explo e co a ia ion be ween he de elopmen o ma i al quali y and changes in o he issues. The esul s showed signi ican and posi i e co ela ions be ween he change in ma i al quali y and he change in he o he h ee sco es: pa ne suppo o pa en hood, (187) = .237, p < .001, pa ne suppo o gene al ma e s, (187) = .51, p < .001, and iola ed expec a ions o a he in ol emen , (143) = .152, p < .05. Two sepa a e linea eg ession analyses o dual- and single-ea ne amilies we e compu ed in o de o assess he ela i e s eng h o hese a iables in p edic ing change in ma i al quali y ac oss he ansi ion o pa en hood in each ype o amily (see Table 3). Resul s ob ained o single-ea ne amilies showed pa ne suppo o gene al ma e s as he only a iable ha was signi ican ly ela ed (β = .647, p < .001) wi h he change in ma i al quali y. In dual-ea ne amilies, bo h pa ne suppo o gene al ma e s (β = .536, p < .001 and iola ed expec a ions abou a he in ol emen (β = .183, p < .05) p edic ed change in ma i al quali y. INSERT TABLE 3 HERE DISCUSSION The main goal o he p esen s udy was o examine a he in ol emen du ing he ansi ion o pa en hood. As p e ious s udies had poin ed ou , he ob ained esul s shed ligh abou a he in ol emen in child ea ing as a complex and mul idimensional cons uc (Pa ke, 2002; Pleck, 1997). Desc ip i e analyses pe o med allow us o d aw conclusions qui e simila o hose exp essed in he li e a u e (Belsky & Ro ine, 1990; Cowan & Cowan, 2000; Law ence e al., 2007; Le y-Shi , 1994). The a e age endencies indica e ha becoming a pa en is a p ocess ha p omo es some nega i e changes in ma i al quali y, and ha o ganiza ion o child ea ing is qui e di e en om p ena al expec a ions. Howe e , co ela ion analyses showed ha hese mainly nega i e changes occu , on a e age, wi hin signi ican in a amily con inui y. Ne e heless, he esul s p esen ed he e also iden i ied one excep ion o his mo e gene al in e p e a ion: in his pa e n o nega i e changes, he e we e no ele an changes ela ed o pa ne suppo o pa en hood. Combining his esul wi h he signi ican dec ease in suppo by he spouse as pa ne seems o indica e ha , du ing he ansi ion, many pa en s may expe ience changes in opposi e di ec ions. The e o e, he adap a ion o pa en hood implies, o a g ea ex en , mo e commi men o he ela ionship as pa en s and less o he ela ionship as pa ne s. One o he possible implica ions o hese opposing pa e ns is he obse ed signi ican dec ease in he pe cei ed ma i al quali y. The esul s o he de elopmen al analy ical s a egy seem o us o be especially in e es ing. Wi h hese analyses, we ied o a oid limi ing he s eng h o he di e en issues assessed be o e and a e baby’s bi h, and o ocus on he s eng h o he changes ha occu du ing he ansi ion, ha is, on he le el o con inui y/discon inui y expe ienced du ing he p ocess o becoming pa en s. The e o e, hese change sco es allow us o p oduce indexes ha p o ide in o ma ion o a highly de elopmen al na u e. The esul s o his ype o analysis con i m, as do o he s udies (Cowan & Cowan, 2000; Le y-Shi , 1994; Le y-Shi & Is aelash ili, 1988), he in e ac ion be ween he de elopmen o ma i al quali y and a he in ol emen du ing he ansi ion o pa en hood. Pa en s whose p ena al expec a ions o a he in ol emen we e close o he a he ’s ac ual pa icipa ion expe ienced less de e io a ion and g ea e con inui y in ma i al sa is ac ion du ing he ansi ion. As Belsky (1985) sugges ed, wi hin he p ocess o changes and adjus men s ha occu s du ing he ansi ion o pa en hood, he iola ion o expec a ions p e iously held abou hese changes p obably does no p omo e sa is ac o y e olu ion o he p ocess. Viola ed expec a ions seem o ha e pa icula ly nega i e consequences when hey in ol e child ea ing, whe e he disc epancy be ween expec a ion and eali y means ha he mo he is in ol ed in hese asks mo e han expec ed, esul ing in a mo e c i ical iew o he pa ne and a dec ease in ma i al quali y (Feldman, 2000; Le y-Shi , 1994). Howe e , his a gumen does no explain he dec ease in ma i al sa is ac ion expe ienced by a he (FOOTNOTE 1) . As Le y- Shi (1994) ema ks, a dec ease in he a he ’s sa is ac ion may ha e wo complemen a y explana ions. On he one hand, a g ea e amoun o ime spen ca ing o he baby may be linked o a educ ion in a mo he ’s in ol emen in he ma i al ela ionship, and hese changes may a ec he a he nega i ely. On he o he hand, in hose cases whe e men hoped and wished o unde ake a mo e ac i e ole as a he s, he g ea e in ol emen o he mo he may be linked o he a he eeling like an ou side . Bo h possible si ua ions could con ibu e o he common pa e nal expe ience o a dec ease in he pe cei ed ma i al quali y, al hough o di e en easons om hose expe ienced by mo he s. In sho , i seems o indica e ha he e a e wo pa e ns o change, which a e he consequences o di e en p ocesses. As Cowan and Cowan (2000) poin ed ou , he ansi ion o pa en hood is accompanied by adjus men s and changes ha , o a ce ain ex en , end o de ine he ansi ion o mo he hood and he ansi ion o a he hood. Ne e heless, we hink ha in u u e esea ch we should conduc speci ic analyses in o de o explo e he p ocess o becoming a pa en sepa a ely o women and men. Despi e hese gende di e ences, ou da a analyses sugges s ha pa e ns o con inui y end o happen oge he : mo e s able pa ne ela ions occu ed among pa en s whose expec a ions we e close o eali y. These esul s highligh he impo ance o s abili y in imes o ansi ion. De elopmen al ansi ions a e po en ially s ess ul mainly because many changes occu in a a ie y o a eas du ing hese pe iods o people’s li es. I hese changes ake place wi h a backd op o o e all s abili y, he adul and/o he couple a e mo e likely o manage he ansi ion sa is ac o ily. The p esen s udy con i ms ha mo he ’s wo k s a us plays an impo an ole in a he in ol emen in child ea ing. Feldman (2000) discussed he need o mo e s udies o cla i y he weigh ha his index has in explaining he a iabili y obse ed in he p ocess o becoming pa en s. The e o e, and ollowing Riley’s ecommenda ions (1990), we pe o med sepa a e analyses o dual- and single-ea ne amilies, inding ha he ansi ions expe ienced by bo h ypes o amilies a e ai ly simila . Howe e , he esul s conce ning he changes in ma i al quali y, a he in ol emen , pa ne suppo o pa en hood and pa ne suppo o gene al ma e s did no show signi ican di e ences o dual-ea ne amilies. These esul s indica e, as we hypo hesized, ha he ansi ion expe ienced by dual-ea ne amilies is a mo e con inuous and sligh ly mo e posi i e p ocess. Ou eg ession analyses indica ed ha , on he one hand, in single- and in dual- ea ne amilies, s abili y in ma i al quali y was especially and s ongly associa ed wi h s abili y in suppo p o ided by he spouse, bu as pa ne , no as co-pa en . This esul emphasizes he c i ical ole o s abili y in he pa ne ’s suppo o gene al issues in mi iga ing any dec ease in pe cei ed ma i al quali y: couples wi h posi i e p o iles end o be hose ha do no become pa en s o he de imen o hei ole as pa ne s. The e o e, he ansi ion o pa en hood seems o be a p ocess cha ac e ized by s ong changes in ma i al and pa en al oles which a e be e managed om a backg ound o con inui y. On he o he hand, eg ession analysis pe o med o dual-ea ne amilies con i med he impo an ole played by pa ne suppo in his ype o mic osys em, bu hey showed ha changes in ma i al quali y we e also signi ican ly p edic ed by iola ed expec a ions abou a he in ol emen . As we men ioned in he in oduc ion, di e en au ho s (Ba ne & Ba uch, 1988; C ou e & Manke, 1997; Go ied & Go ied, 2006; Lee & Dohe y, 2007; Riley, 1990) ha e sugges ed ha , compa ed wi h mo he s om single-ea ne amilies, he lowe le el o ime a ailable o mo he s om dual-ea ne amilies o dedica e o child ea ing is ela ed o a lowe le el o oli ion in e ms o a he in ol emen . So, in amilies whe e he woman is in he labo o ce, he a he ’s pa icipa ion in adi ionally emale asks is mo e necessa y and mo e s able han in single-ea ne homes. The e o e in hese amilies, wi h lowe le els o will ulness in a he in ol emen , he s abili y o he pa ne and pa en ela ionships and hei mu ual in luences seem o be pa icula ly c i ical du ing he ansi ion o pa en hood. In sho , he esul s p esen ed he e show ha he oles as pa ne and pa en , wo o he mos impo an ace s o adul iden i y, a e closely ela ed since he ime one becomes a pa en , and hei de elopmen du ing his impo an ansi ion will depend, abo e all, on he ecological cha ac e is ics ha de ine each amily sys em. Anyhow, we hink ha he p esen s udy has wo main limi a ions. On he one hand, he e a e o he opics ha should con ibu e o imp o ing ou unde s anding o his ele an de elopmen al ansi ion which ha e no been commen ed on in his pape , pa icula ly gende , expe ience as pa en and cha ac e is ics o mo he s’ labou condi ions; hese analyses a e cen al esea ch ques ions o ou nex planned publica ions. 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