A systematic review to determine the role of public space and urban design on sense of community

DOI: 10.1111/issj.12472 ARTICLE A sys ema ic e iew o de e mine he ole o public space and u ban design on sense o communi y Ignacio Ramos-Vidal1Elsy Domínguez de la Ossa2 1Depa amen o de Psicología Social, Facul ad de Psicología, Ins i u o Uni e si a io de Es udios sob e Amé ica La ina, Uni e sidad de Se illa, Se illa, Spain 2Facul ad de Psicología, Uni e sidad Tecnológica de Bolí a , Ciudad Bolí a , Boli a , Colombia Co espondence Ignacio Ramos-Vidal, Depa amen o de Psicología Social, Facul ad de Psicología, Uni e sidad de Se illa, Ins i u o Uni e si a io de Es udios sob e Amé ica La ina, Calle Ramón y Cajal s/n, Se illa 41018, Spain. Email: [email p o ec ed] Abs ac The aim o his esea ch is o de e mine he e ec ha he physical cha ac e is ics o public spaces and hei pe cei ed quali y ha e on esiden s’ sense o communi y (SoC). A sys- ema ic e iew was ca ied ou ollowing he p o ocol o he PRISMA guidelines; a sys ema ic sea ch was conduc ed in he Web o Science Co e Collec ion, esul ing in he e ie al o 637 eco ds. A e se e al sc eenings, 23 s udies we e iden i ied. The esul s sugges ha he pe cei ed quali y o public spaces exe s posi i e e ec s, bu o mode a e in en- si y, on SoC ( ange =0.13–0.4, Mβ=0.24, SD =0.1), as does he possibili y o walking o public spaces wi hin he neighbou hood ( ange =0.02–0.57; Mβ=0.22; SD =0.21). The esul s indica e ha designing public spaces ha acili a e social in e ac ion is he main ac o o enhancing SoC. The main indings o his e iew jus i y he design o public spaces and buil en i onmen s ha a ou in e pe sonal ela ionships be ween esiden s, se e as con ex s o socializa ion and communi y pa icipa ion and can be used o celeb a e cul u al and ec ea ional e en s o p omo ing social capi al in u ban con ex s. 1INTRODUCTION Fo decades, hose esponsible o u ban planning ha e sough o ein o ce social cohesion h ough he design o public spaces. Acco ding o F iedkin (2004), ‘G oups a e cohesi e when g oup-le el condi ions a e p oducing posi i e membe ship a i udes and beha io s and when g oup membe s“ in e pe sonal in e ac ions a e ope a ing o main ain hese g oup le el condi ions.” (p. 410). The social doc ine o new u banism (Ka z, 1994) has been one o i s p inciples acili a ing social in e ac ion and social cohesion, wi h he objec i e o e e sing he decline o social capi al (Cab e a, 2013) and s eng hening he no ion o communi y. F om his pe spec i e, social capi al is concep ualized as he This is an open access a icle unde he e ms o he C ea i e Commons A ibu ion-NonComme cial-NoDe i s License, which pe mi s use and dis ibu ion in any medium, p o ided he o iginal wo k is p ope ly ci ed, he use is non-comme cial and no modi ica ions o adap a ions a e made. © 2023 The Au ho s. In e na ional Social Science Jou nal published by John Wiley & Sons L d. In Soc Sci. 2024;74:633–655. wileyonlinelib a y.com/jou nal/issj 633 634 RAMOS-VIDAL AND DE LA OSSA se o no ms and collabo a ion ne wo ks ha suppo ci ic engagemen (Pu nam, 1993). As Talen (1999, p. 1362) poin ed ou , he oo s o he new u banism a e based on designing public spaces ha become se ings o in e ac ion capable o p omo ing Sense o Communi y (SoC). The mos widesp ead de ini ion o SoC is he one p oposed by McMillan (1976), who poin ed ou ha SoC is A eeling ha membe s ha e o belonging, a eeling ha membe s ma e o one ano he and o he g oup, and a sha ed ai h ha membe s’ needs will be me h ough hei commi men o be oge he . (McMillan, 1976, ci ed in McMillan & Cha is 1986,p.9) The in e es in designing public spaces ha acili a e in e ac ion can be explained by di e en dis- ciplines such social psychology, an h opology and u ban s udies. Fi s , he empi ical e idence shows ha in e pe sonal ela ionships, e en hose conside ed weak (G ano e e , 1973; Sands om & Dunn, 2014), in an agg ega e way, s eng hen social cohesion in wi hin geog aphically de ined communi ies (Rige & La akas, 1981). Second, when he design o public space o e s oppo uni ies o s eng hen social ies, his inc eases he le els o social suppo , imp o ing he subjec i e well-being and men al heal h o he popula ion (Fleming e al., 1985). Finally, gen i ica ion and inc eases in high ise apa - men s and popula ion densi y con ibu e o he pe cep ion o anomie and social isola ion (Fische , 1973). A i s assump ion ega ding o new u banism consis s o p omo ing open and accessible spaces ha allow in e ac ion, in e pe sonal p oximi y and di e en ypes o social exchange (Fleming e al., 1985; Talen, 2000). Thus, public spaces go om being conside ed me e a chi ec u al cons uc ions o becoming beha iou al se ings (Ba ke , 1978), whe e he social ab ic is bo n and ep oduced (Ne o, 2017). When public spaces acili a e social con ac s, in e ac ion be ween neighbou s is inc eased, and a ne wo k o in a-communi y ela ions is wo en, p oducing a social s uc u e ha cons i u es an essen ial equi emen o he eme gence o social capi al. The social capi al ha lou ishes om in a-communi y ela ions is called bonding and is based on in e pe sonal us , commi men , ecip oci y, espec o no ms and ne wo ks ha a icula e ci ic pa icipa ion (Pu nam, 1995; p. 67). A la en cons uc sha ed by social capi al and SoC is pa icipa ion. Conside ing ha social ela ions a ec he SoC and ha his in u n ac s as a ca alys o communi y pa icipa ion (Chang e al., 2022; Talò e al., 2014), i is accep ed ha public spaces ha acili a e social in e ac ion will ein o ce he SoC, p o-sociali y and social capi al. A second assump ion ha unde lies he social doc ine o new u banism emphasizes he e ec ha he design o public space exe s on psychosocial well-being and men al heal h o he ex en ha he con igu a ion and accessibili y o spaces acili a e in e ac ion and emo ional connec ion wi h he physical en i onmen (Audi ac, 1999). The e a e many s udies ha show ha social suppo is a c ucial ac o in he p omo ion o posi i e men al heal h (Ha andi e al., 2017). The e o e, designing public spaces ha acili a e social in e ac ion and ha , in pa allel, ein o ce SoC is a key elemen o physical and men al heal h (Hoope e al., 2020; Michalski e al., 2020). A he same ime, he posi i e ela ionship be ween SoC and subjec i e well-being has been consis en ly iden i ied in he li e a u e (P a i e al., 2016), which sugges s ha he design o public spaces ha p omo e SoC is a p ominen way o p omo e psychosocial well-being. Since he end o he 1960s, se e al disciplines ha e sough o unde s and he indi idual conse- quences a ibu ed o li ing in la ge ci ies. The mobili y p ocesses ha occu ed in p e ious decades p oduced inc eases in popula ion densi y and inc eases in he size and complexi y o ci ies. The eminen social psychologis S anley Milg am (Milg am, 1970) highligh ed ha he inc ease in he size o ci ies, popula ion densi y and he e ogenei y o inhabi an s inc eased cogni i e demands and caused o e lapping o social oles ac ing as psychosocial s esso s. Recen ly, he e has been an inc easing social pe spec i e in he way o unde s anding he expe ience o u ban li e, assuming ha designing public spaces ha include g een a eas, pa ks and spaces o socializing con ibu es o imp o ing psychological heal h (Ha ig & Kahn, 2016). This ac is con i med in s udies ha show ha designing neighbou hoods ha acili a e social in e ac ion impac s he well-being o esiden s 14682451, 2024, 252, Downloaded om h ps://onlinelib a y.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/issj.12472 by Readcube (Lab i a Inc.), Wiley Online Lib a y on [04/12/2024]. See he Te ms and Condi ions (h ps://onlinelib a y.wiley.com/ e ms-and-condi ions) on Wiley Online Lib a y o ules o use; OA a icles a e go e ned by he applicable C ea i e Commons License PUBLIC SPACE AND SENSE OF COMMUNITY 635 (Ige-Elegbede e al., 2022) and in he SoC ha hey expe ience wi h espec o e i o ial se ing (F ancis e al., 2012). The hi d assump ion is based on he idea ha he cu en s uc u e o ci ies, cha ac e ized by he high concen a ion o popula ion in esiden ial blocks and by he ela i e sca ci y o spaces o ec ea ion and in e ac ion, con ibu es o he pe cep ion o social isola ion (Fische , 1973). In ac , in densely popula ed a eas whe e he in e pe sonal dis ance ha sepa a es indi iduals is educed, psy- chological dis ance ends o inc ease, a ec ing he eeling o loneliness (Lai e al., 2021). The e o e, he cha ac e is ics o public space de e mine beha iou pa e ns and social dynamics (Meh a, 2019). A na u al way o comba he pe cep ion o social isola ion is o design accessible public spaces such as pa ks, squa es and g een a eas ha a e sui able o social exchange. This allows expanding he ne wo k o con ac s wi hin he communi y se ing and con ibu es o s eng hening he SoC and esponsibili y owa ds he communi y i sel . Ac i a ing in e pe sonal ela ionships by c ea ing public spaces ha become se ings o p o-social beha iou makes i possible o educe he pe cep ion o isola ion and ein o ce he a ec i e and emo ional dimensions o a achmen o he place, which a e essen ial o consolida ing he SoC (Glynn, 1986; McCunn, 2020; Plas and Lewis, 1996; Rige & La akas 1981; Talen, 1999). Se e al s udies ha e e idenced he impo ance o expe ience eeling o membe ship owa ds social g oups. Indi iduals sa is y a ilia i e needs h ough ongoing posi i e in e ac ions wi h o he mem- be s o he communi y. Bu social con ac s simul aneously cons i u e social suppo esou ces ha con ibu e o imp o ing quali y o li e and subjec i e well-being and educe he pe cep ion o loneli- ness (Chung & Kim, 2022). When people in e ac equen ly wi h hei neighbou s, social cohesion is ein o ced, and oppo uni ies o sa is y social, ma e ial and emo ional needs a e ampli ied. This phe- nomenon p oduces di ec and indi ec e ec s on physical and men al heal h, and ecen s udies e en show ha he SoC con ibu es o making people eel happy (Ross e al., 2019). The ounding p in- ciple o he new u banism social doc ine is ha he design o buildings, public spaces and walkable a eas should a ou in e pe sonal con ac be ween communi y membe s (Ka z, 1994; Kim & Kaplan, 2004). U ban planning can con ibu e in mul iple ways o he ac i a ion and in ensi ica ion o social exchanges, which, in u n, will s eng hen he SoC. F om his pe spec i e, a ecen s udy showed ha when he design o neighbou hoods includes an- si zones ha acili a e walking be ween a eas o in e es in he communi y, in e pe sonal ela ionships a e p omo ed, inc easing he sense o belonging o he communi y (Ca son e al., 2023). Ano he ecen p oposal ound ha communi ies ha ha e iendly public spaces o child en o play os e ela ion- ships be ween pa en s and neighbou hood cohesion and he SoC a e s eng hened (Ross e al., 2020). Finally, ecen esea ch sugges s ha public spaces can become con ex s o a is ic co-c ea ion wi h he po en ial o publicize communi y demands, gi e oice o unde ep esen ed g oups and p omo e communi y esilience. Thus, he wo k de eloped by Robazza (2020) poin s in ha di ec ion, showing ha a is a powe ul ins umen o app op ia ing public space, inc easing he sense o belonging o he communi y. Al hough scien i ic li e a u e highligh s posi i e associa ions be ween ea u es o u ban physical en i onmen and he SoC, his e idence is commonly agmen ed and a ises om di e en academic disciplines. This ac makes di icul o iden i y a p ecise pic u e abou how public spaces and phys- ical en i onmen s shape social in e ac ion pa e ns, and in u n, he expe ience o being a membe o a b oade communi y. Fo example, s udies om communi y psychology poin ou he cogni i e, a i udinal and beha iou al dimensions ha a e associa ed wi h he SoC (Da idson & Co e , 1986; Dooli le & MacDonald, 1978). S udies adop ing his pe spec i e exhibi he e ec s o neighbou hood- le el a iables on SoC and equen ly include communi y-le el a iables ela ed o he cha ac e is ics o he u ban design, neighbou hood he e ogenei y and he u iliza ion o public space o communi y ini ia i es (Da idson & Co e , 1986; Douglas, 2022; Nasa & Julian, 1995). A key goal o his line o s udies is o unde s and how public spaces igge pa icipa o y beha iou s in communi y ac ion. On he o he hand, u ban planning esea ch mainly ocuses on he impac ha buil en i onmen p oduce on popula ion heal h indica o s, social beha iou and pe cep ions abou u ban design (Ca ell e al., 2008; Hoope e al., 2020). 14682451, 2024, 252, Downloaded om h ps://onlinelib a y.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/issj.12472 by Readcube (Lab i a Inc.), Wiley Online Lib a y on [04/12/2024]. See he Te ms and Condi ions (h ps://onlinelib a y.wiley.com/ e ms-and-condi ions) on Wiley Online Lib a y o ules o use; OA a icles a e go e ned by he applicable C ea i e Commons License 636 RAMOS-VIDAL AND DE LA OSSA A second aspec is e e ed o how is concep ualized and measu ed he SoC. Resea ch amed in communi y psychology ends o use he heo y o SoC (McMillan, 1976;2011) as a cen al axis. F om his app oach, he SoC is unde s ood as a mul idimensional cons uc (McMillan & Cha is, 1986), and i s measu emen is ca ied ou using s anda dized ins umen s capable o e alua ing he composi ional dimensions o he SoC (Douglas, 2022; Pe e son e al., 2008). S udies applying his ype o ins umen a e capable o accu a ely cap u ing he beha iou al, emo ional, a i udinal and ins umen al ac o s ha cha ac e ize he SoC. On he o he hand, esea ch ha alls wi hin u ban design and planning ends o use adap a ions o ins umen s designed o cap u e he sense o belonging, a achmen o place o neighbou hood cohesion (F ench e al., 2014; Hoope e al., 2020; Kim & Kaplan, 2004) ha can be conside ed app oxima ions o he SoC bu di e s in he ounda ional oo s o he SoC. S udies ha all wi hin his adi ion some imes use a single dimension o o assess he SoC and some e en use a single i em o assess he sense o belonging o he neighbou hood as a measu emen sys em o he SoC (Whalen e al., 2012). Conside ing join ly he he e ogenei y obse ed in he s udies ha examine he impac ha he cha ac e is ics o public space and u ban design p oduced in he SoC, i seems jus i ied o s udy he accumula ed empi ical e idence o know he p ocedu es, measu emen ins umen s and he main indings epo ed in he esea ch ha explo es he ela ionships be ween u ban design and public space ea u es and a sense o belonging o geog aphically delimi ed communi ies. The SoC is conside ed a alue i sel and a co e poin o enhancing mul iple domains o social li e. A indi idual le el, he eelings o being pa o a b oade communi y allows one o sa is y a ilia i e needs which a e essen ial o subjec i e well-being and men al heal h (Hoope e al., 2020; Rugel e al., 2019; Te y e al., 2019). A g oup le el, he SoC allows one o ein o ce social cohesion, ecip oci y in social exchanges and espec o sha ed no ms and alues ha se es o main aining g oups oge he (Wilkinson, 2007). A communi y le el, he SoC se es as social ‘glue’ o communi ies and o he socie y. A his le el, many s udies ind ou ha he SoC is closely ela ed o social capi al (Pe kins e al., 2002), and when people eel ha membe s o uppe o de collec i i ies a e willing (a) o engage in social ac ions (Te y e al., 2019); (b) o in es hei ime and e o s o he communi y bene i (Taló e al., 2014); (c) o eel esponsibili y ega ding o o he communi y membe s (McMillan, 2011); and (d) o igh agains ex e nal h ea s (Boyd & Ma in, 2022). Taking oge he all hese elemen s, unde - s anding he en i onmen al ac o s, such as e alua ed in his wo k, ha a e con ibu ing o explain he a iabili y o he SoC cons i u es a pe inen ask o communi y de elopmen and o he p omo ion o social capi al. To da e, no sys ema ic e iew has compiled all pee - e iewed e idence ela ed o he impac o he pe cei ed quali y and exis ence o public spaces on SoC. The objec i e o his e iew is o compile ha e idence, assess i s quali y and summa ize he indings o ha e idence. Based on he an eceden s p esen ed and aking as e e ence he beha iou al se ings heo y (BST) (Ba ke 1978) and he heo y o SoC (McMillan 2011; McMillan & Cha is 1986), he objec i e is o de e mine he impac ha pe cei ed quali y and exis ence o public spaces on he SoC ha esiden s expe ience wi h espec o he esiden ial se ing. To achie e his objec i e, a sys ema ic e iew o he empi ical e idence was ca ied ou ollowing he p ocedu e o he PRISMA guidelines (Libe a i e al., 2009). 1.1 De ini ion o concep s ele an o his e iew Fi s , i is necessa y o conduc a b ie analysis o he e m communi y. In gene al, he scien i ic com- muni y assumes ha he no ion o communi y includes bo h geog aphically delimi ed communi ies (neighbou hoods and ci ies) and he links ha shape social g oupings ega dless o he place in which such ela ionships ake place (McMillan & Cha is, 1986, p. 8). Howe e , i is no mu ually exclusi e (Gus ield, 1975, p. 16); in con as , o he ex en ha physical spaces acili a e social in e ac ion, and on o he occasions, he ela ional communi ies, o example h ough associa ions, a e he ones ha con ibu e o modi ying he physical en i onmen o acili a e in e pe sonal ela ionships. 14682451, 2024, 252, Downloaded om h ps://onlinelib a y.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/issj.12472 by Readcube (Lab i a Inc.), Wiley Online Lib a y on [04/12/2024]. See he Te ms and Condi ions (h ps://onlinelib a y.wiley.com/ e ms-and-condi ions) on Wiley Online Lib a y o ules o use; OA a icles a e go e ned by he applicable C ea i e Commons License PUBLIC SPACE AND SENSE OF COMMUNITY 637 McMillan and Cha is (1986) de eloped he ou - ac o model o med by he ul ilmen o needs, membe ship, in luence and sha ed emo ional connec ion. The ul ilmen o needs examines he ex en o which communi ies acili a e he adjus men be ween he indi idual and he se ing o in e ac ion ha gua an ees ha he subjec s can ul il di e en ypes o needs. Membe ship e e s o he deg ee o which indi iduals a e in eg a ed in o a highe o de social s uc u e. This dimension desc ibes he in es men o ime and esou ces ha people dedica e o he communi y and implies an implici di e - en ia ion o he membe s o he communi y om hose who a e no . In luence explo es he deg ee o which membe s o he communi y pe cei e ha hey can in luence social dynamics, and a he same ime, hey become awa e ha hey a e also suscep ible o being in luenced by o he membe s. Finally, sha ed emo ional connec ion is based on he indi iduals’ con ac s and he pe cei ed quali y o he in e ac ions and on he numbe o social e en s ha acili a e in e pe sonal p oximi y. The dialec ical ela ionship be ween SoC and pa icipa ion has been demons a ed h ough he me a- analy ic e iew ca ied ou by Talò e al. (2014), in which da a om 106 s udies we e included. The esul s showed ha he ela ionship be ween SoC and pa icipa ion is posi i e, s a is ically signi ican , and s ong in he case o he adul popula ion. Simila esul s ha e been iden i ied in s udies conduc ed in popula ions wi h men al heal h p oblems (Te y e al., 2019), uni e si y s uden s (P ocen ese e al., 2019) and popula ions in si ua ions o o ced mobili y (Ramos-Vidal, 2017,2018). 1.2 The impac o public space on SoC The BST i s de eloped by Ba ke (1978) p oposes ha indi iduals end o exhibi simila beha iou s in ce ain loca ions wi hin neighbou hoods and ci ies. This beha iou al simila i y desc ibes he deg ee o which people who coincide in he same physical space end o adop he same social ole. This assumes ha al hough he people who occupy a physical space a e di e en a each momen and in each in e ac ion, social oles end o be ep oduced wi hou appea ing o be an implici no m ha de e mines he beha iou o he ac o s who coincide in hose spaces. Figu e 1desc ibes he sugges ed heo e ical model. The BST sugges s ha he epe i ion o social oles and beha iou pa e ns a e la gely due o he cha ac e is ics and how he se ings in which socializa ion occu s a e pe cei ed. O he au ho s sugges ha social egula i ies ha end o ( e)p oduce sys ema ically in di e en se ings cons i u e ehicles o collec i e ac ion (Seidman, 2012). The addi ional alue o public spaces, when hey become se - ings o beha iou ha p omo e social in e ac ion, is p ecisely hei abili y o mobilize collabo a i e ac ion (Ca mona, 2019). Al hough public spaces can become beha iou al se ings, he e a e ew s udies ha iden i y he cha ac e is ics o hese se ings and es ablish ypologies. Among he a e excep ions o his assump ion is he ea ly wo k o P ice and Blash ield (1975), which p oposes a axonomy o beha iou al se ings based on di e en a iables such as he size, equency and du a ion o in e ac ions, he ype o use s and he olume o people ga he ed (P ice & Blash ield 1975, p. 345). In his p elimina y s udy, he au ho s iden i y as beha iou al se ing o ganiza ional en i onmen s ha i is no common o include wi hin he ca ego y ‘public space’, o example educa ional cen es and local businesses, bu hey do include o he en i onmen s ha i wi hin he ca ego y o public space, such as g een a eas and ec ea ion a eas whe e neighbou hood ga he ings a e held. The e a e s udies ha examine he ole o public space in he SoC (Audi ac, 1999; F ancis e al., 2012; F ench e al., 2014; Glynn, 1986; Talen, 2000). The s udy de eloped by Audi ac (1999)showed ha esiden s who li e in u ban se ings ha ha e walkable, sa e and passable sidewalks ha connec subjec s wi h places o in e es , such as shopping cen es, schools and a eas o spo s p ac ice, end o expe imen highe SoC. In ano he p oposal, F ench e al. (2014) demons a ed ha he ease o walking o he means o anspo and he posi i e pe cep ion o he quali y o public space ac as p edic o s o SoC. In con as , he same s udy iden i ied nega i e associa ions be ween demog aphic densi y and SoC. 14682451, 2024, 252, Downloaded om h ps://onlinelib a y.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/issj.12472 by Readcube (Lab i a Inc.), Wiley Online Lib a y on [04/12/2024]. See he Te ms and Condi ions (h ps://onlinelib a y.wiley.com/ e ms-and-condi ions) on Wiley Online Lib a y o ules o use; OA a icles a e go e ned by he applicable C ea i e Commons License 638 RAMOS-VIDAL AND DE LA OSSA FIGURE 1 Illus a ion o he p oposed heo e ical model. Sou ce: Own elabo a ion based on Bake (1978) and Talen (1999, 2000). The au ho s concei e o public space in a di e en ial way; howe e , he de ini ions sha e a common denomina o ha public space should acili a e in e pe sonal ela ionships. Talen (2000, p. 346) used he e m ‘public ealm’ o iden i y physical spaces in geog aphic se ings ha a e open and physically accessible and ha p o ide oppo uni ies o con ac , in e pe sonal p oximi y and he app op ia ion o hese spaces by use s. This de ini ion is inspi ed by he li e a u e on social suppo , emphasizing he ole ha physical spaces play in he es ablishmen o a ec i e bonds ha can con ibu e o imp o ing psychosocial well-being and men al heal h (Ca ell e al., 2008; Fleming e al., 1985). O he au ho s a gue ha public spaces ein o ce in a-communi y cohesion and social jus ice (La ham & Lay on 2019). Public spaces can become se ings o expose, make isible and de end social igh s h ough he mobiliza ion o collec i e ac ion, posi i ely a ec ing pe cei ed social jus ice (Mi chell, 2003). The objec i e o his e iew is o compile e idence ela ed o he impac o he pe cei ed quali y and exis ence o public spaces on SoC, assess i s quali y and summa ize he indings o ha e idence. 2MATERIALS AND METHODS A sys ema ic e iew o he scien i ic li e a u e ha adhe es o he p inciples o he PRISMA guide- lines was ca ied ou (Libe a i e al. 2009). The p o ocol o he sys ema ic e iew was egis e ed in he PROSPERO eposi o y (In e na ional P ospec i e Regis e o Sys ema ic Re iews unde he P e- egis e iden i ica ion code: CRD 42022306972). The sea ch o manusc ip s was pe o med in he Web o Science (WoS) Co e Collec ion, Cu en Con en Connec s, SciELO Ci a ion Index, MEDLINE, KCI-Ko ean Jou nal Da abase and Russian Science Ci a ion Index which a e conside ed ele an da abases o de elop sys ema ic e iews and me a-analyses (P ancku ˙ e, 2021). Following he ecommenda ions o p e ious s udies (Dicke sin e al., 1994), a complemen a y hand sea ch was pe - 14682451, 2024, 252, Downloaded om h ps://onlinelib a y.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/issj.12472 by Readcube (Lab i a Inc.), Wiley Online Lib a y on [04/12/2024]. See he Te ms and Condi ions (h ps://onlinelib a y.wiley.com/ e ms-and-condi ions) on Wiley Online Lib a y o ules o use; OA a icles a e go e ned by he applicable C ea i e Commons License PUBLIC SPACE AND SENSE OF COMMUNITY 639 TABLE 1 Sea ch e ms and iden i ied eco ds. Sea ch e ms Reco ds iden i ied ‘SENSE OF COMMUNITY’ AND ‘PLANNING’ 169 ‘SENSE OF COMMUNITY’ AND ‘PUBLIC SPACE’ 29 ‘SENSE OF COMMUNITY’ AND ‘BUILT ENVIRONMENT’ 77 ‘SENSE OF COMMUNITY’ AND ‘URBAN DESIGN’ 25 ‘SENSE OF COMMUNITY’ AND ‘ARCHITECTURE’ 37 ‘SENSE OF COMMUNITY’ AND ‘PUBLIC REALM’ 8 ‘SENSE OF BELONGING’ AND ‘PLANNING’ 152 ‘SENSE OF BELONGING’ AND ‘PUBLIC SPACE’ 48 ‘SENSE OF BELONGING’ AND ‘BUILT ENVIRONMENT’ 38 ‘SENSE OF BELONGING’ AND ‘URBAN DESIGN’ 16 ‘SENSE OF BELONGING’ AND ‘PUBLIC REALM’ 3 ‘SENSE OF BELONGING’ AND ‘ARCHITECTURE’ 35 To al 637 No e: Only sea ch e ms ha e u n any esul s a e included in he able. o med in he i s wen y jou nals wi hin he ca ego ies ‘U ban s udies’ and ‘Social psychology’ o he WoS, in oducing he same sea ch e ms, and in he mos ele an En i onmen al Psychology jou nals iden i ied by he Canadian Socie y o Psychology (h ps://cpa.ca/sec ions/en i onmen alpsychology/ publica ions/). Va ious combina ions o sea ch e ms we e in oduced (e.g. ‘SENSE OF COMMUNITY’ and ‘PUBLIC SPACE’). The sea ch e ms used and he esul s ob ained wi h each combina ion o wo ds a e a ailable in he p o ocol egis e ed in he PROSPERO eposi o y (ID: CRD42022306972). The WoS ca ego ies included in his e iew a e En i onmen al Science Ecology, Geog aphy, A chi ec u e, Psychology, U ban S udies, Sociology, Social Science, Public Adminis a ion, Public En i onmen al Occupa ional Heal h, An h opology, Beha iou al Sciences and Social Issues. The applica ion o hese c i e ia was done o iden i y esea ch i ems ha all in o he objec i e o his s udy. To selec he manusc ip s inally included a e he ini ial sc eening, he ollowing selec ion c i- e ia we e conside ed. Only empi ical s udies ha (a) apply quan i a i e me hodology; (b) use some s anda dized measu e o assess he SoC; and (c) inco po a e a desc ip ion o he buil en i onmen (i.e. he cha ac e is ics, he pe cei ed quali y and he equency o use o public spaces) in u ban se ings we e included. This decision was made conside ing he basic p inciples o he new u banism social doc ine and he esea ch backg ound ha add esses he e ec ha he a chi ec u al en i onmen p oduces on psychosocial p ocesses (E ans, 2003; Ka z, 1994; Talen, 1999;2000). Table 1shows he sea ch e ms included and he eco ds e ie ed. The syn hesis o he da a will include he ex ac ion o he e e ence indica o s (odds a io, s an- da dized be a coe icien s). Only hose s udies ha include sample sizes ha gua an ee he adequacy o he analyses will be included in he desc ip i e analyses will be e alua ed. Sample size, numbe o public space ea u es included in he analysis, ange o public space use equency, odds a ios, con idence in e als, p- alues and be a coe icien s anda dized. Rega ding isk bias and s udy quali y assessmen , he esea ch eam examined whe he he s udies include con ol a iables, mode a ing o media ing a iables in he analyses. Also was examined i he size o he sample is adequa e o ca y ou he analyses desc ibed. A e he esea ch eam ag eed on he inclusion c i e ia (e.g. ha hey a e empi ical s udies), wo e alua o s independen ly ca ied ou an analysis o he a icles ha he ini ial sea ch yielded (N=637). The le el o in e -judge ag eemen was e alua ed using he Cohen kappa index (Landis 14682451, 2024, 252, Downloaded om h ps://onlinelib a y.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/issj.12472 by Readcube (Lab i a Inc.), Wiley Online Lib a y on [04/12/2024]. See he Te ms and Condi ions (h ps://onlinelib a y.wiley.com/ e ms-and-condi ions) on Wiley Online Lib a y o ules o use; OA a icles a e go e ned by he applicable C ea i e Commons License 640 RAMOS-VIDAL AND DE LA OSSA & Koch, 1977), which yielded accep able alues anging be ween 0.4 and 0.6. The ollowing sec ion p esen s he sc eening p ocess o he a icles and he cha ac e is ics o he s udies ha me he inclusion c i e ia. 3 RESULTS The sys ema ic sea ch in he da abases yielded an ini ial esul o 637 eco ds. Once di e en sc een- ings we e pe o med, he sample was educed o 316 eco ds om which he abs ac , he me hodology sec ion and some imes he esul s we e e iewed o e i y i hey me he inclusion c i e ia. A e his second sc eening p ocess, 23 eco ds we e iden i ied ha me he inclusion c i e ia and cons i u ed he sample o his esea ch (see Figu e 2). Once he s udies ha me he inclusion c i e ia we e iden i ied, he in o ma ion o he selec ed s ud- ies was sys ema ized in he ollowing sec ions: (a) pa icipan s and s udy se ing; (b) esea ch design and s a is ical analysis; (c) ins umen used o measu e SoC; and (d) main esul s and conclusion o he esea ch. The p esen a ion o he esul s will ollow he same sequence ha has jus been men ioned. Table p esen s he in o ma ion o he analysed a icles. The pa icipan s o he s udies examined espond o di e en p o iles. Al hough s udies conduc ed wi h he gene al adul popula ion olde han 18 yea s (n=16) p edomina e, s udies ocused on he popula ion olde han 55 yea s (n=5) and, o a lesse ex en , he you h popula ion (n=2). The a e age numbe o pa icipan s in each s udy was 989.6 (SD =899.8), al hough he e was wide a iabili y in he sample sizes. Fou s udies ha e ep esen a i e samples a he egional le el, and one has a ep esen a i e sample a he na ional le el. The es o he s udies ei he do no indica e he sampling s a egy o apply simple andom sampling. Mos o he esea ch is conduc ed in No h Ame ica (six in he Uni ed S a es and h ee in Canada) and Asia (n=8) and, a behind, comes esea ch conduc ed in Aus alia (n=4), in Eu ope (n=1) and in A ica (n=1), and no in es iga ions wi h samples om Sou h Ame ica we e ound. The geo- g aphical dis ibu ion o he esea ch e lec he se ings in which he social doc ine o new u banism expanded mo e apidly (G an 2005); howe e , ew empi ical s udies a e iden i ied in he Eu opean con ex , whe eas he la ge numbe o s udies de eloped in Asia, and o a lesse ex en in Aus alia, showing a g owing in e es in de e mining he e ec ha he cha ac e is ics o he physical se ing p oduce on SoC in hose la i udes. The la ge numbe o s udies om he Asian se ing may be due in pa o he in e es in unde s anding he e ec ha he pe cep ion ega ding he quali y and use o public space p oduces on SoC, pa icula ly in olde people. 3.1 Resea ch design and s a is ical analysis All he s udies examined p esen c oss-sec ional designs so ha , al hough i is possible o es ablish co a ian ela ionships be ween he cha ac e is ics o public spaces o how i a ec s he pe cep ion o he quali y o hese spaces on SoC, i is no possible o es ablish causal ela ionships. Mos s udies use mul i a ia e s a is ics, among which di e en ypes o eg ession analysis (n=16) and s uc u al equa ion models (n=7) s and ou . A small p opo ion o s udies (n=3) combined mul i a ia e s a is ics wi h geog aphic posi ioning echniques. Only one in es iga ion uses mul i-case analysis, one o which is an expe imen al in es iga ion wi h manipula ion o a iables. 3.2 Ins umen s applied o measu e SoC A wide a ie y o ins umen s a e used o e alua e SoC. Se e al s udies (n=10) use di e en e sions o he SCI. This scale e alua es he ou dimensions o he McMillan and Cha is (1986) seminal wo k, 14682451, 2024, 252, Downloaded om h ps://onlinelib a y.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/issj.12472 by Readcube (Lab i a Inc.), Wiley Online Lib a y on [04/12/2024]. See he Te ms and Condi ions (h ps://onlinelib a y.wiley.com/ e ms-and-condi ions) on Wiley Online Lib a y o ules o use; OA a icles a e go e ned by he applicable C ea i e Commons License PUBLIC SPACE AND SENSE OF COMMUNITY 641 TABLE 2 Analysis o he a icles included in he sample (n=23). Au ho (s) and yea o publica ion Pa icipan s and s udy se ing Resea ch design and s a is ical analysis Ins umen used o measu e SoC Main esul s and conclusion Abdullah e al. (2021) 255 subjec s (53.7% men) wi h a mean age o 46.67 yea s (SD =16.22) esiding in a neighbou hood o he ci y o Penang (Malaysia) C oss-sec ional s udy using pa ial leas squa es s uc u al equa ion modelling To e alua e SoC, a one-dimensional Like - ype scale o six i ems de eloped by he same au ho s o he esea ch was used. The scale p esen s an accep able eliabili y (α=0.70) The main esul o he esea ch is ha he quali y o neighbou hood main enance posi i ely a ec s he esiden s’ SoC (β=0.137, p<0.05; CI: 90%: −0.009, 0.260). The s udy shows ha SoC is a ec ed by he cha ac e is ics o he physical en i onmen , and ha main aining he neighbou hood in adequa e condi ions inhibi s c iminal and an isocial beha iou Du Toi e al. (2007) 2194 pa icipan s aged be ween 20 and 65 yea s li ing in 32 communi ies in Aus alia C oss-sec ional s udy ha uses a mul ile el eg ession model o examine he ela ionships be ween he ease o walking o public spaces and sociabili y SoC scale consis ing o h ee i ems ha a e e alua ed wi h a i e-poin Like scale acco ding o he deg ee o ag eemen . I has a low eliabili y (α=0.65) No signi ican in e ac ion e ec s we e obse ed be ween he socio-demog aphic a iables and he ease o walking on SoC, in o mal social con ol and local social in e ac ion. A signi ican bu small in e ac ion e ec was obse ed wi hin he aceabili y o walking a ound he neighbou hood on SoC (β=0.002; p=0.013) Filipo i´ c(2008) Rep esen a i e sample o 4009 subjec s (67.6% women) aged be ween 15 and 65 yea s esiding in Slo enia C oss-sec ional s udy ha applies logis ic eg essions A Like - ype scale o i e ques ions was used ha examines h ee dimensions o SoC ha measu e social in e ac ion, a achmen o place and communi y iden i y. Reliabili y is no epo ed Reg ession analyses indica e ha he low pe cei ed quali y o neighbou hoods and public spaces nega i ely a ec s SoC (β=−0.150, p<0.001). The au ho s conclude ha cha ac e is ics o he physical en i onmen , in pa icula he heigh o buildings, ha e a nega i e impac on SoC (β=−0.62, p< 0.001) aF ancis e al. (2012) 911 pa icipan s (62.5% women) olde han 18 yea s esiding in he me opoli an a ea o Pe h (Aus alia) C oss-sec ional s udy, using linea eg essions and mul i a ia e models Sense o communi y index (SCI) o 12 i ems (Cha is e al. 1986). P esen s op imal eliabili y (α=0.80) SoC was highe in people who li ed less han 5 min om hei pa k and who epo ed a high quali y o he public space (p<0.001). The ela ionship be ween SoC, he subjec i e pe cep ion o he public space and he quali y o he shops showed signi ican alues (p<0.01). The objec i e e alua ion o public space was no signi ican ly associa ed wi h SoC. Using he public space o elax was he only ac i i y ha emained posi i ely associa ed wi h SoC (p< 0.05) (Con inues) 14682451, 2024, 252, Downloaded om h ps://onlinelib a y.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/issj.12472 by Readcube (Lab i a Inc.), Wiley Online Lib a y on [04/12/2024]. See he Te ms and Condi ions (h ps://onlinelib a y.wiley.com/ e ms-and-condi ions) on Wiley Online Lib a y o ules o use; OA a icles a e go e ned by he applicable C ea i e Commons License 648 RAMOS-VIDAL AND DE LA OSSA Conside ing ha mos s udies use di e en e sions o he SCI, i can be assumed ha he p e- dominan heo e ical model o e alua e SoC is he mos accep ed in communi y and en i onmen al psychology, which makes i he e e ence model o unde s and he ole ha he cha ac e is ics o public spaces pe o m in he con igu a ion o SoC. The s udies ha indica e he eliabili y o he scales (n=14) epo op imal indices, gene ally abo e 0.70. Howe e , a conside able numbe o s udies ha apply scales o measu e SoC (n=6) do no epo he eliabili y o he ins umen s, which can cons i u e a se ious alidi y p oblem conside ing ha hese a e he s udies in which he au ho s make adap a ions o o he ins umen s o de elop hei own scales, in se e al cases wi hou s a ing om a p e ious heo e ical model on SoC. 3.3 Main esul s o he s udies e iewed One o he s udies (Jaa a e al., 2015) iden i ied nega i e e ec s o he pe cei ed quali y o public space on SoC, whe eas he s udy by Yu (2021) showed ha he pe cei ed quali y o public spaces does no a ec SoC. The es o he s udies sugges ha he cha ac e is ics and he posi i e pe cep ion ega ding he a ibu es o he physical space p oduce posi i e e ec s on SoC. Gi en he di e si y o me hods, i has only been possible o quan i y he a iabili y o he e ec on SoC in he cases in which he s udies indica e he s anda dized eg ession coe icien s (β), he p alue and in speci ic cases he adjus ed R2 alue. In he es o he cases, app oxima ions a e made based on he s a is ical p ocedu e de eloped. The i s ac o ha p oduces e ec s on SoC is he pe cei ed quali y o he physical cha ac e is ics o public spaces (e.g. design, aes he ics and accessibili y). In his sense, se e al s udies we e iden i ied (n=8). On a e age, a s a is ically signi ican e ec is obse ed, bu o a sligh in ensi y o he pe - cei ed quali y o public space on SoC ( ange =0.13–0.4; Mβ=0.24; SD =0.1). This inding indica es ha he pe cep ion ha esiden s de elop ega ding he physical quali ies o he neighbou hood, and pa icula ly, o public spaces, ac s as an explana o y ac o o SoC. The second elemen examined is ha he physical se ing o he e i o ial uni has an in as uc- u e ha acili a es walking o public spaces and a eas o in e es o he communi y. Se e al s udies (n=7) a e iden i ied ha demons a e signi ican e ec s o mode a e in ensi y o he possibili y o walking on SoC ( ange =0.02–0.57; Mβ=0.22; SD =0.21). These esul s suppo he hesis ha he ease o walking acili a es he possibili ies o egula encoun e s among esiden s, which allows s eng hening in e pe sonal bonds and simul aneously ein o cing SoC (Audi ac 1999; Wood e al. 2010) and he bonding social capi al. Two s udies a e iden i ied ha examine he ole played by he equency o use o public space on SoC. I is necessa y o ake hese esul s wi h cau ion as hey ha e only been epo ed in wo s udies. Howe e , he epo ed e ec is o a wide magni ude ( ange =0.31–0.69; Mβ=0.5; SD =0.26), which seems o indica e ha making equen use o public spaces and he possibili ies o inc easing he equency o social in e ac ion in hese spaces can be a powe ul p ecu so o SoC. Table 2syn he izes he main indings o he s udies e iewed. 4 DISCUSSION In gene al, he esul s o he s udies examined a e in-line wi h he heo e ical expec a ion, showing ha he cha ac e is ics o public spaces and hei pe cei ed quali y p oduce posi i e and s a is ically signi ican e ec s on SoC. Social doc ine o he new u banism is based on designing esiden ial a eas and c ea ing inse ed public spaces ha build communi y (Ka z, 1994; Talen, 1999), wi h he objec i e o e e sing he gene alized decline o social capi al ha has been aking place in de eloped coun ies o se e al decades (Pu nam, 1995). Facili a ing social in e ac ions be ween inhabi an s o esiden ial a eas becomes a cen al objec i e o s eng hen social cohesion, comba he anomie p oduced by he popula ion densi y o la ge ci ies, imp o e psychosocial well-being and ein o ce SoC. In sho , he 14682451, 2024, 252, Downloaded om h ps://onlinelib a y.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/issj.12472 by Readcube (Lab i a Inc.), Wiley Online Lib a y on [04/12/2024]. See he Te ms and Condi ions (h ps://onlinelib a y.wiley.com/ e ms-and-condi ions) on Wiley Online Lib a y o ules o use; OA a icles a e go e ned by he applicable C ea i e Commons License PUBLIC SPACE AND SENSE OF COMMUNITY 649 new u banism aims o ebuild he communi y ab ic by p omo ing social exchange ha he a chi ec- u al design p io o his end has limi ed by no conside ing he ela ional needs o he popula ion and he impac o in a-communi y links on he gene a ion o social capi al. Wha has jus been men ioned o some ex en explains he in e es on he pa o u ban planning expe s in e alua ing he impac ha he design o he physical se ing exe s on he p omo ion o SoC (Audi ac, 1999; F ench e al., 2014; Glynn, 1986; Hoope e al., 2020; Kim & Kaplan, 2004). The empi ical e idence indica es ha he key o c ea ing communi y is o acili a e ha he inhabi an s (a) ecognize each o he ; (b) main ain egula p o-social in e ac ions; (c) s eng hen social ies and (d) ha e g ea e p o ision o social suppo (Fische , 1973). The esea ch included in his e iew o e s e idence ha suppo s o some ex en he pos ula e o new u banism, ha ing iden i ied in mos s udies ha he cha ac e is ics – objec i e and pe cei ed – o public spaces ha a ou social in e ac ion ha e a posi i e and signi ican in luence on SoC. Howe e , i is necessa y o poin ou di e en heo e ical, me hodological and applied conside a ions o be able o make an adequa e app op ia ion o he esul s o his e iew. 4.1 Theo e ical aspec s Many o he s udies e iewed use he concep o SoC in a gene ic and o en biased way and some imes use o he de ini ions, such as ‘sense o place’, ‘ esiden ial a achmen ’ o ‘neighbou hood cohesion’, o e e o his cons uc ha p esen some simila i ies ha do no ully espond o SoC heo y (McMillan, 1976,2011; McMillan & Cha is, 1986), which is widely accep ed by he scien i ic communi y. Fo his eason, i is ad isable o clea ly de ine he concep o SoC, p e e ably om a mul idimensional pe spec i e, which includes he e alua ion o subjec i e membe ship, he needs ul ilmen , o he pe cei ed quali y o he links wi h o he communi y membe s. Ano he heo e ical conside a ion ha mus be add essed wi h ca e in his ype o s udy is he de ini ion o he concep o communi y. I is obse ed ha many s udies make a di use use o he cons uc , which is no clea ly es ablished i he e m e e s o geog aphically de ined communi ies (e.g. a neighbou hood), communi ies o in e es s (e.g. associa ions) o ela ionships ha a e main- ained wi hin geog aphically delimi ed communi ies (e.g. he links wi h neighbou s o he same neighbou hood). Al hough p e ious s udies (Gus ield, 1975) jus i y ha SoC can be e alua ed wi h espec o local and ela ional communi ies, i is necessa y ha he s udies clea ly explain which is he e e ence uni wi h espec o which SoC is being e alua ed, some hing ha would con ibu e o di e en ia e his cons uc om o he concep s wi h which SoC may sha e some aspec s. The las heo e ical poin has o do wi h he ole social ela ionships play in he ope a ionaliza ion o SoC and wi h he unc ion ha public spaces un old as beha iou al se ings acili a ing in e pe - sonal con ac (Ba ke , 1978). SoC heo y (McMillan & Cha is 1986, p. 13) explici ly alludes o he quan i y and pe cei ed quali y o social con ac s on sha ed emo ional connec ion dimension. Gi en ha social doc ine o he new u banism seeks o p omo e socializa ion by c ea ing public spaces ha ac as (p o)social beha iou se ings whe e social ab ic is ep oduced, o e i y he e ec i eness o hese ac ions, i is essen ial o be able o objec i ely e alua e social ne wo ks ha eme ge in hese se - ings. F om his app oach, i is ecommended o include me hods o social ne wo k analysis capable o cap u ing bo h he links ha he subjec s es ablish wi h he beha iou al se ings, as well as he ela- ionships ha a e main ained wi h o he use s in hose se ings. The inco po a ion o his pe spec i e would make i possible o ob ain an in-dep h iew o he ole ha public spaces play in socializa ion and he e ec ha his p oduces on psychosocial well-being, social suppo and SoC. 4.2 Me hodological ac o s The di e si y o ins umen s used o e alua e bo h he cha ac e is ics o public spaces and SoC makes i di icul o es ablish compa isons among he s udies iden i ied. Howe e , he inclusion o a iables 14682451, 2024, 252, Downloaded om h ps://onlinelib a y.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/issj.12472 by Readcube (Lab i a Inc.), Wiley Online Lib a y on [04/12/2024]. See he Te ms and Condi ions (h ps://onlinelib a y.wiley.com/ e ms-and-condi ions) on Wiley Online Lib a y o ules o use; OA a icles a e go e ned by he applicable C ea i e Commons License 650 RAMOS-VIDAL AND DE LA OSSA ha measu e he objec i e elemen s o he physical space, hei pe cei ed quali y, he equency o use and he ype o use ha hey a e gi en can be an adequa e s a egy o highligh he a ie y o dimensions ha con igu e hese spaces. In his e iew, i e s udies a e iden i ied in which he aspec s a e combined, whe eas he es o he p oposals ocus on explo ing how he objec i e cha ac e is ics o public spaces a ec SoC. To de e mine he e ec ha public space exe s on SoC, i is necessa y o inco po a e no only a iables ha show he objec i e cha ac e is ics and he pa e n o use o hese spaces bu also he pe cep ion ha esiden s ha e o hese, because ega dless o whe he hey a e ac i e use s, de eloping a posi i e pe cep ion o he physical se ing o he neighbou hood seems o posi i ely a ec psychosocial well-being and SoC (Guo e al., 2021). The ins umen s used o e alua e SoC a e equally he e ogeneous and in many cases a e limi ed o using a small numbe o ques ions o e alua e SoC. To measu e he complexi y and ichness o he cons uc , i is necessa y o use ins umen s ha a e adap ed o each popula ion and each se ing bu a he same ime p esen op imal psychome ic p ope ies. This would allow he esea ch eplicabili y and he de elopmen o compa a i e s udies o de e mine how di e en cha ac e is ics o public spaces can p oduce a iable e ec s in di e en popula ions. This ecommenda ion is necessa y o b oaden and gene alize he indings and endo se social unc ion de i ed om new u banism social doc ine (Talen, 1999, 2000). Finally, some conside a ions should be made abou he me hodological designs o he s udies e iewed. Fi s , no s udies ha e been de ec ed ha apply longi udinal designs, so ha , al hough co a i- ance ela ionships can be es ablished be ween he a iables, i is no possible o es ablish causal ela ionships. Second, i is necessa y o de elop me hodological iangula ions ha con ibu e o in e - p e ing he esul s, pa icula ly in he case o he subjec i e expe ience o SoC expe ienced by esiden s and how his expe ience a ies depending on he objec i e cha ac e is ics, pe cep ion, equency o ype o use made o public spaces. Finally, he comple e desc ip ion o he cha ac e is ics o he phys- ical se ings e alua ed in he e iewed in es iga ions con as s wi h he summa y and desc ip ion o he cha ac e is ics o he pa icipan s. Conside ing ha he new u banism is based on he esul o he in e ac ion be ween he subjec s and he physical space hey inhabi (G an , 2005; Ka z, 1994), bo h elemen s should dese e he same a en ion. 4.3 P ac ical implica ions F om he s udies analysed, ecommenda ions can be ex ac ed o in o m he design o public spaces ha become beha iou al se ings ha acili a e sociabili y and s eng hen SoC. One o he mos el- e an indings is how impo an he walkable ou e o public spaces and ec ea ional a eas o he neighbou hood is, as well as he objec i e cha ac e is ics, he pe cep ion o he use made o hem. Se e al s udies show ha he me e ac o being able o a el o he a eas o in e es o he communi y in al e na i e ways o he ca (walking o cycling) inc eases he oppo uni ies o in e ac wi h neigh- bou s and p oduces posi i e e ec s on SoC (Audi ac, 1999). In addi ion o designing public spaces ha adequa ely ul il hei social unc ion, i is necessa y ha , in pa allel, esou ces a e in es ed in c ea ing walkable pa hs ha allow mo ing owa ds hem wi hou he need o use he ca o public anspo (F ench e al., 2014). A second ecommenda ion has o do wi h he loca ion and cha ac e is ics o public spaces wi hin each local se ing. Some o he s udies e iewed show ha i is ad isable o include mul iple smalle public spaces ha a e easily accessible o each o he (a ea u e o he new u banism), ins ead o la ge spaces loca ed in he cen e o neighbou hoods (Kim & Kaplan 2004). This ecommenda ion is since ha ing compa a i ely small spaces can acili a e social in e ac ion be ween esiden s who li e nea said space, s eng hening he bonding social capi al. The exis ence o a ce ain a ie y o mu ually accessible public spaces can a ou in a-communi y mobili y, inc easing ecogni ion among neigh- bou s who li e in di e en loca ions, which would s eng hen social cohesion o he neighbou hood o some ex en . Rega ding he cha ac e is ics o he spaces, i is necessa y ha hey p esen di e en 14682451, 2024, 252, Downloaded om h ps://onlinelib a y.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/issj.12472 by Readcube (Lab i a Inc.), Wiley Online Lib a y on [04/12/2024]. See he Te ms and Condi ions (h ps://onlinelib a y.wiley.com/ e ms-and-condi ions) on Wiley Online Lib a y o ules o use; OA a icles a e go e ned by he applicable C ea i e Commons License PUBLIC SPACE AND SENSE OF COMMUNITY 651 cha ac e is ics (e.g. e sa ili y, accessibili y and com o ) ha gua an ee he sa is ac o y de elopmen o posi i e in e ac ions (Ca mona, 2019). In ol ing he communi y in he design o public spaces is conside ed a good p ac ice o p omo e he use o hese spaces by esiden s and ha decision-making ega ding he design o hese spaces conside s he p e e ences and needs o he esiden s. Fo example, an expe ience de eloped in he me opoli an a ea o Ba celona (Spain) has shown ha ac ions ela ed o co-c ea ion and using public space o ca y ou a is ic ac i i ies os e communi y pa icipa ion and iden i ica ion wi h he communi y (Remesa , 2021). In ecen yea s, mo emen s ha e been de eloped ha a e commi ed o ac i a ing he pa icipa ion o neighbou hood esiden s o design public spaces and s ee s ha a e mo e accessible, sa e, and walk- able, and ha educe a el imes wi hin and be ween esiden ial communi ies. A ecen expe ience de eloped in a neighbou hood loca ed in he no h o Milan (I aly) se es as an example o illus a e he posi i e impac p oduced by he in ol emen o he communi y in he design o public spaces and walkable a eas. The wo k documen ed by Mo o (2022) shows ha he o ganiza ion o a is ic and educa ional mic o-ac i i ies se es o ake ad an age o abandoned public spaces, imp o ing neigh- bou hood sa e y and inc easing he use o g een a eas and ga dens by disad an aged g oups. This ype o pilo p ojec con ibu es o simul aneously inc ease social exchange, communi y pa icipa ion and a ou s he c ea ion o social ne wo ks among communi y membe s, which is a sign o he genesis o social capi al. The objec i e cha ac e is ics o public spaces, he pe cep ion o hei quali y, he equency, he ype o use made o hem and he possibili y o walking owa ds hem a e ac o s ela ed o he physical cha ac e is ics o esiden ial a eas ha ha e a posi i e, signi ican and mode a e impac on SoC. Con- sequen ly, he esul s o his e iew o e pa ial suppo o he ole played by social doc ine o new u banism in comba ing he decline o social capi al. Howe e , o unde s and he ela ionship be ween public spaces and he c ea ion o communi y, i is necessa y o ca y ou longi udinal s udies, clea ly de ine he concep o communi y, p ope ly ope a ionalize SoC a iable and acili a e he eplica ion o esea ch in di e en geog aphical and cul u al se ings and wi h he e ogeneous popula ions. This wo k has some limi a ions ha mus be poin ed ou . Fi s , he sea ch was ca ied ou in a single da abase, so i is possible ha his decision p e en s he iden i ica ion o esea ch ha alls wi hin he amewo k o he e iew. Second, he e iew is ocused on quan i a i e s udies, so i is possible ha his decision excludes ele an esea ch ha uses quali a i e o e en mixed me hods. Finally, mos o he esea ch iden i ied co esponds o s udies conduc ed in he Uni ed S a es, Aus alia and Asia. Due o his ac , i is di icul o ex apola e he esul s and ecommenda ions o he Eu opean, La in Ame ican and A ican con ex . CONFLICT OF INTEREST STATEMENT None. DATA AVAILABILITY STATEMENT The da a ha suppo he indings o his s udy a e openly a ailable in Web o Sci- ence Co e Collec ion a h ps://u lde ense.com/ 3/ h ps://www. ecu soscien i icos. ecy .es/ __;!!N11eV2iw s! 1zs ROCFPD1eHQal4ndhjT0P_XFe0X0-Q5CljO7mB6Yn7pZNAlVsmhZ- TFkVNVgan2KJc52W1Rq 9XX0CP1sUXZ$ PEER REVIEW The pee e iew his o y o his a icle is a ailable a h ps://publons.com/publon/10.1111/issj.12472. ORCID Ignacio Ramos-Vidal h ps://o cid.o g/0000-0002-1840-0761 Elsy Domínguez de la Ossa h ps://o cid.o g/0000-0001-7918-9982 14682451, 2024, 252, Downloaded om h ps://onlinelib a y.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/issj.12472 by Readcube (Lab i a Inc.), Wiley Online Lib a y on [04/12/2024]. See he Te ms and Condi ions (h ps://onlinelib a y.wiley.com/ e ms-and-condi ions) on Wiley Online Lib a y o ules o use; OA a icles a e go e ned by he applicable C ea i e Commons License 652 RAMOS-VIDAL AND DE LA OSSA REFERENCES *Abdullah, A., M. Sa izadeh, M. Hedaya i, and M. J. 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