Strong angular and spectral narrowing of electroluminescence in an integrated Tamm-plasmon-driven halide perovskite LED

A icle h ps://doi.o g/10.1038/s41467-024-49838-1 S ong angula and spec al na owing o elec oluminescence in an in eg a ed Tamm- plasmon-d i en halide pe o ski e LED Zhe Ying Ooi 1 , Albe o Jiménez-Solano 2,3 ,K zysz o Gałkowski 4,5,6 , Yuqi Sun 4 , Jo di Fe e O i 4,7 , Kyle F ohna 4 , Hayden Salway 1 , Simon Kahmann 1,4 , Shenyu Nie 1 , Guadalupe Vega 3,8 ,ShaoniKa 4 , MichałP. Nowak 9 , Sebas ian Maćkowski 5 ,Pio Nyga 9 , Ca e ina Duca i 7 , Neil C. G eenham 4 , Be ina V. Lo sch 2,10,11 ,MiguelAnaya 1,8 & Samuel D. S anks 1,4 Nex -gene a ion ligh -emi ing applica ions such as displays and op ical communica ions equi e judicious con ol o e emi ed ligh , including in ensi y and angula dispe sion. To da e, his emains a challenge as con- en ional me hods equi e cumbe some op ics. He e, we epo highly di ec- ional and enhanced elec oluminescence om a solu ion-p ocessed quasi-2- dimensional halide pe o ski e ligh -emi ing diode by building a de ice a chi ec u e o exploi hyb id plasmonic-pho onic Tamm plasmon modes. By exploi ing he p ocessing and bandgap unabili y o he halide pe o ski e de ice laye s, we cons uc he de ice s ack o op imise bo h op ical and cha ge-injec ion p ope ies, leading o na ow o wa d elec oluminescence wi h an angula ull-wid h hal -maximum o 36.6° compa ed wi h he con- en ional iso opic con ol de ice o 143.9°, and na ow elec oluminescence spec al ull-wid h hal -maximum o 12.1 nm. The de ice design is e sa ile and unable o wo k wi h emission lines co e ing he isible spec um wi h desi ed di ec ionali y, hus p o iding a p omising ou e o modula , inexpensi e, and di ec ional ope a ing ligh -emi ing de ices. In he pas decade, ligh -emi ing diodes (LEDs) ha e domina ed he ligh emission ma ke in applica ions such as ligh ing, indica o s and displays hanks o hei ou s anding pe o mance including long li e imes, low ene gy consump ion, as swi ching, small size and high obus ness1,2. Whe eas c ys alline epi axially g own III-V semiconduc o s3,4a e s ill domina ing he ligh ing ma ke , new gen- e a ion emi ing ma e ials such as solu ion-p ocessed quan um do s5, o ganics6and polyme s7a e now finding ac ion pa icula ly in he display ma ke . Mo e ecen ly, solu ion-p ocessible halide pe o ski es ha e eme ged as popula op oelec onic ma e ials wi h ema kable Recei ed: 11 Ap il 2023 Accep ed: 21 June 2024 Check o upda es 1 Depa men o Chemical Enginee ing and Bio echnology, Uni e si y o Camb idge, Camb idge, UK. 2 Max Planck Ins i u e o Solid S a e Resea ch, Hei- senbe gs asse 1, 70569 S u ga , Ge many. 3 Depa amen o de Física, Uni e sidad de Có doba, EdificioEins ein(C2),CampusdeRabanales,14071 Có doba, Spain. 4 Ca endish Labo a o y, Uni e si y o Camb idge, Camb idge, UK. 5 Ins i u e o Physics, Facul y o Physics, As onomy and In o ma ics, Nicolaus Cope nicus Uni e si y, To uń,Poland. 6 Depa men o Expe imen al Physics, Facul y o Fundamen al P oblems o Technology, W oclaw Uni e si y o Science and Technology, W oclaw, Poland. 7 Depa men o Ma e ials Science and Me allu gy, Uni e si y o Camb idge, Camb idge, UK. 8 Depa amen o Física de la Ma e ia Condensada, Ins i u o de Ciencia de Ma e iales de Se illa, Uni e sidad de Se illa−CSIC, Calle Amé ico Vespucio 49, Se illa 41012, Spain. 9 Ins i u e o Op oelec onics, Mili a y Uni e si y o Technology, Wa saw, Poland. 10 Depa men o Chemis y, Ludwig-Maximilians-Uni e si ä (LMU), Bu enand s asse 5-13, 81377 Munich, Ge many. 11 e-con e sion, Lich enbe gs asse 4a, 85748 Ga ching, Ge many. e-mail: [email p o ec ed];[email p o ec ed] Na u e Communica ions | (2024) 15:5802 1 1234567890():,; 1234567890():,; p ope ies, including bandgap unabili y, high ca ie mobili y and high luminescence e ficiency8,9, which makes hem p omising candi- da es o he nex gene a ion ligh ing echnologies. To ully exploi he p ope ies o hese ma e ials in a ange o ligh applica ions, absolu e con ol o he emission p ope ies ia he implemen a ion o efined ligh managemen me hods will be c ucial. Con en ional pho on managemen s a egies include imple- men a ion o plasmonic wa eguides10–16, pho onic ca i ies17–21,and hyb id ca i ies22. Plasmonic wa eguides ha e s ong ligh confinemen o s ong enhancemen o op ical field and op ical o ce bu he plasmonic me al a enua es elec omagne ic fields hus o ming sho - anged plasmonic e ec s23,24. Pho onic sys ems ha e longe ange, howe e , he confinemen ac oss he emi ing laye is ypically lowe han he plasmonic analogues22,25. A long- anged and s ongly confined hyb id plasmonic-pho onic s uc u e is an a ac i e solu ion. Tamm plasmons a e localised su ace s a es ha a e confined a he me al (plasmonic)-pho onic-c ys al in e ace, wi h me al deposi ed di ec ly on he high e ac i e index laye o he pho onic c ys al26,27.The Tamm plasmon esonance can be uned ac oss he pho onic s opband o he pho onic c ys al by a ying he hickness o he op high e ac i e index laye a he in e ace27. Unlike con en ional su ace plasmons, Tamm plasmons o m bo h ans e se elec ic and mag- ne ic mode pola isa ions wi h dispe sion wi hin he ligh cone, and hus can be op ically exci ed wi hou addi ional op ical p isms o g a ings27. The Tamm plasmon modes a e ound in simple plana s uc u es which a e ela i ely easy o ab ica e, easy o design and une, and could easily ans o m in o a de ice a chi ec u e. These ema kable p ope ies o Tamm plasmon modes ha e p omp ed hei de elopmen o a a ie y o op ical applica ions such as op ical coa ings wi h dye-doped nanosphe es28, III-V semiconduc o lase s29, o ganic sola cells30 and quan um do -based single pho on sou ces31. In his wo k, we employ a halide pe o ski e ligh -emi ing diode (PeLED) de ice d i en by Tamm plasmon modes o p ecise angula and colou con ol. Wi h ca e ul con ol o he s uc u e, we une he Tamm plasmon esonance wa eleng h o ma ch he pe o ski e elec- oluminescence (EL) peak and hus confine he Tamm plasmon modes wi hin he en i e pe o ski e laye . The Tamm plasmon esonance modes enhance he pe o ski e EL in o wa d di ec ion by a ac o o 1.8 compa ed o he e e ence, and ou couple ligh modes e ficien ly wi h na ow and con ollable angula dispe sion wi h angula ull-wid h hal -maximum (FWHM) o 36.6° compa ed o 143.9° o he con ol. As a plasmonic sys em, he Tamm plasmon modes show s onge con- finemen o he elec omagne ic field han he ull pho onic mic o- ca i ies, hus a ac i e o PeLEDs as he pe o ski e film is ypically hin. The app oach is e sa ile and uneable ac oss di e en emi ing ene gies and angles, hus opening a enues o wide applica ions in display and ligh sou ces which equi e fine con ol o he angula dispe sion and in ensi y o emi ed ligh . Resul s De elopmen o pe o ski e-based Tamm plasmon s uc u e We fi s employ a ans e ma ix model powe ed by a gene ic algo- i hm (see Me hods o u he de ails) o es ablish he op imum combina ion o ma e ials and hickness o each laye o achie e a s ong Tamm plasmon esonance confined ac oss he en i e quasi-2- dimensional (2D) pe o ski e laye (Supplemen a y Fig. 1). A quasi-2D (PEA) 2 (CsPbB 3 ) n−1 PbB 4 pe o ski e (PEA: 2-phenyle hylamine, Cs: cae- sium, Pb: lead, B : b omide) is employed and op imised o ealise a smoo h hin film wi h pho oluminescence (PL) peak wa eleng h a ound 510 nm (Supplemen a y Fig. 1). This ma e ial o e s high b igh ness, pho oluminescence quan um yield and ex e nal quan um e ficiency (EQE) when inco po a ed in LEDs due o dielec ic and quan um con- finemen e ec s go e ned by he o ma ion o lowe dimensional halide pe o ski e s uc u es32,33 (Supplemen a y Fig. 2). We show using simula ions ha using sil e (Ag) as he Tamm plasmon me al laye achie es he highes enhancemen o elec ic field wi hin he pe o ski e laye compa ed wi h aluminium (Al) and gold (Au) (Supplemen a y Fig. 3). This is due o small ohmic loss o Ag (low imagina y pe mi i i y o dielec ic cons an ) ac oss he isible spec um34. Acco ding o he op imised simula ion design, we hen expe i- men ally ab ica ed he pe o ski e-based Tamm-plasmon s uc u e. As shown in he c oss-sec ional high-angle annula da k field scanning ansmission elec on mic oscopy (HAADF-STEM) image (Fig. 1a) and ene gy dispe si e X- ay (EDX) spec oscopy chemical composi ion map (Fig. 1b), he op imised Tamm-plasmon-based pe o ski e s uc- u e has smoo h and uni o m in e aces ac oss each laye and he hickness o each laye closely ma ches he op imised design om simula ion (Fig. 1c). The pe o ski e-based Tamm-plasmon s uc u e employed he e is made up o a 1-dimensional pho onic c ys al com- p ising 3 pai s o al e na ing i anium dioxide (TiO 2 )andsilicondiox- ide (SiO 2 ) laye s, a hin ( oughly 10 nm o minimise op ical e ec s) laye o poly inylca bazole (PVK), a quasi-2D pe o ski e film and a sil e laye . The hin PVK laye is added o ensu e consis ency o pe - o ski e g ow h on di e en subs a es and will ac as he e en ual hole anspo laye wi hin he PeLEDs. The quasi-2D pe o ski e film wi h a e ac i e index o n= 2.05 (a 510 nm) eplaces he TiO 2 laye (n=2.35 a 510 nm) as he bo om pho onic c ys al laye a he me al-pho onic- c ys al in e ace (see Supplemen a y No e 1 o de ails o pho onic c ys al). The quasi-2D pe o ski e film is placed a he me al-pho onic- c ys al in e ace as he Tamm plasmon modes a e s ongly confined a he me al-pho onic-c ys al in e ace. F om he simula ion shown in Fig. 1c, we obse e ha he Tamm plasmon esonance enhances and confines elec ic field in ensi y a he me al-pho onic-c ys al in e ace, and he enhancemen spans he en i e pe o ski e laye when con- side ing he emission wa eleng h o 510 nm. Fine uning o he Tamm plasmon esonance is ealised by a ying he hickness o he final high e ac i e index laye a he me al- pho onic-c ys al in e ace26,27,34.Wefinely manipula e he pe o ski e hicknesses be ween 20 nm o 54 nm by uning he concen a ion o pe o ski e p ecu so s (Fig. 1d). The esul ing pe o ski e hicknesses a e es ima ed wi h a omic o ce mic oscopy (AFM) (Supplemen a y Fig. 4). The AFM hickness measu emen s a e in excellen ag eemen wi h he HAADF-STEM imaging and he fi ed simula ion esul s om he Tamm plasmon esonance wa eleng h, wi h esul ing e o wi hin ±3 nm (Fig. 1e). We no e ha he Tamm plasmon esonance wa e- leng hs om Fig. 1d, e a e measu ed using an in eg a ing sphe e whe e he sample is il ed a 8° (see Me hods o de ails); he Tamm plasmon esonance a 0° is es ima ed o be ca. 3 nm ed-shi ed om his alue. In Fig. 1e, i is seen ha he expe imen ally measu ed Tamm plasmon esonance linea ly ed shi s om 485 nm o 565 nm as he pe o ski e hickness inc eases om 20 nm o 54 nm. F om hese samples, we ound ha a pe o ski e hickness o 26 nm in he pe o ski e-based Tamm plasmon s ack gi es a ma ching Tamm plasmon esonance wi h he pe o ski e film PL wa eleng h (dashed black line). Di ec ionali y o he pe o ski e-based Tamm plasmon s uc u e To con ex ualise he p ope ies o ou pe o ski e-based Tamm plas- mon s uc u e, we fi s define a e e ence pe o ski e s uc u e as he glass/PVK/quasi-2D pe o ski e/Ag s ack which has iden ical laye s o he Tamm-plasmon s uc u e discussed abo e bu elimina ing he TiO 2 /SiO 2 laye s ha comp omise he pho onic c ys al. We obse e a sho ened PL li e ime ac oss a ange o fluences in he e e ence- pe o ski e s ack (li e ime o 1.5 ns) compa ed o he e e ence- pe o ski e s uc u e wi hou Ag (li e ime o 3.7 ns) (Supplemen a y Fig. 5), indica ing he di ec deposi ion o Ag on pe o ski e quenches he PL h ough inc eased non- adia i e ecombina ion a he in e ace35,36. By he e e ence pe o ski e defini ion,we uleou he e ec o he Tamm plasmon esonance in ou e e ence-pe o ski e s ack while e aining he quenching e ec o Ag on he pe o ski e. As showninFig.2a, b, he PL o ou e e ence-pe o ski e s uc u e ollows A icle h ps://doi.o g/10.1038/s41467-024-49838-1 Na u e Communica ions | (2024) 15:5802 2 a Lambe ian emission p ofile, which is compa able o he fini e- di e ence ime-domain simula ion (Fig. 2c) and is ypical o iso opic emi e s37. The PL maximum o he e e ence-pe o ski e s uc u e is cons an a 510 nm ac oss all angles. Compa ing Fig. 2a, d, he PL linewid h o he pe o ski e-based Tamm plasmon s uc u e wi h pe o ski e hickness o 26 nm (FWHM o 16.9 nm) is significan ly na owe han he e e ence-pe o ski e sample (FWHM o 29.1 nm). We obse e ha he PL in ensi y o he pe o ski e-based Tamm plasmon s uc u e wi h pe o ski e hickness o 26nm is enhanced and peaks a 510 nm in he o wa d di ec ion (0° o no mal) (Fig. 2d). Thus, we e e o his sample as he na ow-angle- Tamm-plasmon-pe o ski e s ack because he Tamm plasmon eso- nance ma ches he pe o ski e PL a na ow angles. As he angle inc eases, he PL in ensi y is supp essed and sligh ly blue-shi ed. This obse a ion is concomi an wi h he blue-shi ing o he Tamm plas- mon esonance a inc easing angles in a Tamm plasmon sys em27.As showninFig.2e, he na ow-angle-Tamm-plasmon-pe o ski e exhibi s sha p emission di ec ionali y wi h angula FWHM o 44.7° compa ed o 124.5° o he e e ence pe o ski e wi h he same exci a ion powe densi y (exci ed wi h a 405 nm lase ). While all samples we e exci ed a he same exci a ion in ensi y, he na ow-angle-Tamm-plasmon-pe - o ski e shows s ong enhancemen by a ac o o 2.6 in o wa d emission wi hin a solid angle o ±15° pe pendicula o he sample su ace (calcula ions in Me hods), which is c ucial in applica ions ha equi e o wa d emission. In Supplemen a y Fig. 5, we obse e no significan changes in PL li e ime o he na ow-angle-Tamm-plasmon-pe o ski e compa ed wi h he e e ence pe o ski e s uc u e conside ing small sample- o- sample a ia ion, which is consis en wi h o he plana confined sys- ems ope a ing unde weak confinemen egime and epo ed e y small <10% changes38–41. The simula ed abso p ion ac oss he en i e pe o ski e laye a he exci a ion wa eleng h o 405 nm wi hin bo h he e e ence-pe o ski e s uc u e and he na ow-angle-Tamm-plas- mon-pe o ski e s uc u e a e compa able (Supplemen a y Fig. 6), hus showing he o wa d enhancemen in PL is p ima ily due o he Tamm plasmon modes esona ing a he emission wa eleng h o 510 nm a he han pho on ecycling by e-abso p ion- e-emission e en s. We also no e ha bo h samples ha e uni o m spa ial uni o mi y o PL (Supplemen a y Fig. 7). Indeed, he enhanced di ec ional emission o he na ow-angle-Tamm-plasmon-pe o ski e s uc u e obse ed expe imen ally is also compa able o he simula ion shown in Fig. 2 . Thus, we epo s ongly di ec ional emission wi h ou na ow-angle- Tamm-plasmon-pe o ski e s uc u e. We demons a e ha he pe o ski e-based Tamm plasmon s uc u e o e s e sa ile adjus men o he emission di ec ionali y be ween 0° o 40° by uning he quasi-2D pe o ski e hickness be ween 26 nm and 54 nm (Supplemen a y Fig. 8). Taking he pe o ski e-based Tamm plasmon sample wi h pe o ski e hickness o 50 nm as an example, we obse e a significan ly ed-shi ed PL a small angles (Fig. 2g), which ma ches he Tamm plasmon esonance mode Fig. 1 | De elopmen o he pe o ski e-based Tamm plasmon s uc u e. a C oss- sec ional HAADF-STEM image o he pe o ski e-based Tamm plasmon s uc u e. Le : Magnified image o he me al-quasi-2D pe o ski e in e ace. The scale ba shows 50 nm. A simila s uc u e is ab ica ed as he e e ence-pe o ski e s uc u e (wi hou TiO 2 /SiO 2 laye pai s) o ensu e esul s a e no a ec ed by unwan ed e ec s, e.g., PL quenching due o me al deposi ion. The hickness o each laye is TiO 2 = (70 ± 2) nm, SiO 2 = (90 ± 2) nm, quasi-2D pe o ski e + PVK = (34 ± 5) nm, Ag = (100 ± 5) nm. bEDX chemical map o pe o ski e-based Tamm plasmon s uc u e. A eas ich in Ag, Cs, Pb, B , C, Si and Ti a e ma ked in he legend. The scale ba shows 200 nm. The obse ed halo ea u es a he i anium (Ti)- ich in e ace a e ound o be a sligh composi ional g adien o Ti, while he oxygen composi ion emains cons an a he in e ace. cSimula ed elec ic field enhancemen , Ejj 2 E0 jj 2o he na ow-angle-Tamm-plasmon-pe o ski e s uc u e. dExpe imen al op imisa- ion o pe o ski e-based Tamm-plasmon s uc u e by a ying he pe o ski e hicknesses be ween 20 nm o 54 nm (Tamm plasmon esonance wa eleng h bes fi ed wi h ans e ma ix model o es ima e hickness o pe o ski e). Tamm plasmon esonance dip acqui ed om eflec ance measu emen s a 8°. PL o quasi- 2D pe o ski e hin film on glass is shown as dashed line. eTamm plasmon eso- nance wa eleng h a 8° e sus pe o ski e film hickness. Pe o ski e hickness is measu ed unde AFM (solid line) and es ima ed om Tamm plasmon esonance wa eleng h bes fi ed wi h simula ion (dashed line). Inse : schema ic o he pe o ski e-basedTamm-plasmon s uc u ewi h a g een a ow indica ing he quasi- 2D pe o ski e laye . A icle h ps://doi.o g/10.1038/s41467-024-49838-1 Na u e Communica ions | (2024) 15:5802 3 measu ed a small angles (dashed line). As he angle o emission inc eases, he PL blue-shi s in esponse o he dispe sion ela ion o he Tamm plasmon mode27. The highes PL in ensi y is achie ed when he blue shi ing o he Tamm plasmon esonance ma ches he pe - o ski e PL posi ion, which is obse ed a a collec ion angle o 40° o his sample (Fig. 2h). We he ea e e e o hese samples wi h wide- angled di ec ionali y as he wide-angle-Tamm-plasmon-pe o ski e s uc u e. The inc ease o emission di ec ionali y angle is dependen on he inc ease o pe o ski e hickness, which leads o an inc ease in Tamm plasmon esonance wa eleng h a 0°. The la ge angle emission di ec ionali y o he wide-angle-Tamm-plasmon-pe o ski e s uc u e shown expe imen ally in Fig. 2h ma ches he simula ion shown in Fig. 2i. Resul s o he angle-dependen PL spec a o all wide-angle- Tamm-plasmon-pe o ski e s uc u es can be ound in Supplemen a y Fig. 9, demons a ing he e sa ili y o his pho onic pla o m. Tamm-plasmon-d i en pe o ski e LEDs To demons a e he e ec in elec oluminescence om ull de ices, we ab ica e PeLEDs wi h he s uc u e o subs a e/indium in oxide (ITO)/ poly(4-bu yl iphenylamine) (poly-TPD)/PVK/quasi-2D pe - o ski e/2,2’,2”-(1,3,5-benzine iyl)- is(1-phenyl-1-H-benzimidazole) (TPBi)/8-quinolinola o li hium (LiQ)/Ag. He e, he subs a e o e e - ence PeLEDs and Tamm-plasmon-d i en PeLEDs e e s o glass and glass/pho onic c ys al subs a e espec i ely. The hole injec ion laye s we e o med by spin-coa ing laye s o poly-TPD and PVK wi h hick- ness o ~10 nm and ~5 nm espec i ely. A 40-nm laye o he mally e apo a ed TPBi ac s as he elec on injec ing laye , ollowed by e a- po a ed LiQ (3 nm)/Ag (100 nm) as elec odes. Each o he de ice s ack laye s a e op imised o be ac i e pa s o he pho onic c ys al/me al combina ions o ealise he Tamm plasmon e ec s (see Supplemen- a y Fig. 10). We obse e s ong EL spec al na owing om FWHM o 22.4 nm in he e e ence PeLEDs o FWHM o 12.1 nm in he na ow-angle- Tamm-plasmon-d i en PeLEDs (pe o ski e hickness ~26 nm) due o he sha p Tamm plasmon esonance ma ching he EL peak, as shown by hedashedlineinFig.3a. The cu en densi y– ol age cu es o he e e encePeLEDs and na ow-angle-Tamm-plasmon-d i en PeLEDs a e simila (Fig. 3b), which is consis en wi h he pho onic c ys al laye s being smoo h and uni o m, and lying below he ITO con ac , hus no elec ically modi ying he PeLED de ice. The highes o wa d lumi- nance o he na ow-angle-Tamm-plasmon-d i en PeLEDs eached 21,800 cd m−2which is significan ly highe han he e e ence PeLEDs Fig. 2 | Pe o ski e-based Tamm plasmon s uc u es show unabili y o he emission angula dis ibu ion. Expe imen al angula pho oluminescence (PL) esul s and simula ions o (a–c) e e ence pe o ski e s ack, (d– ) na ow-angle- Tamm-plasmon-pe o ski e s uc u e wi h quasi-2D pe o ski e hickness o 26 nm and (g–i) wide-angle-Tamm-plasmon-pe o ski e s uc u e wi h quasi-2D pe o ski e hickness o 50 nm. a,d,gPL in ensi y o each samples collec ed a inc easing angle o 0°, 5°, 10°, 20°, 30°, 40°, 50° and 80°. Reflec ance is shown as a dashed line. b,eDe ec ion angle agains PL o e e ence-pe o ski e s ack and na ow-band- Tamm-plasmon-based pe o ski e s uc u e wi h PL spec a in eg a ed om 480 nm o 540 nm. hDe ec ion angle agains PL o wide-angle-Tamm-plasmon- pe o ski e s uc u e wi h PL spec a in eg a ed be ween 505 nm o 565 nm. Lam- be ian cu e in dashed line. Inse : schema ic o each s uc u e. Since all samples a e exci ed a he same powe densi y, he in eg a ed PL a e compa able among he h ee samples. c, ,iFini e-di e ence ime-domain simula ion o angula ou pu powe o each s uc u e. PL in ensi y o all configu a ions no malised o he PL in ensi y o na ow-angle-Tamm-plasmon-pe o ski e s uc u e (see colou ba s). A icle h ps://doi.o g/10.1038/s41467-024-49838-1 Na u e Communica ions | (2024) 15:5802 4 wi h a maximum o 14,500 cd m-2. Fo applica ions such as displays whe e o wa d di ec ional emission is c ucial, cu en e ficiency defined as he a io be ween o wa d luminance and cu en is a mo e ele an pa ame e o conside 42. Figu e 3c shows ha he maximum cu en e ficiency o ou Tamm-plasmon-d i en PeLEDs a 61.8 cd A−1is much highe han he e e ence PeLEDs a 29.6 cd A−1.Weno e ha whils he e is an enhancemen in he EL in he o wa d di ec ion o he Tamm plasmon PeLED, he e is a educ ion in o al EQE as ha quan i y conside s emission in all di ec ions (inse Fig. 3c), which ma ches he d op in pho oluminescence quan um e ficiency (PLQE) in he Tamm plasmon PeLED compa ed wi h he e e ence PeLED (see Supplemen a y No e 2). This obse a ion may ela e o op ical losses which a e common in coupling sys ems bu could be imp o ed wi h mo e ca e ul design and imp o ed pe o ski e quali y. Unlike he bulk pe o ski e coun e pa s, he quasi-2D PeLED shows s onge oll-on and oll-o in EQE agains cu en densi y (mo e discussion in Sup- plemen a y No e 3). The PL li e ime o e e ence PeLED and na ow- angle-Tamm-plasmon-d i en PeLEDs s uc u es shows no significan changes (mo e discussion in Supplemen a y No e 4 and Supplemen- a y Fig. 11). The EL spec a as a unc ion o angle a e plo ed in image maps in Fig. 3d– . The EL o he e e ence PeLED consis en ly peaks a 513 nm ac oss all angles and shows a Lambe ian emission p ofile wi h angula FWHM o 143.9° (whi e dashed line, Fig. 3d). In Fig. 3e, he na ow- angle-Tamm-plasmon-d i en PeLED shows enhancemen by a ac o o 1.8 in o wa d di ec ional EL wi h na owed angula FWHM o 36.6° (whi e dashed line) compa ed o he e e ence PeLED. The e is a small blue shi in he EL spec um om 0° o 30° due o blue shi ing o he Tamm plasmon modes a inc easing angle. Fu he inc ease in collec- ion angle leads o s ong supp ession o EL in ensi y as he Tamm plasmon modes decouple om he o iginal EL o he quasi-2D pe - o ski e. In Fig. 3 (whi e dashed line), we show wide-angled EL in he wide-angle-Tamm-plasmon-d i en PeLED by employing hicke (~54 nm) pe o ski e films. The pe o mance o he wide-angle-Tamm- plasmon-d i en PeLED is shown in Supplemen a y Fig. 12. The ed- shi ed EL spec um a small angles g adually blue-shi s wi h inc easing collec ion angle due o shi ing in Tamm plasmon eso- nance modes and he EL in ensi y peaks when Tamm plasmon modes esona e a he pe o ski e EL. This esul again demons a es he e - sa ili y o he emission pla o m. Discussion The EL angula esponse o bo h he na ow-angle and wide-angle- Tamm-plasmon-d i en PeLEDs esemble he PL angula esponse o he na ow-angle and wide-angle-Tamm-plasmon-d i en s uc u es, espec i ely. Thus, we ha e demons a ed he ansla ion o he PL di ec ional enhancemen in he pe o ski e-based Tamm plasmon s uc u e in o di ec ional emission om an ope a ing Tamm-plasmon- d i en PeLED. Besides, simula ions also show he adap abili y o he Tamm-plasmon-d i en PeLEDs in he ed and blue egimes (Supple- men a y Fig. 13) by fine uning he hicknesses o each laye . This wo k demons a es he emi ing ma e ial as he bo om laye o he Fig. 3 | Tamm-plasmon-d i en PeLEDs wi h con olled di ec ionali y and elec oluminescence in ensi y. a No malised elec oluminescence (EL) spec- um o e e ence PeLEDs and na ow-angle-Tamm-plasmon-d i en PeLED. Tamm plasmon esonance o he na ow-angle-Tamm-plasmon-d i en PeLED shown wi h a eflec ance measu emen (black dashed line). bCu en densi y– ol age–luminance pe o mance o e e ence PeLED and na ow-angle- Tamm-plasmon-d i en PeLED. Inse : schema ic o Tamm-plasmon-d i en PeLED. cCu en e ficiency–cu en densi y cu e. Inse : EQE–cu en densi y cu e conside ing emission o e all angles. Angle-dependen EL spec um o (d) e e ence PeLED, (e) na ow-angle-Tamm-plasmon-d i en PeLED and ( ) wide- angle-Tamm-plasmon-d i en PeLED collec ed ac oss he PeLED su ace mac o- scopically. Whi e dashed line: EL as a unc ion o angle in eg a ed om 490 nm o 540 nm (d,e). No malised EL in eg a ed om 490 nm o 540 nm in ( ). EL in ensi y o all configu a ions each no malised o he EL in ensi y o na ow- angle-Tamm-plasmon-d i en PeLED (see colou ba ). A icle h ps://doi.o g/10.1038/s41467-024-49838-1 Na u e Communica ions | (2024) 15:5802 5 pho onic c ys al a he me al-pho onic-c ys al in e ace in a plana Tamm plasmon sys em enhances di ec ional pho o-exci ed emission and can be in eg a ed in o an LED o show di ec ional elec o- luminescence amplifica ion. Impo an ly, he PeLED de ice s ack and o he pho oniclaye s a e all op ically and/o elec ically ac i e laye s in he Tamm plasmon s uc u e in a monoli hic ashion wi hou use o u he complica ed op ics. In Supplemen a y Fig. 14, we compa e ou design wi h simula ed and op imised me al-me al and dis ibu ed B agg eflec o (DBR)-DBR mic oca i ies, showing a significan ly s onge elec ic field enhance- men (no malised o he Tamm plasmon enhancemen ) in he Tamm plasmon pe o ski e s uc u e (a 515 nm: 1.00; a 533 nm: 1.00) com- pa ed wi h DBR-DBR mic oca i ies (a 515 nm: 0.60; a 533 nm: 0.56) and me al-me al mic oca i ies (a 515 nm: 0.93; a 533 nm: 0.80). To compa e he e sa ili y o Tamm plasmon and me al-me al ca i ies in he highes e ficiency blue43, g een8and ed44 pe o ski e LED de ices, bo h Tamm plasmon and me al-me al ca i ies a e simula ed based on he epo ed de ice s uc u es (Supplemen a y Fig. 15). Fo all h ee examples, he Tamm plasmon s uc u e shows be e spec al na - owing (sha pe esonance) and highe no malised in eg a ed elec ic field in ensi y wi hin he pe o ski e laye o all blue (1.0 in Tamm plasmon, 0.41 in me al-me al), g een (1.0 in Tamm plasmon, 0.61 in me al-me al) and ed (1.0 in Tamm plasmon, 0.92 in me al-me al) PeLEDs. Fu he mo e, he Tamm plasmon s uc u e employs he exac de ice s uc u e as epo ed, wi h only he elec ically inac i e pho- onic c ys al lying below ITO; p ac ical eplacemen o ITO wi h me al in me al-me al ca i ies is challenging due o we abili y and sensi i i y issues when solu ion-p ocessing he pe o ski e de ice laye s on a me al, and e y ew expe imen al demons a ions o wo king PeLEDs a e epo ed in his a chi ec u e. Thus, he Tamm plasmon s uc u e has mo e deg ees o eedom o design conside a ions - he pho onic c ys al can be mo e ca e ully designed o achie e a s onge elec ic field enhancemen o a gi en LED de ice by uning he elec ically inac i e pho onic c ys al, o example by adding ex a me al oxide laye s again. By con as , he elec ic field in ensi y alues o he me al-me al ca i ies a e nea hei uppe limi s due o limi a ions on de ice pe o mance, me al choice and abso p ion loss o he me al. Compa ed wi h he DBR-DBR ca i ies, he me al in he Tamm plasmon s uc u e is easie o ab ica e compa ed wi h deposi ing DBR on op o pe o ski e films and can eadily ac as he elec ode o he LED de ice, hus is easie o implemen . As Ag has he lowes ohmic loss in he isible egime compa ed o o he common me als, u he imp o emen s migh be achie ed by alloying he Ag me al, adding passi a ion laye s o spacing in e laye s, o u he sup ess quenching and inhibi ionic eac ions o he pe - o ski ewi h heAgelec ode 35,45. We expec u he imp o emen s by inc easing he pho onic c ys al laye pai s o inc ease he coupling s eng h (Supplemen a y Fig. 3d), by adding an i- eflec i e coa ing on he ai /glass in e ace o imp o e ou coupling e ficiency a wide angles, as well as h ough in es iga ion on he in e ac ion be ween wa eguiding modes and emission modes ha can u he enhance he emission o he Tamm-plasmon-d i en PeLEDs. In his p oo -o - concep demons a ion, we balanced he numbe o laye s (complex- i y in manu ac u ing) wi h he final pe o mance o ou emi e and de ice. We demons a ed Tamm-plasmon-d i en PeLEDs wi h s ong di ec ional and enhanced emission. The bo om pho onic c ys al laye a he me al-pho onic-c ys al in e ace in a Tamm plasmon sys em is eplaced wi h an emi ing quasi-2D halide pe o ski e laye o s ongly confine he Tamm plasmon modes ac oss he en i e pe o ski e laye . As a esul , he na ow-angle-Tamm-plasmon-d i en PeLED shows good di ec ionali y (angula FWHM o 36.6° compa ed o e e ence 143.9°), EL enhancemen by 1.8 imes a small angles, and EL spec al na owing om 22.4 nm o 12.1 nm. The excellen adap abili y o Tamm-plasmon-d i en PeLEDs co e ing he isible spec um, s ong enhancemen in o wa d di ec ion, enhanced di ec ional emission (wi h na ow-angle Tamm plasmon esonance), uneabili y o la ge angle di ec ional emission (wi h wide-angle Tamm plasmon eso- nance), EL spec al na owing, small hickness o ac i e s uc u e and ela i ely simple scalabili y o ab ica ion me hods makes Tamm- plasmon-d i en PeLEDs desi able. The Tamm-plasmon-d i en PeLEDs show po en ial in applica ions whe e angula con ol, emission in en- si y and colou pu i y a e c ucial, including displays, op ical commu- nica ions, i ual eali y headse s, di ec ional ligh sou ces, op ical aligne s and measu ing sys ems. Me hods Op ical simula ions Op ical simula ions we e conduc ed using a cus om code based on he ans e ma ix me hod46 and a gene ic algo i hm o he Tamm plas- mon s uc u al design. A e esol ing he sample s uc u e, he emission p ope ies we e analysed using a comme cial fini e- di e ence ime-domain so wa e (3D Elec omagne ic Simula o om Lume ical Inc.)47. The e ac i e indices o all ma e ials used in he simula ions a e de ailed in Supplemen a y Fig. 16. This me hodology in ol ed iso opically embedding emi ing dipoles (a e aged o e h ee pe pendicula o ien a ions) h oughou he pe o ski e laye o examine he luminous powe emi ed om he s uc u e’ssu ace. Single-wa eleng h simula ions we e pe o med a wa eleng h, λ=514nm wi hin a simula ion box sized 2x2x1 µm3, wi h pe ec ly ma ched laye s applied o all bounda ies. The mesh g id dimensions we e se o 10 nm o he x- and y-axis and 1 nm o he z-axis. A 2-dimensional equency-domain field moni o was employed o cap- u e he a -field p ojec ion ia Fou ie ans o m, cap u ing ou going adia ion ac oss a hemisphe e48. Fab ica ion o 1-dimensional pho onic c ys al One-dimen ional pho onic c ys al made o 3 pai s o al e na ing i a- nium dioxide (TiO 2 ) and silicon dioxide (SiO 2 ) we e deposi ed on glass subs a es in he Ins i u e o Op oelec onics, Mili a y Uni e si y o Technology. Thickness o each laye was TiO 2 :(70±2)nmandSiO 2 : (90 ± 2) nm. The pho onic c ys al we e deposi ed in an e-beam e a- po a ion sys em wi h a plasma sou ce assis ance (Sy us 710 P o, Bühle Leybold Op ics, Alzenau, Ge many). The base p essu e o he sys em was 2 × 10−6mba . TiO 2 and SiO 2 we e deposi ed a 0.25 nm s−1and 0.6 nm s−1 a e, espec i ely. ITO spu e ing ITO elec odes we e spu e ed on glass subs a es ( o e e ence PeLEDs) and pho onic c ys al subs a es ( o Tamm-plasmon-d i en PeLEDs) using a cus om se up loca ed in he Class 10,000 clean oom in he Elec ical Enginee ing Di ision, Depa men o Enginee ing, Uni e si y o Camb idge. The ITO elec odes we e pa e ned using a me al mask. The ITO spu e ing u ilised an In 2 O 3 /SnO 2 90/10 w % a - ge , ope a ed a a gon flow o 20 sccm, wi h he p essu e o 5 mTo and powe o 40 W. The spu e ing a e achie ed was 3.7 nm minu e−1, esul ing in ITO conduc i i y o 1800 S cm−1as measu ed by a 4-poin - p obe, wi h an ITO hickness o 83 nm de e mined by AFM. Ma e ials Lead (II) b omide (PbB 2 , 99.999%), phenyle hylammonium b omide (PEAB , >99.5%), 1,4,7,10,13,16-hexaoxacyclooc adecane (18-c own-6, ≥99%), poly(4-bu yl iphenylamine) (poly-TPD, Mw ≥20,000 g mol−1), poly(9- inylca bazole) (PVK, MW:25,000-50,000 mg mol−1), dime hyl sul oxide (DMSO, anhyd ous, 99.9%), chlo obenzene (CB, anhyd ous, 99.8%) we e pu chased om Sigma-Ald ich. Cesium b omide (CsB , 99.999%) was pu chased om Al a Aesa . 2,2’,2”-(1,3,5- Benzine iyl)- is(1-phenyl-1-H-benzimidazole) (TPBi, >99.5%), 8-Hyd oxyquinolinola o-li hium (LiQ, >99%) we e pu chased om Ossila. All chemicals we e used wi hou any u he pu ifica ion. A icle h ps://doi.o g/10.1038/s41467-024-49838-1 Na u e Communica ions | (2024) 15:5802 6 P epa a ion o pe o ski e p ecu so solu ion Pe o ski e p ecu so was p epa ed by dissol ing PbB 2 ,CsB and PEAB (mola a io o 1: 1.05: 0.4) in DMSO a 0.25 M ini ially and hen u he dilu ed down o concen a ions be ween 0.13 and 0.23 M o hickness a ia ion. 18-c own-6 was added as addi i e (mola a io o 1.7% o PbB 2 ) in pe o ski e p ecu so s o PeLEDs o imp o e he PeLED pe o mance49. Fab ica ion pe o ski e s uc u es Glass subs a es and glass/pho onic c ys al subs a es we e cleaned using de e gen , deionised wa e , ace one and isop opanol unde ul asonica ion o 10 minu es each, ollowed by a 15-min UV ozone ea men . A solu ion o PVK (6 mg ml−1in CB) was spin-coa ed on o he subs a e a 4000 pm o 30 s, hen immedia ely annealed a 100 °C o 10 min. I is wo h no ing ha o he common hole injec ion laye such as Poly(3,4-e hylenedioxy hiophene)-poly(- s y enesul ona e) (PEDOT:PSS), Poly(4-bu yl iphenylamine) (poly- TPD), Poly[(9,9-dioc ylfluo enyl-2,7-diyl)-co-(4,4′-(N-(4-sec-bu ylphe- nyl)diphenylamine)] (TFB) posses simila e ac i e indices, making hem compa ible wi h such op ical s uc u es. Pe o ski e p ecu so s, wi h concen a ion anging om 0.13 M o 0.25 M, we e spin-coa ed a 6000 pm o 90 s and immedia ely annealed a 70 °C o 5 min. A 100 nm hick Ag film was subsequen ly he mally e apo a ed on o he pe o ski e film a a a e o 0.1 nm s−1. Fab ica ion pe o ski e LEDs Glass/ITO subs a es and glass/pho onic c ys al/ITO subs a es we e cleaned in de e gen , deionised wa e , ace one and isop opanol unde ul asonica ion o 10 minu es each, hen ea ed wi h UV Ozone o 15 min. Poly-TPD (10 mg ml−1in CB) and PVK (6 mg ml−1in CB) is sequen ially spin-coa ed on o he subs a e a 4000 pm o 30 s and immedia ely annealed a 100 °C o 10 min and 140 °C o 20 min, espec i ely. The pe o ski e p ecu so o concen a ion 0.16 M (na - ow-angle-Tamm-plasmon PeLED) and 0.25 M (wide-angle-Tamm- plasmon PeLED) was spin coa ed a 1000 pm o 5 s and 4000 pm o 55 seconds and hen immedia ely annealed a 90 °C o 10 minu es. TPBi (40 nm), LiQ (3 nm) and Ag (100 nm) we e hen sequen ially he mal e apo a ed on he pe o ski e film. Film hickness measu emen Film hicknesses we e assessed by scanning ac oss he dep h o a sc a ch made on he film wi h a azo blade (Supplemen a y Fig. 4). The scan was pe o med on B uke Dimension Icon a omic o ce mic oscope (AFM) wi h a silicon ip on Ni ide le e (B uke Scanasys - Ai can ile e , sp ing cons an 0.4 N m−1) unning on peak o ce ap- ping mode. Da a we e analysed wi h WSxM 5.0 so wa e50. Reflec ance measu emen Tamm plasmon esonance ( eflec ance) was cha ac e ised by UV– isible spec ome e (Shimadzu UV-3600Plus) wi h an in eg a ing sphe e a achmen (Shimadzu ISR-603). The o al eflec ance was measu ed a 8° o se o keep he specula eflec ed ligh wi hin he in eg a ing sphe e. Gi en ha he eflec ance o he Tamm-plasmon- pe o ski e s uc u e shown in Fig. 1d was measu ed a 8°, he ac ual Tamm plasmon esonance wa eleng h a 0° should be ca. 3 nm ed- shi ed. The baseline measu emen was done wi h a 100 nm hick e apo a ed sil e mi o as a e e ence due o high eflec i i y o ou samples. Reflec ance measu emen was c oss-checked wi h he Agilen Ca y7000 Uni e sal Measu emen Spec ome e using he Uni e sal Measu emen Accesso y. The sample is il ed a 6° and he de ec o a 12° o collec he specula eflec ance wi hou blocking he exci a ion lamp. The baseline measu emen is done a 100% ansmi ance wi hou any e e ence, hus elimina ing any inaccu acy due o he e e ence de ec s. Mic oscale eflec ance o pho onic c ys al subs a es was mea- su ed wi h hype spec al mic oscope (Pho on E c. IMA). A lamp ligh was ocussed on he sample h ough a condense om below he sample and was collec ed by he objec i e lens (Olympus MPLFLN20x wi h NA o 0.45) and measu ed by a CCD came a. The measu ed eflec ance o pho onic c ys al was calib a ed wi h eflec ance o a calib a ion mi o . Pho oluminescence quan um e ficiency PLQE o pe o ski e films, e e ence s uc u es and Tamm plasmon s uc u es a e measu ed wi h a 405 nm con inuous wa e lase unde exci a ion be ween 3 o 167 mW cm−2in an in eg a ing sphe e and he spec um collec ed wi h Ando iDus Si de ec o . Calcula ions a e based on 3 configu a ions o he sphe e—emp y sphe e, sample placed in he sphe e bu lase beam di ec ed on he sphe e wall and lase beam di ec ed on o he sample51. Cha ac e isa ion o pe o ski e LED pe o mance All PeLEDs we e encapsula ed in a N 2 -filled glo ebox wi h UV-cu ed esin and glass. The PeLEDs we e measu ed unde ambien condi ion wi h he LED measu emen se up om he Op oelec onics g oup in Ca endish Labo a o y. The PeLEDs we e powe ed by a Kei hley 2400 sou ce me e as a ol age sou ce o measu ing he cu en densi y– ol age cha ac e is ics. The pho on flux was simul aneously measu ed using a calib a ed ci cula silicon pho odiode cen ed o e he ligh -emi ing pixel. The luminance o he PeLEDs we e calcula ed based on he emission unc ion o he PeLEDs and on he known spec al esponse o he silicon pho odiode. The EL spec a o he de ices we e measu ed using a Labsphe e CDS 610 spec ome e . The cu en e ficiency was calcula ed as he a io be ween o wa d lumi- nance and cu en . The esul ing EQE was calcula ed conside ing he angula esol ed emission using equa ion om A che e al.42. ηEQEðVÞ=1002π 2 APD VPDðVÞ RPD q hc 1 IPeLED VðÞRSλ,0ðÞλdλ RSλ,0ðÞRλðÞdλZπ 2 0RSλ,θðÞλdλ RSλ,0ðÞλdλsin θdθð1Þ whe e VPD,RPD,APD a e ol age, esis ance and a ea o pho odiode espec i ely. is he dis ance be ween pho odiode and PeLED. Sλ,θðÞis he measu ed spec al adian in ensi y a angle θ.RλðÞis he pho o- diode esponsi i y. IPeLED is he cu en ac oss he PeLED. q,h,andca e uni cha ge, Planck cons an and speed o ligh espec i ely. Angula luminescence measu emen The mac oscale angula PL and EL was measu ed on a home-buil se up (Supplemen a y Fig. 17). Fo PL, a 405 nm con inuous wa e lase and he sample we e fixed on he op ical able wi h he exci- a ion angle no mal o sample su ace in x–y di ec ion and 20° abo e in he z-di ec ion. The lase beam was ocussed on he sample wi h a lens ( = 1000 mm, powe densi y o 0.5 W cm−2). Fo EL, he PeLEDs we e powe ed by he Kei hley 2400 sou ce me e a a cons an cu en densi y o 0.44 mA cm−2. Bo h PL and EL spec a was cap- u ed by a spec oscopy came a (Ando iDus DU420A Si de ec o ) connec ed o a fib e collima o (Tho labs F220SMA-532) h ough an op ical fib e. The fib e collima o was fixed on an au oma ed o a ing s age (Tho labs PRMTZ8 Mo o ised con inuous o a ion s age, Tho labs K-Cube DC se o mo o con olle ). The fib e collima ed was fixed a 10 cm away om he sample o maximise he angula esolu ion while ensu ing a high collec ion o fluo escence. The PL and EL spec a we e collec ed a 1° in e al wi h a scan a e o 3° s−1 and 5° s−1, espec i ely. In Supplemen a y Fig. 18, we showed he PL and EL s abili y a e sui ably s able o e he o al angula PL and EL measu emen ime scales o 60 s and 36 s, espec i ely, unde he same con inuous exci a ion and d i ing cu en o 0.5 W cm−2 o angula PL and 0.44 mA cm−2 o angula EL. In addi ion o he PL and EL s abili y, he PL and EL a e always collec ed om one end o he A icle h ps://doi.o g/10.1038/s41467-024-49838-1 Na u e Communica ions | (2024) 15:5802 7 o he end, e.g. om −90° o 90°. Thus, we make su e ha he angula measu emen s a e no a ec ed by deg ada ion by checking ha he cu es a e symme ical (see Figs. 2b, d, h and 3d– ). Fo bo h PL and EL measu emen s, all 4 edges o he samples we e masked wi h black ape o elimina e emission om he sample edge. The emission ac oss he solid angle is calcula ed om he angula PL and EL measu emen s based on he equa ion shown below, which is de i ed om A che e al.42. Isolid angle =I0×Zα αRSλ,θðÞλdλ RSλ,0ðÞλdλsin θdθð2Þ whe e αis he solid angle o in e es , Isolid angle is hePLo ELin ensi y, I0is he o wa d in ensi y, Sλ,θðÞis he spec al adian in ensi y. Mic oscale PL was measu ed wi h hype spec al mic oscope (Pho on E c. IMA), exci ed wi h a 405 nm con inuous lase . The hype spec al mic oscopy measu emen s we e collec ed wi h objec- i e lenses (Olympus MPLFLN) o 20x and NA o 0.45 (equi alen o collec ion angle o 26.7°). T ansien pho oluminescence Time- esol ed pho oluminescence was measu ed a fluences be ween 1and370nJcm −2pulse−1wi h con ocal mic oscope (PicoQuan Mic oTime 200). The samples we e exci ed wi h 405 nm pulsed lase (pulse wid h ~100 ps, epe i ion a e 5 MHz) ha was ocussed wi h an 10x ai objec i e lens. Time- esol ed pho oluminescence a lowe fluence be ween 0.01 and 5 nJ cm−2pulse−1we e measu ed wi h pho oluminescence spec- ome e (Edinbu gh Ins umen s FLS1000). A 405 nm pulsed lase (pulse wid h ~50 ps, epe i ion a e 2 MHz) was ocussed on he sam- ples a 45° and 60° and he emission was collec ed be ween 45° and 30° espec i ely a 1 nm bandwid h. Time esol ed emission scans we e done by sweeping he emission collec ion wa eleng hs be ween 490-520 nm wi h 5 nm s ep. Measu emen s a e done wi h bo h unen- capsula ed and encapsula ed samples in ai and bo h shows simila esul s. C oss-sec ion o Tamm-Plasmon-pe o ski e s uc u e The TEM lamella c oss-sec ion was p epa ed wi h an FEI Helios Nanolab Dualbeam FIB/SEM ollowing a s anda d p o ocol52.The lamella was ans e ed minimising ai exposu e in o an FEI Osi is TEM ope a ing a 200 kV and ~140 pA beam cu en . HAADF images we e acqui ed using a Fischione de ec o a a came a leng h o 115 mm, wi h a dwell ime o 1.9 µs and a spa ial sampling o 0.7 nm pixel−1.STEM- EDX maps we e acqui ed using a B uke Supe -X silicon d i de ec o wi h a collec ion solid angle o ≈0.9 s , a dwell ime o 50 ms, a spa ial sampling o 5 nm pixel−1, and a spec al esolu ion o 5 eV channel−1. STEM-EDX composi ional maps we e spec ally ebinned o 10 eV pe channel, and denoised using PCA/NMF aking he fi s 8 componen s. Da a p ocessing was done using Hype Spy 1.6.1, a Py hon-based analysis sui e o hype spec al da a53. Da a a ailabili y The da a ha suppo he findings o his s udy a e openly a ailable in Apollo—Uni e si y o Camb idge Reposi o y a h ps://doi.o g/10. 17863/CAM.109169. Code a ailabili y De ails on he code ha suppo s he findings o his s udy can be sha ed unde eques . Re e ences 1. Be gesen, J. D., Tähkämö, L., Gibon, T. & Suh, S. Po en ial long- e m global en i onmen al implica ions o e ficien ligh -sou ce ech- nologies. J. Ind. Ecol. 20,263–275 (2016). 2. Risi,I.,Omubo-Pepple,V.&Alab aba,M.Compa a i es udyo ligh emi ing diode (LED), compac fluo escen (CF) and incandescen lamps. J. Sci. Eng. Res. 5,197–203 (2018). 3. Holonyak, N. & Be acqua, S. F. Cohe en ( isible) ligh emission om Ga(As1−xPx) junc ions. Appl. Phys. Le . 1,82–83 (1962). 4. Nakamu a, S., Mukai, T. & Senoh, M. Candela‐class high‐b igh ness InGaN/AlGaN double‐he e os uc u e blue‐ligh ‐emi ing diodes. Appl. Phys. Le . 64,1687–1689 (1994). 5. Col in, V., Schlamp, M. & Ali isa os, A. Ligh -emi ing diodes made om cadmium selenide nanoc ys als and a semiconduc ing poly- me . Na u e 370,354–357 (1994). 6. Tang,C.W.&VanSlyke,S.A.O ganicelec oluminescen diodes. Appl. Phys. Le . 51,913–915 (1987). 7. Kim, S. T. e al. E ficien g een elec oluminescen diodes based on poly (2-dime hyloc ylsilyl-1,4-phenylene inylene). Ad . Ma e . 8, 979–982 (1996). 8. Kim, J. S. e al. Ul a-b igh , e ficien and s able pe o ski e ligh - emi ing diodes. Na u e 611,688–694 (2022). 9. Zhu, L. e al. Un eiling he addi i e-assis ed o ien ed g ow h o pe o ski e c ys alli e o high pe o mance ligh -emi ing diodes. Na . Commun. 12,5081(2021). 10. K ess, S. J. P. e al. Wedge wa eguides and esona o s o quan um plasmonics. Nano Le . 15,6267–6275 (2015). 11. Kel , T. A. e al. Localized and delocalized plasmons in me allic nano oids. Phys.Re .B74, 245415 (2006). 12. Pe ney, N. M. B. e al. Tuning localized plasmon ca i ies o op imized su ace-enhanced Raman sca e ing. Phys.Re .B76, 035426 (2007). 13. Di lbache , H. e al. Sil e nanowi es as su ace plasmon esona o s. Phys.Re .Le .95,257403(2005). 14. Bo o iks, S. e al. Ex emely confined gap plasmon modes: when nonlocali y ma e s. Na . Commun. 13, 3105 (2022). 15. Bozhe olnyi, S. I. & Sønde gaa d, T. Gene al p ope ies o slow- plasmon esonan nanos uc u es: nano-an ennas and esona o s. Op . Exp ess 15,10869–10877 (2007). 16. Po s, A. & Bozhe olnyi, S. I. Plasmonic me asu aces o e ficien phase con ol in eflec ion. Op . Exp ess 21,27438–27451 (2013). 17. Chen,S.,Zhang,C.,Lee,J.,Han,J.&Nu mikko,A.High-Q,low- h eshold monoli hic pe o ski e hin-film e ical-ca i y lase s. Ad . Ma e . 29, 1604781 (2017). 18. Wang, Y., Li, X., Nalla, V., Zeng, H. & Sun, H. Solu ion-p ocessed low h eshold e ical ca i y su ace emi ing lase s om all-ino ganic pe o ski e nanoc ys als. Ad . Func . Ma e . 27,1605088(2017). 19. Zhang, S. e al. S ong exci on–pho on coupling in hyb id ino ganic–o ganic pe o ski e mic o/nanowi es. Ad . Op . Ma e . 6, 1701032 (2018). 20. Liu, P. e al. O ganic–ino ganic hyb id pe o ski e nanowi e lase a ays. ACS Nano 11,5766–5773 (2017). 21. Zhang,Q.,Ha,S.T.,Liu,X.,Sum,T.C.&Xiong,Q.Room- empe a u e nea -in a ed high-q pe o ski e whispe ing-galle y plana nanolase s. Nano Le . 14,5995–6001 (2014). 22. Deschle , F. e al. High pho oluminescence e ficiency and op ically pumped lasing in solu ion-p ocessed mixed halide pe o ski e semiconduc o s. J. Phys. Chem. Le . 5,1421–1426 (2014). 23. Bo iskina, S. V. e al. Losses in plasmonics: om mi iga ing ene gy dissipa ion o emb acing loss-enabled unc ionali ies. Ad . Op . Pho on. 9, 775–827 (2017). 24. Wang,H.,Ma,R.,Liu,G.,Wang,L.&Lin,Q.S ongligh confinemen and op ical o ce enhancemen in phospho ene wi h acous ic plasmons. Appl. Phys. Exp ess 15, 072010 (2022). 25. Liu, T. e al. Spec al na owing and enhancemen o di ec ional emission o pe o ski e ligh emi ing diode by mic oca i y. Lase Pho onics Re . 16, 2200091 (2022). 26. Kali ee ski, M. e al. Tamm plasmon-pola i ons: Possible elec o- magne ic s a es a he in e ace o a me al and a dielec ic B agg mi o . Phys. Re . B 76,165415(2007). A icle h ps://doi.o g/10.1038/s41467-024-49838-1 Na u e Communica ions | (2024) 15:5802 8 27. Sasin, M. E. e al. Tamm plasmon pola i ons: slow and spa ially compac ligh . Appl. Phys. Le . 92, 251112 (2008). 28. Jiménez-Solano, A., Galis eo-López, J. F. & Míguez, H. Flexible and adap able ligh -emi ing coa ings o a bi a y me al su aces based on op ical amm mode coupling. Ad . Op . Ma e . 6,1700560 (2018). 29. Symonds, C. e al. Confined Tamm plasmon lase s. Nano Le . 13, 3179–3184 (2013). 30. Zhang, X.-L., Song, J.-F., Li, X.-B., Feng, J. & Sun, H.-B. Op ical Tamm s a es enhanced b oad-band abso p ion o o ganic sola cells. Appl. Phys. Le . 101, 243901 (2012). 31. Gazzano, O. e al. Single pho on sou ce using confined Tamm plasmon modes. Appl. Phys. Le . 100, 232111 (2012). 32. Zhao, B. e al. E ficien ligh -emi ing diodes om mixed- dimensional pe o ski es on a fluo ide in e ace. Na . Elec on. 3, 704–710 (2020). 33. Ban, X. e al. Highly e ficien quasi-2D pe o ski e ligh -emi ing diodes inco po a ing a TADF dend ime as an exci on- e ie ing addi i e. ACS Appl. Ma e . In e aces 13,44585–44595 (2021). 34. Chang, C.-Y., Chen, Y.-H., Tsai, Y.-L., Kuo, H.-C. & Chen, K.-P. Tun- abili y and op imiza ion o coupling e ficiency in Tamm plasmon modes. IEEE J. Sel. Top. Quan um Elec on. 21,262–267 (2015). 35. S ans öm, S. e al. Deg ada ion mechanism o sil e me al deposi ed on lead halide pe o ski es. ACS Appl. Ma e . In e aces 12,7212–7221 (2020). 36. K an hi aja, K. e al. S abili y and deg ada ion in iple ca ion and me hyl ammonium lead iodide pe o ski e sola cells media ed ia Au and Ag elec odes. Sci. Rep. 12, 18574 (2022). 37. Ma, D. e al. Dis ibu ion con ol enables e ficien educed- dimensional pe o ski e LEDs. Na u e 599,594–598 (2021). 38. V edenbe g, A. M. e al. Con olled a omic spon aneous emission om ER3+ in a anspa en Si/SiO 2 mic oca i y. Phys.Re .Le .71, 517–520 (1993). 39. Lo a, P. e al. All-polyme pho onic mic oca i ies doped wi h pe ylene bisimide J-agg ega es. Ad . Op . Ma e . 5, 1700523 (2017). 40. Megahd, H. e al. Con ol o nea -in a ed dye fluo escence li e ime in all-polyme mic oca i ies. Ma e . Chem. F on . 6,2413–2421 (2022). 41. Jo dan, R. H., Dodabalapu , A. & Slushe , R. E. E ficiency enhance- men o mic oca i y o ganic ligh emi ing diodes. Appl. Phys. Le . 69, 1997–1999 (1996). 42. A che , E. e al. Accu a e e ficiency measu emen s o o ganic ligh - emi ing diodes ia angle- esol ed spec oscopy. Ad . Op . Ma e . 9, 2000838 (2021). 43. Yuan, S. e al. E ficien blue elec oluminescence om educed- dimensional pe o ski es. Na . Pho on. 18,1–7 (2024). 44. Jiang, J. e al. Red pe o ski e ligh -emi ing diodes wi h e ficiency exceeding 25% ealized by co-space ca ions. Ad . Ma e . 34, 2204460 (2022). 45. Na h, B., Ramamu hy, P. C., Hegde, G. & Roy Mahapa a, D. Role o elec odes on pe o ski e sola cells pe o mance: a e iew. ISSS J. Mic o Sma Sys . 11,61–79 (2022). 46. Oh a, K. & Ishida, H. Ma ix o malism o calcula ion o elec ic field in ensi y o ligh in s a ified mul ilaye ed films. Appl. Op . 29, 1952–1959 (1990). 47. Lume ical Inc. h ps://www.lume ical.com/. 48. Taflo e, A. & Hagness, S. Compu a ional Elec odynamics: The Fini e-Di e ence Time-Domain Me hod 3 d edn. Vol. 2062 (A ech House, Inc., 2005). 49. Ban, M. e al. Solu ion-p ocessed pe o ski e ligh emi ing diodes wi h e ficiency exceeding 15% h ough addi i e-con olled nanos- uc u e ailo ing. Na . Commun. 9,3892(2018). 50. WSXM: A so wa e o scanning p obe mic oscopy and a ool o nano echnology. Re . Sci. Ins um. 78,013705. 51. Mello, J. C., de Wi mann, H. F. & F iend, R. H. An imp o ed expe imen al de e mina ion o ex e nal pho oluminescence quan- um e ficiency. Ad . Ma e . 9,230–232 (1997). 52. Kosasih, F. U. e al. Op ical emission om ocused ion beam milled halide pe o ski e de ice c oss-sec ions. Mic osc. Res. Tech. 85, 2351–2355 (2022). 53. Peña, F. de la e al. Hype spy/Hype spy 1.4.1. (Zenodo, 2018). h ps://doi.o g/10.5281/zenodo.1469364. Acknowledgemen s The au ho s acknowledge he Eu opean Resea ch Council (ERC) unde he Eu opean Union’s Ho izon 2020 esea ch and inno a ion p og am (HYPERION, g an ag eemen No. 756962), Camb idge Royce acili ies g an EP/P024947/1, Si Hen y Royce Ins i u e— ecu en g an EP/ R00661X/1 and he Enginee ing and Physical Sciences Resea ch Council (EPSRC) (g an ag eemen Nos. EP/R023980/1, EP/T02030X/1 and EP/ S030638/1). This wo k was co-financed by Mili a y Uni e si y o Tech- nology unde esea ch p ojec UGB 502-6700-23-759. Z.Y.O. acknowl- edges schola ship om S John’s College, Uni e si y o Camb idge. A.J.- S. g a e ully acknowledges a pos doc o al schola ship om he Max Planck Socie y and he Spanish Minis y o Uni e si ies o unding h ough a Bea iz Galindo Resea ch ellowship BG20/00015. K.G. app ecia es suppo om he Polish Minis y o Science and Highe Educa ion wi hin he Mobilnosc Plus p og am (g an no.1603/MOB/V/ 2017/0) and he Na ional Science Cen e (2022/47/D/ST5/03332). Y.S. acknowledges CSC Camb idge Schola ship. J.F.O and C.D. acknowl- edge unding om he Enginee ing and Physical Sciences Resea ch Council (EPSRC) Nano Doc o al T aining Cen e (EP/L015978/1). K.F. acknowledges a Geo ge and Lilian Schi S uden ship, Win on Sus ain- abili y Fund S uden ship, he Enginee ing and Physical Sciences Resea ch Council (EPSRC) s uden ship. H.S. hanks he UK Enginee ing and Physical Sciences Resea ch Council (EPSRC) g an EP/S023046/1 o he EPSRC Cen e o Doc o al T aining in Senso Technologies o a Heal hy and Sus ainable Fu u e. S.Kahmann is g a e ul o unding om he Ge man Academic Exchange Se ice (DAAD) (91793256) o a sho - e m esea ch ellowship, and om he Le e hulme Ea ly Ca ee Fel- lowship unded by he Le e hulme T us (ECF-2022-593) and he Isaac New on T us (22.08(i)). G.V. acknowledges he suppo o he Spanish Minis y o Educa ion, Voca ional T aining and Spo s h ough a Beca de Colabo ación (G an No. 23CO1/000162). M.A. acknowledges unding om he Le e hulme Ea ly Ca ee Fellowship (g an ag eemen No. ECF- 2019-224) unded by he Le e hulme T us and he Isaac New on T us and om he Royal Academy o Enginee ing unde he Resea ch Fel- lowshipp og amme.M.A.andG.V.acknowledge suppo om MICIU/ AEI/10.13039/501100011033 and he Eu opean Union Nex Gene - a ionEU/PRTR h ough a PID2022-142525OA-I00 g an and a Ramón y Cajal Fellowship (RYC2021-034941-I). S.D.S. acknowledges he Royal Socie y and Ta a G oup (g an no. UF150033). We hank Youcheng Zhang (Ca endish labo a o y, Uni e si y o Camb idge) o ITO con- duc i i y checks. Fo he pu pose o open access, he au ho s ha e applied a C ea i e Commons A ibu ion (CC BY) licence o any Au ho Accep ed Manusc ip e sion a ising om his submission. Au ho con ibu ions Z.Y.O., A.J.-S., K.G., M.A. and S.D.S. concei ed and de eloped he Tamm-plasmon-d i en PeLEDs. A.J.-S. and G.V. modelled and op imised he Tamm-plasmon-d i en PeLEDs wi h inpu om M.A. Z.Y.O. and Y.S. ab ica ed and op imised he pe o ski e-based Tamm plasmon s uc- u e. Z.Y.O ab ica ed and op imised he Tamm-plasmon-d i en PeLEDs including ITO spu e ing. Z.Y.O collec ed and analysed he AFM da a, UV- isible spec oscopy da a, angula PL and EL da a. J.F.O. collec ed andanalysed heHAADF-STEMandEDXda a.K.F.pe o med he hype spec al mic oscopy. H.S., S.Kahmann and Z.Y.O collec ed and analysed he PL decay da a. Z.Y.O measu ed and analysed he PeLEDs pe o mance. P.N. and M.P.N. p epa ed he pho onic c ys al. S.N. A icle h ps://doi.o g/10.1038/s41467-024-49838-1 Na u e Communica ions | (2024) 15:5802 9