The most normalized white-collar crime worldwide: tax evasion

FACULTAD DE TURISMO Y FINANZAS GRADO EN FINANZAS Y CONTABILIDAD THE MOST NORMALIZED WHITE-COLLAR CRIME WORLDWIDE: TAX EVASION T abajo Fin de G ado p esen ado po Dª Lau a Real Rod íguez, siendo la u o a del mismo la p o eso a Dª Pila Cubiles Sánchez-Pob e. Vº. Bº. del Tu o a: Dña. Pila Cubiles Sánchez-Pob e Alumna: Dña. Lau a Real Rod íguez Se illa. Junio de 2022 GRADO EN FINANZAS Y CONTABILIDAD FACULTAD DE TURISMO Y FINANZAS TRABAJO FIN DE GRADO CURSO ACADÉMICO [2021-2022] TÍTULO: THE MOST NORMALIZED WHITE-COLLAR CRIME WORLDWIDE: TAX EVASION AUTOR: Dª LAURA REAL RODRÍGUEZ TUTOR: D a. Dª. PILAR CUBILES SÁNCHEZ-POBRE DEPARTAMENTO: De echo Financie o y T ibu a io ÁREA DE CONOCIMIENTO: De echo Financie o y T ibu a io ABSTRACT: One o he main p oblems a ound he axa ion sys ems wo ldwide is he lack o a comple e exchange o in o ma ion be ween e i o ies. In e na ional coope a ion is he co ne s one o he igh agains ax e asion. Howe e , eaching luen communica ion be ween coun ies, e en wi hin he Eu opean Union, is complex and a mo e e o s a e needed o achie e he desi ed objec i e. E o s such as he o ganiza ion o he Fi h Fo um by pa o he OECD whe e he Ten Global P inciples agains Tax C ime we e bo n in o de o ensu e ax compliance. T ying o ind a solu ion, he analysis o inancial s a emen s and he Beneish model will be included as he main sou ce o ea ly iden i ica ion o hese audulen ac i i ies, in addi ion o he use o ce ain ypes o incen i es, bo h angible and in angible, as an a emp o p omo e he olun a y compliance. Once analysed he global si ua ion, his pape will examine he impac o his aud on he Spanish economy, he penal ies imposed and ac ion plans by ins i u ions such as he AEAT. KEYWORDS: Tax e asion; OECD; Tax compliance; Tax Adminis a ion; Special Pu pose En i ies. TFG-Finanzas y Con abilidad. Mos no malized Whi e-colla c ime wo ldwide: Tax e asion. - I - INDEX 1 INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................ 4 2 WHAT IS CONSIDERED ‘TAX CRIME’? ........................................................................ 6 2.1 Tax a oidance ............................................................................................................. 6 2.2 Tax ligh ...................................................................................................................... 6 2.3 Tax e asion ................................................................................................................. 6 3 TAX EVASION AROUND EUROPE ................................................................................. 8 3.1 Main ins i u ions ha ensu e compliance wi h he law ......................................... 8 3.1.1 Eu opean Union .............................................................................................. 8 3.1.2 Eu opol ................................................................................................................ 9 3.1.3 Financial Ac ion Tax Fo ce ............................................................................... 9 3.1.4 Wo ld Bank G oup ........................................................................................... 10 3.1.5 In e na ional Mone a y Fund ......................................................................... 11 3.2 OECD i h o um ...................................................................................................... 12 3.2.1 Ac ion plan ........................................................................................................ 12 3.2.2 P inciples o he Fo um: ................................................................................. 13 4 MOST COMMON MECHANISMS USED FOR TAX EVASION................................. 15 4.1 Special Pu pose En i ies ......................................................................................... 15 4.1.1 De ini ion ........................................................................................................... 15 4.1.2 Tax ad an ages o SPEs ................................................................................ 16 4.1.3 Tax disad an ages o SPEs ........................................................................... 17 4.1.4 En on Scandal: cooking he books ............................................................... 17 5 MEASURES FOR IDENTIFICATION OF TAX CRIME ............................................... 19 5.1 Financial S a emen s Analysis: Ra io Analysis .................................................... 19 5.2 Beneish Model .......................................................................................................... 20 6 INCENTIVES FOR TAX COMPLIANCE ....................................................................... 22 6.1 Ma e ialis ic Incen i es ............................................................................................ 22 6.2 Respec ul and esponsi e ea men ................................................................... 22 6.3 Ve bal ewa ds.......................................................................................................... 23 7 WHAT ABOUT SPAIN? .................................................................................................... 24 7.1 Economic impac o Tax e asion. .......................................................................... 24 7.2 Concep o Tax e asion in Spain. Penal ies and punishmen . .......................... 24 7.2.1 Concep o Tax e asion in Spain. ................................................................. 24 7.2.2 Penal ies and punishmen . ............................................................................ 25 7.3 F aud ela ed o accoun ing. .................................................................................. 26 7.3.1 Accoun ing aud. ............................................................................................ 26 7.3.2 Dual-use so wa e echnology ....................................................................... 26 7.4 Key agencies comba ing ax c ime ....................................................................... 27 TFG-Finanzas y Con abilidad. The mos no malized whi e-colla c ime: Tax e asion. 7.5 An i- aud measu es ................................................................................................ 28 7.5.1 P e en ion o Tax and Cus oms F aud ........................................................ 28 7.5.1.1 Assis ance o axpaye s ................................................................................. 28 7.5.1.2 P e en i e ac ions ........................................................................................... 29 7.5.2 Tax and cus oms aud con ol ac ions. ....................................................... 30 8 CONCLUSION .................................................................................................................. 32 BIBLIOGRAPHY ........................................................................................................................ 34 TFG-Finanzas y Con abilidad. The mos no malized whi e-colla c ime: Tax e asion. LIST OF ACRONYMS ACRONYM MEANING OECD O ganiza ion o Economic Co-ope a ion and De elopmen EU Eu opean Union IT Compu e s and In o ma ion Technology VAT Value-Added Tax EUROPOL Eu opean Union Agency o Law En o cemen MTIC Missing T ade In a Communi y F aud EFECC Eu opean Financial and Economic C ime Cen e FATF Financial Ac ion Task Fo ce DPRK Democ a ic People´s Republic o Ko ea WBG Wo ld Bank G oup DRM Domes ic e enue mobiliza ion PCT Pla o m o Collabo a ion on Tax IMF In e na ional Mone a y Fund UN Uni ed Na ions GDP G oss Domes ic P oduc CRS Common Repo ing S anda ds SPE Special Pu pose En i y SPV Special Pu pose Vehicle BEPS Base and E osion P o i Shi ing P ojec MTM Ma k- o-Ma ke SOX Sa banes-Oxley FIU Financial In elligence Uni AEAT ‘Agencia Es a al de Adminis ación T ibu a ia’ (S a e Tax Adminis a ion Agency) SEPBLAC ‘Se icio Ejecu i o de Comisión de P e ención del Blanqueo de Capi ales e In acciones Mone a ias’ (Execu i e Se ice o he Commission o he P e en ion o Money Launde ing and Mone a y O ences) SAR Suspicious Ac i i y Repo s ED Excise Du ies IS In e nal Re enue Se ice PIT Pe sonal Income Tax TFG-Finanzas y Con abilidad. The mos no malized whi e-colla c ime wo ldwide: ax e asion. 4 1 INTRODUCTION All esea ch is bo n o a conce n. In he case o his s udy, i a ises om he need o emphasize he impac ha ou beha io as ci izens has on he Tax Adminis a ion. I is also impo an o s udy he nega i e consequences ha will in luence he wel a e s a e ha ci izens o coun ies such as Spain and he Uni ed S a es enjoy. The concep "Wel a e S a e" o wel a e socie y is a poli ical-economic exp ession ha e e s o he social model o a s a e ha is esponsible o co e ing he social igh s o all i s ci izens. (Will Ken on and Toby Wal e s 2020) The S a e he e o e assumes ce ain esponsibili ies o he p o ision o ce ain se ices ha will hus be conside ed public, such as heal h o educa ion, wi h he main aim o p e en ing ce ain social g oups om alling in o ma ginali y. (Will Ken on and Toby Wal e s 2020) The main me hod a ailable o go e nmen s o edis ibu e he weal h needed o achie e he Wel a e S a e is he collec ion o axes and ees, Hence, he main objec i e o he p incipal ins i u ions, such as he OECD in an in e na ional ield and he ‘Agencia T ibu a ia’ in he Spanish e i o y, is o pu sue he e ec i e applica ion o he ax sys em. As a esul , a second complemen a y objec i e will be implici ly bo n: olun a y compliance by axpaye s. This concep is one o he main objec i es o Tax Adminis a ions wo ldwide. Thus, he undamen al challenge acing adminis a ions, bo h na ionally and in e na ionally, is ax e asion. The complexi y o he sys em, oge he wi h he ax bu den and he lack o economic educa ion make ax e asion a emp ing way ou o many axpaye s. In iew o his si ua ion, he Adminis a ion is gene ally a a disad an age and ies o ackle e y speci ic p oblems in a piecemeal manne . This scena io will u he incen i ize ax c ime since he axpaye does no pe cei e he eal isk o cos o hei ac ions. The ole o go e nmen s in his ield is key and has been in ensi ied by p essu e o inc ease he collec ion o hei axes in o de o mee he need o comply wi h he p o ision o public se ices, among o he obliga ions. While e asion has always been an issue o ele ance, i was in he ea ly 1980s ha de eloping coun ies ound hemsel es a a di icul c oss oads. Vi ually mos o hem we e unable o mee hei paymen obliga ions and as a esul began o expe ience a lack o unds o hei de elopmen . (Cosulich Ayala 1993) As a solu ion, deb o coun ies eached ce ain ag eemen s wi h c edi o s, h ough he in e en ion o in e na ional o ganiza ions, o clean up hei public accoun s. In his way, he ole o go e nmen s in his ield is in ensi ied wi h he p essu e o inc ease he collec ion o hei axes o ace he need o comply wi h he p o ision o public se ices, among o he obliga ions. This esul ed in he educ ion o public expendi u es and he app o al o nume ous ax e o ms. Cu en ly, ax e asion con inues o ace a a - eaching challenge. In ecen yea s he e has been inc eased conce n abou he so-called in o mal economy, whose iscal consequences will cause signi ican losses o he Adminis a ion. TFG-Finanzas y Con abilidad. The mos no malized whi e-colla c ime: Tax e asion. In his way, coope a ion be ween e i o ies is essen ial o con inuing p og essing in he igh agains ax c ime, o de ini i ely pu an end o he ax hideou s o he c iminals who ake ad an age o his lack o in o ma ion exchange. Fo all his, he implemen a ion o measu es o p e en and supp ess e asion is conside ed a undamen al mission, om he mo al, social, legal, and economic poin o iew. Taking in o accoun he ele ance o he p oblem, i will be conside ed a collec i e esponsibili y, which in ol es he whole socie y a all le els. All o abo e explain he need o s udy some ac o s ela ed wi h Tax e asion. Fi s o all, i is impo an o de ine he concep o ax e asion, and once in e nalized, i s applica ion in he Eu opean e i o y will be o special in e es , whe e ins i u ions such as he OECD will play a undamen al ole. Secondly, Special Pu pose En i ies will be analyzed as he main ehicle o expansion o his aud, exempli ying he use o his ool by he En on Co p scandal. As a ional beings, a ises he need o inding a solu ion o his p oblem. Speci ically in his documen , he analysis o inancial s a emen s and he Beneish model will be included as he main sou ce o ea ly iden i ica ion o hese audulen ac i i ies, in addi ion o he use o ce ain ypes o incen i es, in o de o p omo e he olun a y compliance. To conclude wi h he analysis o he si ua ion, he a en ion is ocused on he impac ha hese illici p ac ices ha e on he Spanish economy, analyzing in his way he penal ies imposed and an i- aud measu es by ins i u ions such as he AEAT will be exposed. TFG-Finanzas y Con abilidad. The mos no malized whi e-colla c ime: Tax e asion. 2 WHAT IS CONSIDERED ‘TAX CRIME’? I we ask someone wha he o she conside s as ax c ime, he answe may seem ob ious o hem: he ac o de auding o decei ing he public easu y on he paymen o axes. And his is o ally ue bu , mos o he ime, his is mixed up wi h o he si ua ions as he ax loopholes exploi a ion o ax ha ens. A e hey legal? A e hey mo al? In o de o cla i y hese doub s, we will in oduce he de ini ions o he ollowing e ms: ax a oidance, ax ligh and ax e asion. 2.1 Tax a oidance Tax a oidance is he p ac ice o educing he ax paymen s using legal mechanisms, such as he exploi a ion o ax loopholes. This ask is associa ed wi h e ms such as ‘good idea’ and ‘cle e ’, as a s udy published by he Jou nal o Economic Psychology shows. This pape coun s wi h he collabo a ion o 252 iscal o ice s, Economics and Business Adminis a ion s uden s, business lawye s and di e en en ep eneu s. (Ki chle , Maciejo sky, and Schneide 2003) These ax loopholes mainly a ise om he lack o de ailed in o ma ion o he axpaye s, as he legal amewo k canno co e all he speci ic cases wo ldwide, oge he wi h he di icul y his implies o he ax au ho i ies o de ec he illici ac i i ies. Addi ionally, some coun ies may ha e lack o iscal capaci y, which may lead o he inabili y o c ea e p ecise accoun ing and iscal ules. (Thum, Ma ji , and Seidel 2016) This legal limbo encompasses ex/cum ansac ions, among o he s. These a e ansac ions in which he sha es a e paid immedia ely be o e he paymen o di idends (cum di idend), bu hey a e deli e ed a e he paymen (ex-di idend). This ac ion c ea es con usion abou who owns he sha es a he ime he paymen is done, allowing bo h pa ies o claim e unds on wi hholdings axes, e en hough hey a e only paid once, when he di idend is issued. I is classi ied as ax a bi age and i is conside ed illegal in some coun ies as Ge many. (Bue ne e al. 2020) 2.2 Tax ligh Tax ligh alks abou ealloca ing he main business in o a new coun y, called ax ha ens. These a e e i o ies ha o e s ax ad an ages o o eign in es o s, including s a egies as he low o ze o co po a e ax a es. (Dha mapala 2008). This ac i i y is o ally legal, bu in he eyes o mos o he socie y, is immo al. The popula ion conside a coun y as a big amily, so as e e yone is obliged o con ibu e o he s a e easu y. This s a emen is exempli ied by he slogan o he Spanish T easu y “Hacienda Somos Todos”. The lis elabo a ed by he OECD in 2000, include e i o ies such as Panama, he P incipali y o Monaco, he Republic o he Maldi es o Gib al a in hese p ac ices. (OECD 2000). Nowadays, hese coun ies a e classi ied inside he EU lis o non- coope a i e ju isdic ions o ax pu poses since 2020, as i will be men ioned in poin 3.1.1. 2.3 Tax e asion The Ox o d Languages Dic iona y (2022) de ines ax e asion as he ‘illegal non-paymen o unde paymen o ax’. The e o e, his ac i i y is conside ed comple ely illegal, and o ha eason, each go e nmen o each na ion will es ablish di e en sanc ions o i s inhabi an s. In he case o Spain, hese penal ies will be exposed in poin 6.4. TFG-Finanzas y Con abilidad. The mos no malized whi e-colla c ime: Tax e asion. This p ac ice is commi ed wil ully, which implies in ol es he subjec ’s knowledge o he malicious beha iou he is engaging in and he consequences i will ha e on go e nmen ax collec ion.(Yánez Hen íquez 2015) E en so, acco ding o he p inciple o p esump ion o innocence, any pe son in es iga ed o he execu ion o an alleged o ence shall no be guil y a p io i and shall lose his o he innocence only and exclusi ely when he e is a judicial decision made by an independen and impa ial cou suppo ing his accusa ion. (Belda Pé ez-Ped e o 2001) Mo eo e , alking abou he in e na ional ela ions be ween coun ies, some people y o decei e ax-collec ing o ganiza ions by sp eading hei business nucleus ac oss di e en e i o ies. I should be no ed ha one o he main cha ac e is ics o he ax ha ens men ioned abo e is no o decla e he income ob ained by i s inhabi an s. (Uckma 2006) This would complica e he ques ion o whe e hese indi iduals should epo income, o en causing con usion because, in acco dance wi h he p inciple o Wo ld Wide Income Taxa ion, e e y pe son is axed in his o he coun y o esidence on he income he o she ea ns anywhe e in he wo ld. (Ma ín Bení ez 2007) Aimed o cla i y such si ua ions and de e mine he esidence o he indi iduals, each coun y may main ain a double axa ion ag eemen wi h he o he coun ies wi h which i main ain any kind o ela ionship. (Uckma 2006) TFG-Finanzas y Con abilidad. The mos no malized whi e-colla c ime: Tax e asion. - P inciple 4: Ha e E ec i e Powe s o F eeze, Seize and Con isca e Asse s. ‘Ju isdic ions should ha e he abili y o eeze / seize asse s in he cou se o a ax c ime in es iga ion, and he abili y o con isca e asse s’ - P inciple 5: Pu in Place an O ganiza ional S uc u e wi h De ined Responsibili ies. ‘A ju isdic ion should ha e an o ganiza ional model wi h de ined esponsibili ies o igh ing ax c ime and o he inancial c ime.’ - P inciple 6: P o ide Adequa e Resou ces o Tax C ime In es iga ion. ‘Tax c ime in es iga ion agencies should ha e adequa e esou ces’ - P inciple 7: Make Tax C imes a P edica e O ence o Money Launde ing. ‘Ju isdic ions should designa e ax c imes as one o he p edica e o ences o money launde ing.’ - P inciple 8: Ha e an E ec i e F amewo k o Domes ic In e -Agency Co- ope a ion. ‘Ju isdic ions should ha e an e ec i e legal and adminis a i e amewo k o acili a e collabo a ion be ween ax au ho i ies and o he domes ic law en o cemen and in elligence agencies.’ - P inciple 9: Ensu e In e na ional Co-ope a ion Mechanisms a e A ailable. ‘Tax c ime in es iga ion agencies mus ha e access o c iminal legal ins umen s and an adequa e ope a ional amewo k o e ec i e in e na ional co-ope a ion in he in es iga ion and p osecu ion o ax c imes.’ - P inciple 10: P o ec Suspec s’ Righ s. ‘Taxpaye s suspec ed o accused o commi ing a ax c ime mus be able o ely on basic p ocedu al and undamen al igh s.’ TFG-Finanzas y Con abilidad. The mos no malized whi e-colla c ime: Tax e asion. 4 MOST COMMON MECHANISMS USED FOR TAX EVASION A e analyzing he ins i u ions ha ensu e he ax compliance, i is wo hy o s udy he pe o mances o he i ms in ol ed in his illici ac i i y. Some big scandals ha e b ough in o ligh he mechanism ha hey used o a oiding paying wha co esponds. The mos used ool in his case is he Special Pu pose En i ies (SPE). 4.1 Special Pu pose En i ies 4.1.1 De ini ion A Special Pu pose En i y (SPE), also called Special Pu pose Vehicle (SPV), is an en i y c ea ed wi h a speci ic objec i e, ha can be, o example, o con ac a leasing, in es men p ope y o e en ade in he inancial ma ke s o swaps and o he de i a i e ins umen s. The p incipal cha ac e is ic o his kind o en i ies is ha hey ha e he abili y o isola e he inancial isk o i s pa en company, ha is o say, i s c ea o . As i is a comple ely independen i m, i s asse s, ne wo h and obliga ions a e o ally sa e, e en i i s pa en company goes bank up . This scheme b ie ly se s ou an example whe e he SPE acqui es a loan o he pu chase o an asse ha he pa en company will subsequen ly enjoy: Figu e 1: SPE example scheme Mainly hanks o he abo e cha ac e is ics, hese en i ies depic a clea ep esen a ion o he ine line be ween legal limbo and illegal ac i i ies, be ween ax a oidance and ax e asion. On he one hand, ax a oidance is achie ed by he di e ence be ween he ax a es o be paid by each company sepa a ely. Bu , on he o he hand, ax e asion comes in o play when hese unique ea u es a e used o hide he holding company’s eal si ua ion, ying o hide deb s o oxic asse s 2 among a Special Pu pose Vehicle (SPV) (Hayes 2021) and bo h companies a e no pe cei ed as a whole. (Deme é, Donohoe, and Lisowsky 2020) This manipula ion o i s numbe s means ha he pa en i m does no communica e o exp ess he company’s ai h ul image o ex e nal use s and ha i seems o be mo e 2 Toxic asse s a e hose ha a e ha d o impossible o sell as he ma ke is o ally upse and he i m canno ind a coun e pa y o he sale. The po en ial buye s see i as a gua an eed loss o money. (Chen 2020) The bank g an s a loan o he SPE The SPE acqui es he new asse The SPE en s he asse o he pa en company The SPE pays he loan wi h i s co esponding in e es The pa en company pays he en o he SPE PARENT COMPANY ASSET BANKING INSTITUTION SPECIAL PURPOSE ENTITY TFG-Finanzas y Con abilidad. The mos no malized whi e-colla c ime: Tax e asion. p o i able han i eally is. (Hayes 2021) This si ua ion con adic s he accoun ing bases ha s ipula e ha he ac ual ep esen a ion o he accoun s is a p e equisi e, since i con ibu es u h ulness o he accoun s o he gi en company. (Coll Mo ales 2020) 4.1.2 Tax ad an ages o SPEs As men ioned abo e, hese en i ies a e always c ea ed wi h a special pu pose. Depending on i , he agg essi eness o he s a egies ca ied ou will oscilla e. I should be no ed ha he p esence o hese en i ies does no always ensu e he exis ence o ax sa ings, since o he ac o s such as he pe cep ion o he whole as a consolida ed g oup o he co ec dis ibu ion o asse s come in o play o hem o come ue. The e o e, hese en i ies may only gene a e ax sa ings o hei c ea o s when hey a e linked o he e m ‘ ax-ad an aged’. (Deme é e al. 2020) Tax-ad an aged is de ined as a ype o asse ha o e s ax bene i s, ha can ende om some exemp ions o he de e al o he axes. The ax-de e ed accoun s include he ad an age o possible ax deduc ions on he whole cu en axable amoun , bu his quan i y will be included in u u e yea s axa ions. On he o he hand, he ax-exemp accoun s consis s o a p i ilege as es ablished by he Go e nmen o he Law, which excludes he paymen o a ax, o a subjec who would be heo e ically obliged o pay i by law. (In es opedia 2021) Once hese e ms ha e been de ined, i can be s a ed ha a SPV can gene a e sa ings in axa ion h ough wo di e en canals. Fi s ly, SPEs can help i s pa en company o achie e mo e ax-ad an aged ea u es. This can be possible as hese en i ies a e o ally independen , and hei asse s and ansac ions ollow a comple ely di e en line o hei holding. In ha way, he SPE can suppo high- isk asse s, elie ing he deb abili y o hei pa en , consequen ly leading o a educ ion on ax paymen s and inc ease on he ax-deduc ible in e es expenses. Mo eo e , hanks o hei abili y o cap i a e inancing, hey can also include in hei accoun s asse s and p ojec s ha can inc ease i s pa en dep ecia ion o bad deb deduc ions. (Deme é e al. 2020) Secondly, hey can boos he ax e iciency con ibu ing o adop ion o some business nucleus, o example he pa en s, and la e o he eloca ion o hem o low- ax e i o ies. These p ac ices a e so ex emely common, o he poin ha he OECD has had o implemen measu es as i conside s i a ax mis ea acco ding o he Base and E osion P o i Shi ing P ojec (BEPS) 3 . (Deme é e al. 2020) Fu he mo e, on he mos hos ile side, he SPEs can achie e he ax sa ing ac oss ax shel e s. (Deme é e al. 2020) Some asse s as he municipal bonds and he employmen e i emen plans a e conside ed ax shel e s. These shel e s a e legal mechanisms o cumula e asse s in o de o minimize i s liabili ies. (Kagan 2021) In some cases, his ehicle can allow a “double deduc ion” o a pa icula loss. Fo example, selling o ano he en e p ise o he g oup he SPEs, in such a way as o gene a e a deduc ible loss.(Deme é e al. 2020) As a conclusion, he SPEs ha e coun less oppo uni ies ha can be used o do business, bu ca e mus be aken wi h he managemen o hese en i ies no o c oss o he da k side. 3 The ax base e osion and p o i shi ing (BEPS) e e s o he exploi a ion o gaps and misma ches in ax ules achie ing ax a oidance. Speci ically, he BEPS p ojec sum up i een ac ions wi h he objec i e o adjus ing he in e na ional axa ion.(OECD 2016) TFG-Finanzas y Con abilidad. The mos no malized whi e-colla c ime: Tax e asion. 4.1.3 Tax disad an ages o SPEs Al hough, as explained abo e, hese en i ies can p o ide us wi h he oppo uni y o sa e on axes, i should be no ed ha hese sa ings a e no in la ge amoun s, and he e o e, in many cases i is no p o i able. (Deme é e al. 2020) Mo eo e , he p oblem a ouses when he cos s o se ing up such an en i y ou weighs he bene i s. Bu , as he bene i s will be ob ained in he sho o medium e m and he cos s will ake longe o be e lec ed in he accoun s because hey a ise as a consequence o he ansac ion, a i s glance i seems ha he p ojec is p o i able, and he manage s jump in he deep.(Deme é e al. 2020) In addi ion, he c ea ion o hese en i ies en ails o he p oblems o he image o he pa en company. These en i ies educe he quali y o he in o ma ion, as, being a comple ely sepa a e en i y om he holding, i will be e y di icul o ex e nal use s o iden i y he ela ionship i hey a e no ecognized as a consolida ed g oup. This will also lead he p essu e, om bo h he compe en au ho i ies and socie y, o inc ease eno mously. (Deme é e al. 2020) Fu he mo e, he SPEs can cos an inc ease in he paymen o axes, especially a e comple ing he ask o which hey we e c ea ed, he ax sa ings a a ce ain momen in ime. Along wi h his issue, hey can lead o se ious penal ies by he ax au ho i ies i hey do no accep he ax ela ionship be ween he wo companies as a esul o a nega i e audi . (Deme é e al. 2020) Th ough hese audi s, au ho i ies could also adjus ans e p icing be ween bo de ansac ions. In his case, i mus also be bo ne in mind ha he egion whe e he company is es ablished mus allow compensa o y adjus men . I i we e no accep ed, i would esul in double axa ion 4 .(Deme é e al. 2020) 4.1.4 En on Scandal: cooking he books En on Co p. was ounded in 1985 in he me ge o wo na u al-gas- ansmission companies, Hous on Na u al Gas Co. and Omaha, Neb.-based In e No h Inc. A ha ime, he ene gy ma ke egula ions we e signi ican ly educed, allowing companies o gamble wi h u u e p ices. En on posi ioned i sel as one o he mos impo an companies in his sec o , as i achie ed o ix gas p ices o i s cus ome s h ough a con ac ha nego ia ed wi h gas p oduce s by a ee. I became one o he mos popula in e media ies in socie y. Je ey Skilling, he head o he i m, changed om a his o ical cos accoun ing me hod o a ma k- o-ma ke (MTM) accoun ing me hod. (Seabu y 2015) The Ma k- o-Ma ke (MTM) me hod allows he con inuous upda ing o he ai alue o he i m’s accoun s, such as he alue o he asse s and he liabili ies. This p ocedu e gi es mo e accu a e in o ma ion abou he ai image. In con as , in he his o ical cos me hod he asse s main ain i s ai alue since he pu chase momen . (Co po a e Finance Ins i u e 2022) En on used his accoun ing me hod o hide he oubles hey we e ha ing a he end o he boom yea s. En on manage s began o egis e un ealized u u e p o i s, which hey we e able o accoun o hanks o his me hod. Bu e en so, hose e o s we e no enough as he p oblems o e lowed all he accoun s o he o ganiza ion. (Bonda enko 2021) In his way, En on began o use he c ea ion o hese en i ies o y o hide he si ua ion so ha he p ice o he sha es would no collapse, since, i so, he company would go 4 On many occasions, he i ms can ake e uge in he double axa ion ag eemen s ha ha e been es ablished by many coun ies among hem. These ag eemen s y o a oid he en e p ises o pay o he same eason in wo di e en ju isdic ions. (EFE 2019) TFG-Finanzas y Con abilidad. The mos no malized whi e-colla c ime: Tax e asion. om being a benchma k o being p ac ically bank up . The company c ea ed a complex se o ins umen al companies ha we e supposedly, independen . Bu En on indi ec ly con olled hem. They we e used o hide he eali y h ough he concealmen o liabili ies, p o ec asse s o hide hem, c ea e ic i ious bene i s…(Seabu y 2015) Fo example, En on buil a powe -plan and immedia ely, accoun s i s p ojec ed p o i s on i s books. I he plan e enues we e less han p ojec ed, i would ans e hem on i s accoun s. So, he loss wen unde epo ed, making he i ms appea ance mo e p o i able han i eally was.(Seabu y 2015) The mechanics o ansac ions be ween hese wo en i ies we e based on he exchange o s ocks by En on eplacing hem o SPE cash. The sha es ecei ed by he en i ies we e used in u n o co e an asse in En on’s accoun s. Thus, En on would gua an ee SPEs a cons an commi men , appa en ly elimina ing coun e pa y isk. (Seabu y 2015) Along he same lines, he capi al o he companies was wholly owned by En on, as i igge ed i s c ea ion. This mean ha i En on ell, his en i e a my o SPEs would all wi h i . In addi ion, his da a was no ans e ed o in es o s, who knew he exis ence o hese en i ies bu no he capi aliza ion o hese.(Seabu y 2015) The analys s s a ed making ques ions abou his mechanism in Ap il 2001. Then, En on closed wha i called i s Rap o SPEs, ha is o say, i s SPE ne wo k, o a oid dis ibu ing he 58 million in s ock sha es hey owned. When he company began o be in es iga ed, En on e ealed i s $591 million and $628 million in losses and deb , espec i ely. Because o ha , he Sa banes-Oxley (SOX) Ac 5 de e mined a huge penal y o inancial manipula ion. Finally, En on collapsed in Decembe 2001, and wi h i he alues o all SPEs, compelling he gua an ees o he p o agonis o come in o o ce. (Seabu y 2015) 5 The Sa banes-Oxley (SOX) Ac o 2002 is a special law c ea ed in o de o p o ec in es o s om dishones inancial epo ing o en e p ises. (Ken on 2020) TFG-Finanzas y Con abilidad. The mos no malized whi e-colla c ime: Tax e asion. 5 MEASURES FOR IDENTIFICATION OF TAX CRIME A he p esen ime, ax aud has become a majo issue o he socie y as a whole. As he olume and impac o i has inc eased o e ime, no one is dealing wi h i in a supe luous way. In addi ion, he e olu ion o echnology has opened many doo s o he g ea scamme s, being hese inc easingly s a egic and sophis ica ed wi h hei me hods. In esponse o his wa e, egimes ha e become mo e obus and elen less. As a ional human beings, we y o de elop mechanisms o iden i y and, consequen ly, be able o elimina e hese p oblems ha endange he na u al cou se o hings. In he inancial analysis sec o , he expe s can assis in de ec ing hese i egula i ies h ough a ious ools. Among hem, wo di e en in e linked me hods can be ound: he Ra io Analysis and he Beneish Model. 5.1 Financial S a emen s Analysis: Ra io Analysis Economic decision-making is based on inancial and accoun ing in o ma ion ga he ed in he company's inancial s a emen s. In o de o he in o ma ion use o make decisions based on eali y, especially o ex e nal use s, his in o ma ion mus be unbiased and e lec he ue image o he company a issue.(Ken on 2021b) He e lies he main eason o he manipula ion o he accoun s by he execu i es o he company: o show he accoun s o he mos p o i able and a ac i e company o po en ial in es o s. Thus, some expe s conside high le els o indeb edness as a majo ma e , which can encou age manage s o commi ing any illici ac i i ies, so as o sa egua d o p ese e he company’s epu a ion.(Kanapickienė and G undienė 2015) Consequen ly, he inancial a io analysis can be a g ea help in he in es iga ion o inancial s a emen s aud, as i can spo accoun ing i egula i ies. In his way, he expe s s udy hese a ios, which build di ec ela ion be ween i ems, in o de o de ec hose ha a e mo e likely o e lec ha some i egula ac i i ies ha e been ca ied ou inside he o ganiza ion. (Bloomen hal 2020) Following his s eam o s udy, he expe s di ide hem in o i e di e en g oups: p o i abili y, liquidi y, sol ency, ac i i y and s uc u e a ios. Fu he mo e, hey summa ize he impo ance o his a ios o aud de ec ion in o p o i abili y, ac i i y and s uc u e a ea, using he ollowing a ios o his analysis.(Kanapickienė and G undienė 2015) On he one hand, some au ho s a gue ha he G oss P o i is a a iable inclined o manipula ion. This manipula ion can be ca ied ou h ough classi ica ion shi ing, whe e he manage s misca ego ize he expenses, expanding he ea ning impac on he g oss p o i ma gin. (Poonawala and Naga 2019) In e ms o inancial a io analysis, he ollowing a ios can show any hin o illegali y: - G oss P o i o Sales - G oss P o i o To al Asse s On he o he hand, he e a e wo accoun s ha en i led o subjec i e es ima ion: In en o ies and Accoun s Recei ables. As a esul , hese i ems can be used as a ed lag o audulen epo s, included in he subsequen a ios: (Kanapickienė and G undienė 2015) - In en o ies o Sales - In en o ies o To al Asse s - Accoun s Recei ables o Sales TFG-Finanzas y Con abilidad. The mos no malized whi e-colla c ime: Tax e asion. Once he mos op imal a ios a e selec ed o his ask, he ollowing ques ion a ises: Wha would be he alue o each a io ha would indica e ha a company’s epo s a e audulen ? Wi h he abo e in o ma ion i is almos impossible o answe his ques ion, since his alue depends on a ious ac o s such as he ype o company, i s p e ious si ua ion o he coun y in which i is loca ed.(Kanapickienė and G undienė 2015) In o de o sol e his posi ion, he ollowing concep is in oduced: he Beneish Model. 5.2 Beneish Model The Beneish M-Sco e model was bo n in 1999, de eloped by he P o esso Messod D. Beneish. This s a is ical model emphasizes he use o a ious a iables ha ha e an impac on esul s and a e likely o be manipula ed, which does no necessa ily imply aud o illegali y. The M-Sco e is calcula ed using eigh a ios ha allow compa ing he e olu ion o inancial a iables om yea o yea and de e mine he yea in which he i egula i y occu s.(Man one 2013) Figu e 2: Beneish Model Ra ios An M-sco e ob ained om he compu a ion o hose eigh a ios ha is g ea e han -2.22 is an indica o o he possible al e a ion o he company’s inancial s a emen s.(Ken on 2021a) The i s ime his model was pu in o p ac ice was in 1998, by pa o some s uden s a Co nell Uni e si y, who used i o p edic ha he inancial s a emen s o En on Co p. we e being manipula ed be o e i s bank up cy in 2001.(Ken on 2021a) DAYS SALES IN RECEIVABLE INDEX GROSS MARGIN INDEX ASSET QUALITY INDEX SALES GROWTH INDEX DEPRECIATION INDEX SELLING, GENERAL AND ADMINISTRATIVE INDEX TOTAL ACCRUALS TO TOTAL ASSETS INDEX LEVERAGE INDEX TFG-Finanzas y Con abilidad. The mos no malized whi e-colla c ime: Tax e asion. This model has also some limi a ions. I canno be applied o inancial i ms as banks and insu ance companies as hese companies we e no conside ed by he p o esso when he was e alua ing his models. In addi ion, he en i ies mus ha e i s inancial s a emen a ailable o he ex e nal use s, as i was conside ed by Beneish. (Te eno, Campana, and Sa le 2020) Fu he mo e, i is a p obabili y heo y model and has no he capaci y o gua an ee de ec ion o eal aud in a company. (Man one 2013) TFG-Finanzas y Con abilidad. The mos no malized whi e-colla c ime: Tax e asion. 6 INCENTIVES FOR TAX COMPLIANCE In o de o inc ease he commi men o axpaye s, go e nmen s a e in he esea ch o some incen i es which ha e he abili y o boos ax compliance. In his way, hese incen i es a e di ided in o ma e ialis ic, espec ul and esponsi e ea men , and e bal ewa ds. 6.1 Ma e ialis ic Incen i es A ma e ialis ic incen i e can be ocused on a posi i e o a nega i e way. Inside he posi i e incen i es can be ound ax bene i s o ad an ages such as lo e ies o complian beha io . (Smi h and S alans 1991) This gameplay was implemen ed o he i s ime in 1951 in Taiwan. The go e nmen o e ed lo e y icke s in exchange o consume s eceip s. In addi ion o ensu ing he commi men o indi iduals, his sys em manages o imp o e he con ol o ansac ions among use s and i ms o he Adminis a ion, and, in his way, acili a es he de ec ion o illici ac i i ies, hinde ing he ax e asion. (The Economis 2019) Some esea ch has b ough o ligh some de ea s o he posi i e incen i es, mainly i s lee ing na u e. As i o ms pa o ex inc ic mo i a ion, when he e ec o eeling ha his s imulus p oduces e apo a es, he axpaye ends o esume i s ini ial beha io . In his way, hese incen i es cause he use o ul il hei ax du ies only i he e is such a mo i a ion. (Smi h and S alans 1991) On he o he hand, he ma e ialis ic incen i es in a nega i e manne includes policies ha unde mine he una ac i e aspec s o he ax sys em, as o example s eamlined ax o ms o penal ies educ ions. I is closely linked o he nega i e ein o cemen concep as i s main objec i e is o s eng h a beha io by he emo al o nega i e consequences. (Neseno 2020) I has ewe ad e se e ec s, bu hese e ec s a e wo se when he mone a y ac o comes in o play, assimila ing i o he posi i e incen i es beha io in ma e o i s sho -li ed essence. (Smi h and S alans 1991) 6.2 Respec ul and esponsi e ea men The ela ion ha go e nmen s main ain wi h i s ci izens also de e mine he axpaye s’ beha io . As a kind o posi i e incen i e, when people pe cei ed ha he au ho i ies app ecia e i s con ibu ion, aluing i s digni y, hey ecognized he coun y as a g oup. In ha way, his eam eeling lead o an inc ease in he axpaye s’ commi men . (Smi h and S alans 1991) The s a egies ha a go e nmen can ollow in o de o achie e ea ing people wi h espec include ac i e and e lec i e lis ening, demons a ing he se iousness o he pledge and s eng hening us . (S a e o New Sou h Wales 2017) Fi s ly, people wan o eel ha i s complain s and needs ha e been aken in o accoun o hei adminis a ion plans. The eby, se e al e i o ies ha e enabled wha is called sugges ions boxes. In he case o Spain, hese p ocedu e p ocess complain s abou he pe o mance o he Adminis a ion and sugges ions on how o imp o e he se ice o axpaye s be o e he Council o he De ense o he Taxpaye . (AEAT 2022b) Secondly, especially when hey a e no a o able o axpaye s, he go e nmen mus demons a e he basis o i s measu es implemen ed, desc ibing he ac ions ha ha e been conside ed and he in es iga ion ca ied ou . This will also os e he anspa ency o he Adminis a ion, leading o he hi d objec i e o esponsi e ea men : us . (S a e o New Sou h Wales 2017) Thi dly, a e he 2008 economic c isis, he in e na ional ax sys em su e ed a de e io a ion e y quickly, as he ci izens blamed he go e nmen o he side e ec s o i . One o he main objec i es a ha ime was eco e ing he us o he popula ion, as TFG-Finanzas y Con abilidad. The mos no malized whi e-colla c ime: Tax e asion. he o ganiza ions know i is he co ne s one o he ela ion wi h hei people. (Sain - Amans 2014) This was a clea example o how impo an he eliance as an incen i e o ax compliance is. 6.3 Ve bal ewa ds Finally, in his ca ego y mus be included he e bal ewa ds such as p aises and ecogni ions o he p ope con ibu ion o he axpaye s. These ac ions emb ace he in insic mo i a ion o he use , as his causes ci izens o be included in he wo k o he Adminis a ion, hus de ending i s in eg i y. (Smi h and S alans 1991) Following he in o ma ion om expe s’ esea ches, he posi i e eedback in some cases becomes mo e ele an o indi iduals han ma e ial o symbolic ewa ds, as he use signi ican ly alues hei unique iden i y and pe sonal digni y. (Smi h and S alans 1991) TFG-Finanzas y Con abilidad. The mos no malized whi e-colla c ime: Tax e asion. o Analysis o in o ma ion on iscal isks in di e en economic sec o s. o De elopmen o he Taxpaye Visi a ion Plan 2020-2023: he public agency will p omo e he pe sona ions in di e en cen e s o se e al business sec o s o comba unsuppo i e beha io s o a e y small pa o axpaye s who ake ad an age o he di icul y o con as ing da a on he eal olume o income. o Implemen a ion o phases simila o p e ious ones in ela ion o o he economic sec o s and o he ypes o axpaye s: o ensu e he g ea es e ec i eness o his plan, he p e ious ini ia i e will be implemen ed in new sec o s and axpaye s. o De elopmen and execu ion o o he isi s. These isi s a e mainly igge ed by indica ions o i egula i ies. ▪ P e en ion o collec ion aud: include he eo ien a ion o he de e al policy and o he ini ia i es o posi i ely in luence he spon aneous compliance o axpaye s. In addi ion, i is in ended o acili a e he paymen o deb s by educing he adminis a i e cos s o compliance. 7.5.2 Tax and cus oms aud con ol ac ions. A his le el, collabo a ion be ween he main ac o s in ol ed in his ield, bo h na ionally and in e na ionally, is conside ed o i al impo ance. (AEAT 2020) In na ional e ms, i is impo an o highligh he wo k o he Social Secu i y T easu y, Labou Inspec o a e, Di ec o a e-Gene al o he Cadas e and he egional ax au ho i ies. (AEAT 2020) In e na ionally, he ole o bo h he OECD and i s en i onmen and ha o he Eu opean Union is indispensable. (AEAT 2020) In his way, in o de o ackle ax aud, i is essen ial he exchange o in o ma ion be ween hose agen s and coope a ion o b ing abou changes in egula ions and common ac ions. (AEAT 2020) These ac ions a e classi ied ollowing he ype o depa men i belongs o. In his case he p incipal a eas objec o be analysed a e he Depa men o Tax Managemen , Depa men o Financial and Tax Inspec ion and Depa men o Re enue. (AEAT 2020) Mo eo e , he main lines o ac ion o be p omo ed in his a ea o con ol and igh agains aud a e he ollowing: ▪ Coo dina ed use o In e nal Re enue Se ice (IRS) in o ma ion. ▪ Consolida ion o con ol ools. He e i is included he s anda diza ion o he VAT egis y books and hei consolida ion wi h he PIT (Pe sonal Income Tax) economic ac i i y books o acili a e a mo e e ec i e analysis o hese books and educe he bu dens by allowing he consolida ed keeping in he same o ma o he VAT egis y books and income ax. ▪ E alua ion o he ex-pos beha iou o axpaye s: In he collec ion a ea, he beha io induced in o he axpaye s in he same sec o o who may be ela ed o he deb o s isi ed will also be analyzed. In he Plan o he P e en ion and Co ec ion o Tax, Labo and Social Secu i y F aud men ioned be o e, hi een di e en measu es a e included wi hin he con ol o isk a eas. Among hem, he mos impo an a e a plan o comba ax aud h ough ax ha ens, in es iga ion o cash mo emen s, comp ehensi e con ol o e alse o i egula in oices, and con ol o ax-deduc ible expenses. (AEAT 2010) TFG-Finanzas y Con abilidad. The mos no malized whi e-colla c ime: Tax e asion. On he i s place and ollowing he ecommenda ions o G20 and he OECD Global Fo um on T anspa ency and Exchange o In o ma ion o Tax Pu poses, he p incipal objec i e o he plan o comba ax aud h ough ax ha ens is s ablishing miscellaneous in e na ional co enan s in o de o end up wi h he majo obs acle o hose e i o ies quali ied as o sho e: he lack o exchange o in o ma ion. (AEAT 2010) In 2008, nego ia ions begun wi h e i o ies such as A uba, Ando a, San Ma ino, Singapo e and Panama. Mos o he discussions ended up wi h he i m o a con en ion. Fo example, in 2010 Panama and Spain concluded s ablishing a double- axa ion con en ion. (AEAT 2010) Secondly, he AEAT commenced cash mo emen in es iga ions a ound ou whole e i o y. The in o m economy is one o he bigges issues in all economic sec o s, as he Adminis a ion canno ollow he ace o his money. In his way, he goal o his ini ia i e is con olling hose mo emen s o cash in o de o ha e he o igin o his kind o illici ope a ions. (AEAT 2010) Wi h he pu pose o ul illing his objec i e, he Adminis a ion has aken some ac ions, such as s ablishing a p o ocol o cash mo emen s, o bo h na ional and c oss-bo de s e i o ies, in o de o es ablish bonds be ween money owne s and ac i i ies ela ed o he in o mal economy. (AEAT 2010) Talking abou he comp ehensi e con ol o e i egula in oices, AEAT has de eloped a p o ocol o e i y he e aci y o in oices whose o igin is doub ul, h ough collabo a ion h oughou he o e all p ocess o bo h ax managemen , and inancial and ax inspec o a e depa men s. (AEAT 2010) Thi dly, o he de ec ion o illici ax-deduc ible expenses, he Adminis a ion has designed speci ic il e s o de ec ing expendi u e abo e he a e age o each ac i i y sec o as a p ecau iona y indica o . In addi ion, axpaye s will be selec ed o decla e ce ain cos s i ems disp opo iona ely high in ela ion o he o al olume o expenses decla ed. (AEAT 2010) Finally, an analysis o cos s in oiced by supplie s o goods o se ices o he "luxu y" ype o especially ela ed o pe sonal consump ion will be ca ied ou o e i y he linkage o hese expenses wi h business ac i i ies. (AEAT 2010) TFG-Finanzas y Con abilidad. The mos no malized whi e-colla c ime: Tax e asion. 8 CONCLUSION O e he las ew yea s, e asion has become one o he main p oblems di ec ly a ec ing he c edibili y o Tax Adminis a ions and go e nmen s. P esen h oughou he globe, i ca ies se ious economic consequences ha a ec all o us, bu as a esul o he e o s o comba i and acco ding o he AEAT, he igu es show i s downwa d end in Spain. Thanks o he eedom o he e i o ies o choose he legisla ion ha will egula e his ype o c ime, i is possible o adap i o he speci ic ax needs o each coun y. Bu his independence makes he e o s o o ganisa ions such as he OECD mo e complex. The OECD is he isible leade in he igh agains ax e asion in he in e na ional a ena. I s mission is based on anspa ency and coope a ion be ween e i o ies in o de o achie e a homogeneous exchange o in o ma ion, which allows an op imal de ec ion o i egula i ies. The line o wo k ha his ins i u ion pu sues should be he example o be ollowed by all Adminis a ions, since h ough ac ion plans such as he one ha eme ged in he Fi h Fo um, ce ain clea p inciples o commi men s we e c ea ed, concise and easy o implemen by he collabo a ing e i o ies. He e is bo n he key o success o s op he haemo hage o he ax aud: in e na ional coope a ion. This eamwo k needs o be ecip oca ed by all i s con ibu o s. This is whe e he ailu e o he in e na ional sys em in his ield lies, since in many cases i is chosen o pu he enc yp ion o ci izens' da a be o e he exchange o po en ially use ul in o ma ion. A good example o his si ua ion is he unc ioning o coun ies conside ed as ax ha ens o non- coope a i e e i o ies acco ding o he OECD, whe e concealmen o in o ma ion is he key. Wo king o comba aud, a ises he need o ind ools ha , h ough he use o quan i a i e in o ma ion on he economic pe o mance o companies, can de ec he exis ence o illici ac i i ies. This ield includes he Beneish Model which, al hough i is a p obabilis ic model, helps no ably in he de ec ion o cases such as En on, hanks o he accu acy p o ided by i s main sou ce o da a: numbe s. In he nex phase o he de elopmen o his p oblem, he s uggle o go e nmen s o ind incen i es ha can p omo e compliance wi h hei ax obliga ions appea s. In his case, incen i es ha ease he p essu e o paying axes will always ha e a much g ea e impac on he li es o ci izens. Tha is why ini ia i es such as espec ul ea men and e bal ewa ds go o he backg ound, lea ing no e ec on he beha io o socie y. O cou se, Spain is also he ic im o audulen ax ac ions, which ha e di e en conno a ions, in e ms o de ini ion and dimensioning, legisla ion and punishmen o he c ime. I is subjec o he c i e ia o he C iminal Code. Con a y o he OECD plan, as has been demons a ed h oughou he in es iga ion, he la es p e en i e and con ol measu es implemen ed by he Tax Adminis a ion (AEAT) a e clea ly con using and imp ecise. Al hough i was in ended o ollow a mul iannual amewo k, he objec i es o each depa men wi hin he Adminis a ion mus be mo e p ecise so ha i s agen s can clea ly unde s and hem and, in his way, wo k on i s implemen a ion and achie emen . On he posi i e side, i highligh s he ha dening o penal ies o which he Adminis a ion be in 2021. In addi ion o he inc ease in ines, i is impo an o emphasize he inclusion TFG-Finanzas y Con abilidad. The mos no malized whi e-colla c ime: Tax e asion. o he egula iza ion o echnological aspec s such as he billing so wa e. As echnology ad ances by leaps and bounds, he public en i ies a ound us mus mo e in he same di ec ion and his ini ia i e is a good s a ing poin . De ini ely, he leading ocus should be placed on inc easing he economic- iscal educa ion o ou socie y in gene al, h ough aining o e ed by he Adminis a ion in collabo a ion wi h he cen al go e nmen , o make ci izens awa e o he impac o hei ac ions and he consequences hey en ail. The mos ob ious p ojec ion o his s udy lies wi h he con inua ion o he in es iga ion o he mechanisms used by indi iduals who manage o de aud in an unde ec able way, mainly in he echnological ield. Wi h he ise o echnological ad ances, new ideas also eme ge, camou laging hemsel es om he o dinal de ec ion, as happened a he ime wi h dual-use so wa e. 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