The Paradox of Public Participation in Fisheries Governance. the Rising Number of Actors and the Devolution Process

UNCORRECTED PROOF Ma ine Policy ](]]]])]]]–]]] The pa adox o public pa icipa ion in fishe ies go e nance. The ising numbe o ac o s and he de olu ion p ocess Juan L. Sua ´ ez de Vi e o a, , Juan C. Rod ı´guez Ma eos a , D. Flo ido del Co al b a Depa men o Human Geog aphy, Uni e si y o Se ille, Ma ı ´a de Padilla, s/n, 41004 Se ille, Spain b Depa men o Social An h opology, Uni e si y o Se ille, Ma ı ´a de Padilla, s/n, 41004 Se ille, Spain Recei ed 26 Ma ch 2007; ecei ed in e ised o m 25 June 2007; accep ed 25 June 2007 Abs ac Du ing he p ocess by which he numbe o ac o s was inc eased mani old as a esul o he de elopmen o ci il socie y, he fishe communi y has los p ominence and impo ance, ading in o he wide spec um o in e es s wi h which i is compe ing o make i s oice hea d in decision-making bodies and in he media. This esul s in wha could be e med he pa icipa ion pa adox— he g ea e he numbe o ac o s, he smalle he ole each plays, and he lesse he impo ance o adi ional sec o s. Pa icipa ion and de olu ion do no bea a linea ela ionship; g ea e de olu ion does no necessa ily esul in g ea e pa icipa ion, a claim ha has con ibu ed o he p ocesses o de olu ion being o e alued. Go e nance, as in e ac ion be ween S a e, ci il socie y and he ma ke , pa adoxically migh no s eng hen he mos adi ional o he in e es g oups. 2007 Published by Else ie L d. Keywo ds: Fishe ies go e nance; Pa icipa ion; De olu ion; Co-managemen ; S akeholde s; Compe i ion. 1. In oduc ion Recen de elopmen s ( om a ound he beginning o he 1990s onwa ds) in s udies on fishe ies managemen ha e e ol ed a ound he ideas o decen aliza ion, de olu ion, egionaliza ion and pa icipa ion. 1 The c isis in he fishing indus y in de eloped economies and in Eu opean Union membe coun ies in pa icula , has led o he managemen sys ems hemsel es being ques ioned [1] as being incapable o b inging a hal o he dec ease in esou ces. This has, in u n, esul ed in he decline bo h o a eas dependen on fishing and o fishe communi ies ha a e e e mo e e icen abou he CFP. In sho , win c ises ha ha e bo h biological and ins i u ional aspec s. A se ies o esea ch s udies conduc ed as pa o he a ious EU F amewo k P og ammes ha e in ecen yea s explo ed possible al e na i es o he managemen sys ems ha p edomina e in Eu opean ins i u ions [2,3] wi h a single common denomina o — o s eng hen he pa icipa- ion o he whole gamu o social ac o s in o de ha e o ms, cha ac e ized by he he y educ ion in he fishing e o , migh be aken on boa d and he EU fishing policy hus gi en g ea e legi imacy and c edibili y. One wo king hypo hesis ha has been accep ed is excessi e cen alism on he pa o he Commission, he disad an age o which is he dis ancing o hose i is adminis a ing. Conse- quen ly, he need o begin a p ocess o de olu ion ha migh allow he adi ional ac o s in he fishing indus y o egain a lead ole is being looked a . 2 A ple ho a o concep s ela ing o de olu ion and pa icipa ion ha e been conside ed wi h he aim o es ablishing new egula o y amewo ks o fishe ies managemen and he ela ionship be ween he indus y and he ins i u ions. This pape assumes he ollowing p emises: (i) Du ing he p ocess by which he numbe o ac o s was inc eased mani old as a esul o he de elopmen o ci il socie y, he fishe , he fishe communi y, has los p ominence and ARTICLE IN PRESS www.else ie .com/loca e/ma pol 1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23 25 27 29 31 33 35 37 39 41 43 45 47 49 51 53 55 57 59 61 63 65 67 69 71 73 75 77 79 81 5þmodel JMPO : 713 P od:Type:FTP pp:127ðcol: ig::NILÞ ED:Dibyendu PAGN:Bhaska a SCAN: 0308-597X/$ - see on ma e 2007 Published by Else ie L d. doi:10.1016/j.ma pol.2007.06.005  Co esponding au ho . Tel.: +34 954551365; ax: +34 954556988. E-mail add ess: [email p o ec ed] (J.L. Sua ´ ez de Vi e o). 1 A supe ficial examina ion o he li e a u e on his ma e published in Ma ine Policy du ing he pe iod 1989–2006 shows ha he in e es o social scien is s has been ocused on hese opics. 2 Fo he Commission’s de e mina ion and poli ical will in ca ying h ough his de olu ion p ocess, see [4]. Please ci e his a icle as: Sua ´ ez de Vi e o JL, e al. The pa adox o public pa icipa ion in fishe ies go e nance. The ising numbe o ac o s and he de olu ion.... Ma ine Policy (2007), doi:10.1016/j.ma pol.2007.06.005 UNCORRECTED PROOF impo ance, ading in o he wide spec um o in e es s wi h which i is compe ing o make i s oice hea d in decision- making bodies and in he media. This esul s in wha could be e med he pa icipa ion pa adox— he g ea e he numbe o ac o s, he smalle he ole each plays, and he lesse he impo ance o adi ional sec o s. (ii) Pa icipa- ion and de olu ion, in a a ie y o exp essions, such as egionaliza ion and decen aliza ion, do no bea a linea ela ionship; g ea e de olu ion does no necessa ily esul in g ea e pa icipa ion, a claim ha has con ibu ed o he p ocesses o de olu ion being o e alued. (iii) The no ions o de olu ion, pa icipa ion and co-managemen , which a he u n o he cen u y ha e been miles ones in he p ocess o pe ec ing fishe ies managemen , wha is now also a mo e complex p ocess, howe e , ha e been included in he go e nance pa adigm. Go e nance, as in e ac ion be ween S a e, ci il socie y and he ma ke , pa adoxically migh no s eng hen he mos adi ional o he in e es g oups. The analysis he ein is s uc u ed in o h ee main ideas: (i) decen aliza ion and pa icipa ion, (ii) co-managemen , and (iii) go e nance and go e nabili y, in which i is possible o include he main con ibu ions made by social sciences o fishe ies managemen in ecen yea s. 2. De olu ion: in e p e i e scheme The way democ acy has de eloped and he deepe oo s ha i has pu down o e ecen decades a e closely linked wi h he p ocess o building wha is known as ci il socie y. Rep esen a i e democ acy concen a ed decision-making in la ge ins i u ions limi ing ci izen pa icipa ion o he elec ion o ep esen a i es in S a e bodies. P o essional and guild o ganiza ions which in ac i i ies like fishing had played a highly ele an ole in managemen un il well in o he 20 h cen u y [5] los he influence hey used o bea o S a e ins i u ions (including scien ific ins i u ions) o he poin ha in some Eu opean coun ies, he la e ha e eached he s age whe e hey monopolize he unc ion o fishe ies managemen [6]. Ne e heless, o e he las 20 yea s he e has been an e iden end owa ds a demand o he pa icipa ion o indi iduals, in e es g oups and associa ions in public a ai s h ough he deba e abou pa icipa o y democ acy o di ec democ acy. The la es cu en s in social sciences highligh he impo ance o pa icipa ion in social mo emen s and in olun a y ac ion ne wo ks as one o he elemen s ha de elops he capaci y o indi iduals o assume sel -go e nmen . 3 This new ack owa ds managemen models wi h g ea e pa icipa ion has led no only o a esu gence o adi ional o ganiza ions in Eu ope (in Spain, he Fishe - men’s Guilds), bu also he c ea ion o new ones, such as p oduce o ganiza ions, al hough wi h pa chy esul s. Gi en his se o ci cums ances, p oposals aimed a educing he ole played by he S a e in a o o ei he he a ious ac o s in ci il socie y o o he ma ke , ha e been ans e ed o he sphe e o he fishing indus y in such a way ha a ange o concep s such as egionaliza ion, decen aliza ion,delega ion,subsidia i y,co-managemen , sha ing esponsibili ies,sel -managemen ,empowe men and deconcen a ion, ha e been used in he design o al e na i e managemen models. All hese concep s can be included in an in e p e i e scheme which ela es he deg ee o pa icipa ion o he deg ee o cen aliza ion–decen aliza ion. In he case o Spain 4 (Fig. 1), his allows he di e en exp essions o be seen as he p ocess de elops whils also o e ing an o e iew o hei ela i e posi ions on he Pa icipa ion–- Decen aliza ion axis and on he pa h ha uns be ween he cen alized S a e model (p e-1978) and a heo e ical S a e which combines he highes le el o pa icipa ion wi h he g ea es deg ee o decen aliza ion. These exp essions o he de olu ion p ocess ela e o he gene al managemen o fishe ies ac i i y (in which he a ious ie s o admin- is a ion a e in ol ed) as well as o sub-sec o o ms o fishing ha in an expe imen al o ci cums an ial way ha e included ini ia i es wi h a g ea e in ol emen on he pa o fishe s and o he agen s in he fishe ies chain. I is e iden by he way in which fishe ies managemen has e ol ed in he a ious Eu opean coun ies ha p og ess om g ea e decen aliza ion o g ea e sel - go e nmen is no necessa ily made in a s aigh line, and he example o he Eu opean Union, whe e he CFP in ol es he loss o ans e o S a e so e eign y o EU ins i u ions, co obo a es his. In a simila ashion, he di e en op ions o pa icula ypes o de olu ion do no equi e a p og essi e, s ep-by-s ep cou se owa ds g ea e decen aliza ion o egionaliza ion. 5 In o he ega ds, as can be seen om he cases o Spain, F ance, No way, Denma k and he Uni ed Kingdom, 6 i is possible o a high le el o poli ical and adminis a i e decen aliza ion o coexis wi h a limi ed deg ee o pa icipa ion on he pa o social agen s and, in sensu con a io, likewise cen alized S a e models wi h a highly de eloped cul u e o pa icipa- ion. Pa icipa ion as an exp ession o poli ically ad anced socie ies can, o an ex en , be unde s ood as an indepen- den a iable o he S a e o ganiza ional model bu always, na u ally, in he con ex o he mode n democ a ic S a e wi h di ec ep esen a ion (Fig. 2). ARTICLE IN PRESS JMPO : 713 1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23 25 27 29 31 33 35 37 39 41 43 45 47 49 51 53 55 57 59 61 63 65 67 69 71 73 75 77 79 81 83 85 87 89 91 93 95 97 99 101 103 105 107 109 111 113 3 Sel -go e nmen means he eedom o go e n h ough he absence o con ol. 4 Spain is peculia in he sense ha i has unde gone a adical e o m in he way he S a e is poli ically and e i o ially o ganized ( he 1978 Cons i u ion), going om being a cen alized s uc u e o a highly decen alized one (Au onomous Communi ies) almos akin o a ede al S a e. 5 The possibili y o mo ing om cen alized managemen o co- managemen is shown in [7]. 6 The Eu opean Sha ing Responsibili ies in Fishe ies Managemen [8] p ojec p oposes and assesses al e na i e fishe ies managemen models wi h a g ea e deg ee o decen aliza ion wi h ega d o EU and S a e adminis a ions, and g ea e pa icipa ion by he a ious s akeholde s. J.L. Sua ´ ez de Vi e o e al. / Ma ine Policy ](]]]])]]]–]]]2 Please ci e his a icle as: Sua ´ ez de Vi e o JL, e al. The pa adox o public pa icipa ion in fishe ies go e nance. The ising numbe o ac o s and he de olu ion.... Ma ine Policy (2007), doi:10.1016/j.ma pol.2007.06.005 UNCORRECTED PROOF 3. Co-managemen Co-managemen is wi hou doub a key concep in he ecen de elopmen o heo y and p axis in fishe ies managemen . Fi s ly, because o he concep s ha a e ele an o he scien ific discussion on fishe ies manage- men concu in co-managemen , and dis inguish i om o he mo e echnical and limi ed e ms, such as pa icipa- o y/collabo a i e/coope a i e managemen and communi y based managemen [9]. And, secondly, because he way he concep i sel has e ol ed om he 1980s o he p esen day is an indica ion o he di ec ion o he p e alen poin s o ARTICLE IN PRESS JMPO : 713 1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23 25 27 29 31 33 35 37 39 41 43 45 47 49 51 53 55 57 59 61 63 65 67 69 71 73 75 77 79 81 83 85 87 89 91 93 95 97 99 101 103 105 107 109 111 113 Fig. 1. Ra io be ween pa icipa ion and decen aliza ion. The si ua ion in Spain. Fig. 2. Ra io be ween pa icipa ion and decen aliza ion in some Eu opean coun ies. J.L. Sua ´ ez de Vi e o e al. / Ma ine Policy ](]]]])]]]–]]] 3 Please ci e his a icle as: Sua ´ ez de Vi e o JL, e al. The pa adox o public pa icipa ion in fishe ies go e nance. The ising numbe o ac o s and he de olu ion.... Ma ine Policy (2007), doi:10.1016/j.ma pol.2007.06.005 UNCORRECTED PROOF iew in scien ific discou se ega ding fishe ies manage- men —an ad ance owa ds pa icipa ion by new social agen s and he p og essi e decen aliza ion o he decision- making p ocesses [10]. The e a e h ee key elemen s o his concep , which was de eloped by specialis li e a u e du ing he 1990s: (i) he need o decen aliza ion gi en he ailu e o he cen alis sys em domina ed by he S a e as a poli ical agen which wen be o e, (ii) he impo ance o social agen s’ pa icipa ion in he poli ical p ocess, and (iii) he ecogni ion o olk managemen sys ems [11]. These h ee ea u es should be e gua an ee he fishe s’ con- fidence in he poli ical sys em, which, acco ding o co- managemen pa adigm heo is s, would hen esul in measu es being be e applied. I is a ac ha he in ense use o he e m has led o g ea e ambigui y, whe eby i has become a label o a b oad gamu o p oposals, bo h as ega ds objec i es and he social agen s and ins i u ions in ol ed in he p ocess. Because o his, se e al pape s ha e made g ea e o s o define he e m heo e ically [12] and o classi y di e en ypes o co-managemen [13,14]. I we ake as ou base e e ence he defini ion o e ed by Jen o in 1989 [15,16], co-managemen is unde s ood as some kind o pa ne ship be ween he adminis a ion and he associa ions ha ep esen he fishe s o sha ing esponsibili y o manage- men asks, and i is specifically his ha dis inguishes i om consul a i e a angemen s. The need o augmen he poli ical e ec i eness and legi imacy o adi ional op–- down managemen sys ems, especially h ough an inc ease in he compliance o he fishe s, was he p ime a gumen o he p oposal, and his is how i has pe sis en ly been seized upon in subsequen adi ion. Bu inno a i e elemen s a e none heless impo an in scien ific discou se. The mos impo an o hese has been he opening up o he co-decision poli ical p ocess o new social and ins i u ional subjec s, o he poin ha he idea o pa ne ship be ween fishe s and he adminis a ion has been qui e clea ly su passed. As such, in he second hal o he 1990s [13,17], co-managemen was unde s ood as he esul no jus o collabo a ion be ween use s g oups (wi h hese no longe being explici ly limi ed o he fishe s) and he go e nmen , bu also agencies and esea ch ins i u ions. F om his momen on, he concep b oadens, especially wi h ega d o who ough o o m pa o he sys em. This op ion is clea ly defined in Mikalsen and Jen o [18]— fishe ies managemen should in ol e new social agen s h ough mo e inclusi e and pa icipa o y me hodology ha anscends sec o al limi s. I should ake as i s basis he s akeholde app oach; ha is, i should ake in o conside a ion all he social and ins i u ional agen s ha ha e a legi ima e igh o be consul ed in fishe ies policy decisions in ecogni ion o he ac ha fish s ocks and ma i ime e i o y a e a common p ope y esou ce; o wi : local communi ies, en i onmen al o ganiza ions and agen- cies, esea che s, consume s, he media, ep esen a i es o he fishe ies chain and o he ma i ime indus ies, and u u e gene a ions. The ocus also es ablishes ha he sys em o ela ionships be ween hese subjec s should emain unde S a e con ol, wi h he S a e being p ima ily unde s ood o be an a bi e in a complex assemblage a he han one o he co ne s ones o he sys em occupying a hie a chical posi ion. Ha ing come hus a , i seems e iden ha he concep o co-managemen should be associa ed wi h: (a) he s eng hening o he local pe spec i e, in he sense ha he communi y should be es o ed as a key domain in managemen [19,20]; (b) he delega ion o powe om go e nmen al agencies o social and ins i u ional agencies linked o he fishe ies chain and local communi ies; ha is, i should be associa ed wi h he empowe men o hese e y agen s [21]; (c) mo e inclusi e and anspa en ins i u ions, mo e democ a ic ins umen s; and (d) a poli ical sys em which s ee s clea o he cogni i e exclusi eness o science and inco po a es o ms o ‘‘ olk’’ knowledge; and all he aspec s ha his en ails [22,23]. All he po en iali ies o co-managemen ha ing been se ou , i is now necessa y o poin ou he di ficul ies ha exis o i o be implemen ed: (a) he need o wo k on a a ie y o poli ical and e i o ial scales; (b) adap a ion o he wide a ie y o social agen s’ needs; (c) he eluc ance o ARTICLE IN PRESS JMPO : 713 1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23 25 27 29 31 33 35 37 39 41 43 45 47 49 51 53 55 57 59 61 63 65 67 69 71 73 75 77 79 81 83 85 87 89 91 93 95 97 99 101 103 105 107 109 111 113 T adi ional Managemen Model Go e nance Model Technical ool (managemen ) Global, holis ic pe spec i e (go e nance) Based on “closed” knowledge (bio- economic science) Based on “open” knowledge ( he in e ac ion be ween science and social o olk knowledge) Top-down Mul i-le el ( om global o local le el) P e-es ablished alues (economic e iciency, echnological de elopmen , e c.) Values unde cons uc ion (social and en i onmen al sus ainabili y; cul u al di e si y; poli ical e ec i eness; democ acy) S a ic powe ela ionships (S a e, associa ions, ma ke lobbies). T adi ional ac o s (go e nmen agencies, ishe s) Dynamic powe ela ionships (de olu ion,co- pa icipa ion, accoun abili y, policy ne wo ks, e c.) New ac o s (ci izen, en i onmen al, mass media, and non-ex ac i e ishe y sec o ep esen a i e o ganiza ions) Bioeconomic pa adigme (Maximum sus ainable yield) In eg a i e app oach (Ecosys em base app oach) Fig. 3. Compa ison be ween adi ional managemen model and go e nance model. J.L. Sua ´ ez de Vi e o e al. / Ma ine Policy ](]]]])]]]–]]]4 Please ci e his a icle as: Sua ´ ez de Vi e o JL, e al. The pa adox o public pa icipa ion in fishe ies go e nance. The ising numbe o ac o s and he de olu ion.... Ma ine Policy (2007), doi:10.1016/j.ma pol.2007.06.005 UNCORRECTED PROOF he S a e o delega e a sha e o powe and especially o becoming sensi ized o local/ egional condi ions (gi en i s cen alizing oca ion); (d) he s a us quo o he powe ela ionships in he fishe ies chain a he cu en ime, wi h his o ical con ol by he ma ke ing and indus ializa ion agen s g owing due o he p ocesses o globaliza ion; (e) he ep esen a i eness o he fishe ies o ganiza ions and hei lack o poli ical coo dina ion; ( ) he lack o p io expe iences a e a long pe iod o ime wi h a cen alized managemen model; and (g) he e y ambigui y o he concep , unde which a wide ange o expe iences a e p esen ed. Bea ing in mind all hese di ficul ies, i migh be conjec u ed ha he ailu es o p ema u e and insu ficien ly obus co-managemen expe iences pu he po en ial exis ence o he ocus a isk. Be ha as i may, he heo e ical de elopmen o he concep owa ds a pe ma- nen opening up o social agen s as pa icipan s in he decision-making p ocess allows us o accep wha we ha e e e ed o as he pa icipa ion pa adox. The u h o he ma e is fishe s ha e p og essi ely los hei decision- making capaci y and poli ical p esence as hey ha e had o compe e wi h he iewpoin s, objec i es and s a egies o o he ac o s who ha e ecen ly been in i ed o ake a poli ical pa . (Fig. 3). 4. Go e nance and go e nabili y Go e nance and go e nabili y ep esen a hi d impo - an miles one in his discou se on he ole o social pa icipa ion in fishe ies managemen as hey b ing oge he in one way o ano he hese de olu ion and co- managemen concep s and app oaches. In simple e ms, he go e nance/go e nabili y pa adigm equa es o a la ge ‘‘mel ing-po -concep ’’ in o which a e pou ed all he p eceding app oaches o fishe ies managemen and he p inciples ha inspi e hem: pa icipa ion, decen aliza ion and flexibili y. Go e nance is on occasion in e p e ed as an ac ion execu ed by he go e nmen (when his is unde s ood o be a g ouping o o mal execu i e powe ins i u ions), al hough i is much mo e han his. 7 Kooiman [25] defined i as he ee play o pa icipa ion and ade-o be ween he a ious social ac o s, and be ween he public and p i a e sec o s, wi hou adi ional go e nmen in e en ion, ‘‘co- o dina ion wi hou a coo dina o ’’ o a ype o ‘‘go e ning wi hou Go e nmen ’’ [26,27]. Go e nance could he e o e be defined as a kind o social coo dina ion (as opposed o coo dina ion based on he ma ke o based on poli ics) ha is bo n ou o he cons an in e ac ion be ween social agen s o all ypes. The concep is associa ed wi h he capaci y o sel -coo dina ion ha ne wo ks made up o a wide a ie y o public and p i a e, S a e and ansna ional o ganiza ions and bodies possess [28]. F om he 1990s onwa ds, and especially a e 2000, he concep o go e nance bu s on o he ocean and fishe ies managemen scene, 8 in an a emp o p o ide an explana- ion o a dynamic, complex, e e -changing, o en c oss- bo de eali y in which social and ins i u ional g oups (S a e, ma ke , ci il socie y) wi h gene ally di e se in e es s in e ac . The concep o go e nance seems o be mo e ela ed o he need o manage a complex socio-economic and physical eali y and o he achie emen o ce ain goals ha cha ac e ize he pos -mode n e a [32]. De elopmen g own ou o adi ional sys ems o fish- e ies managemen , in which he S a e was key, and whe e some social ac o s (fishe s, basically) we e some imes aken in o conside a ion, has mo e ecen ly u ned in o mo e flexible managemen , wi h a mo e p ominen ole played by he ma ke and i s esou ce assigna ion mechanisms. Ocean and fishe ies go e nance is, a e all, ounded on an al eady e y obus epis emological p oduc and on a se ies o key p inciples (sus ainabili y, pa icipa ion, anspa - ency, accoun abili y, flexibili y and p ecau ion, o name bu some 9 ) ha ha e a o ded i a measu e o p es ige in he scien ific communi y and ha p o ide adequa e guide- lines o analysis ( he desc ip i e aspec ) and in e en ion ( he p esc ip i e aspec ). O all he di e en ypes o go e nance—hie a chical go e nance (based on adminis- a i e a ionali y), ma ke go e nance (based on economic a ionali y) and pa icipa o y go e nance ( ounded on social consensus and ‘‘democ a ic p agma ism’’)—i is he hi d and las o hese ha would seem o be p e ailing oday, wi h i s pos -ma e ialis ic ounda ions, he alue o esponses based on collec i e knowledge and ac ion, he need o decen aliza ion and he loss o s eam o he o he wo models [37]. Go e nabili y is a di e en concep , bu one which complemen s go e nance. I e e s o issues such as o de , s abili y, e ficiency and he legi imacy o a managemen sys em; ha is, he e ec i eness wi h which he ange o socio-poli ical ac o s a i e a decisions and he capaci y o ins i u ions and go e nmen o apply and implemen hem. In sho , go e nabili y would be a capaci y o an a ibu e o go e ning (associa ed wi h some public powe o a poli ical sys em), whe eas go e nance e e s abo e all o he s uc u es (game ules) and p ocesses which condi ion he pa icipa ion and in e ac ion o he a ious socio- poli ical ac o s [38]. Go e nabili y comp ises bo h he poli ical sys em o managemen (go e nance) and he ARTICLE IN PRESS JMPO : 713 1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23 25 27 29 31 33 35 37 39 41 43 45 47 49 51 53 55 57 59 61 63 65 67 69 71 73 75 77 79 81 83 85 87 89 91 93 95 97 99 101 103 105 107 109 111 113 7 Fo example, one o he hings ha S oke [24] pu s o wa d is he idea ha go e nance could de elop no only om o mal ins i u ions, bu also om o he s. He also asse s ha he e is an in e dependence be ween he a ious ac o s in his model and ha sel -o ganized ne wo ks o social ac o s p og essi ely gain impo ance. 8 F om a quick e iew o e e ences on in e en ion policies and mechanisms in he ocean en i onmen , i can be seen ha a icles and books w i en du ing he 1970s and 1980s bea names ha p e e en ially include he concep s o ma ine policy o ocean managemen , whe eas om he 1990s onwa ds he concep o ocean go e nance p edomina es in i les [29–31]. 9 These p inciples can be looked up in a numbe o documen s and a icles [33–36]. J.L. Sua ´ ez de Vi e o e al. / Ma ine Policy ](]]]])]]]–]]] 5 Please ci e his a icle as: Sua ´ ez de Vi e o JL, e al. The pa adox o public pa icipa ion in fishe ies go e nance. The ising numbe o ac o s and he de olu ion.... Ma ine Policy (2007), doi:10.1016/j.ma pol.2007.06.005 UNCORRECTED PROOF socio-economic eali y ha is o be managed, as well as in e ac ion be ween bo h. A he cu en ime, fishing is bo h a ec ed and s uc u ed by h ee ins i u ional o de s (S a e, communi y, ma ke ), and he e has been a no able e ea o S a e ins i u ions and he lack o adap a ion o hei s uc u es o he eali y o he ma ke and ecology whils a he same ime he e has also been an inc ease in he numbe o ma ke solu ions (a ques o e ficiency, ITQs and so on) [6]. Gi en hese ci cums ances, he big issue is he dis o ed in e p e a ion o fishe ies go e nance esul ing om he ac ha adi ional public fishe ies managemen has been eplaced by ei he mo e di use p ocesses o o he s ha a e mo e s ongly linked o he ma ke , o la ge ansna ional companies and s ong economic lobbies, wi h he mo e social aspec s being somewha sidelined. In sho , fishe ies managemen is now mo e flexible and ‘‘ ee’’, bu he gua an ees o sa egua ding socio-economic and en i on- men al igh s ha e been excessi ely minimized, wi h accoun abili y being mo e and mo e di usely sp ead, and p oduce pa icipa ion dilu ed in a wide and complex spec um o social ac o s. The e a e, na u ally, some specific s uc u es and game ules (fishe ies go e nance 10 ). Ne e heless, g ea e e ec i eness, capaci y and legi imacy in he implemen a ion o he decisions ha a ec bo h he sec o and, especially, hose whose li elihoods depend on i (fishe ies go e nabili y), s ill emain o be achie ed. The ques ion is whe he he la e o he wo will be achie ed o no on he basis o he ‘‘me can ilis ’’ go e nance ha is p e ailing [40] and h ough a di use sys em o esponsi- bili ies in which he weakes social ac o s pe cei e pa icipa ion mo e as he o ic han a angible eali y. 5. Concluding ema ks The eme gence o managemen o mulae ha seek g ea e social pa icipa ion as pa o he de olu ion p ocess is esul ing in a widening o he spec um o social ac o s. One indica o ha illus a es his is he eme gence o he gende pe spec i e, which has allowed a social g oup no adi ionally aken in o conside a ion in fishe ies managemen o gain p ominence. Fo his eason, i would be necessa y o edefine he game ules no only because o he e ec ha he inc ease in he numbe o pa icipan s is ha ing, bu also because o he complexi y ha is inhe en in he exis ence o a ne wo k o in e ac ions be ween adi ional and eme ging ac o s who do no always sha e common in e es s. Co-managemen can be unde s ood o be a ocus a he han a numbe o s ic ly echnical solu ions [41] ha fi s in wi h he new in e ac i e go e nance app oaches ha a e equi ed o ca e o he complex biological, socio- economic, e i o ial, poli ical and cul u al ela ionships ha in one way o ano he bo h shape and a e shaped by he ishe ies chain when his is seen in a complex way [42].I is, he e o e, a pe spec i e ha is in keeping wi h he new concep o sus ainabili y as i appea s in he Code o Conduc o Responsible Fishing (FAO, 1995) and which subsequen ly has been exp essed in e hical e ms in he fishe ies domain [43]. The pa adigm o go e nance could in me apho ical e ms be in e p e ed as a kind o ma yoshka o ‘‘nes ed doll p inciple’’ 11 ; ha is, a ocus ha , pe haps no always in en ionally, bo h assumes and subsumes p eceding managemen o mulae in an a emp o cons uc a b oade concep capable o aking on boa d he e e mo e complex pa icipa o y p ocess. I could be said ha he de olu ion app oach and subsequen app oaches ela ing o co- managemen and, mos ecen ly, o go e nance/go e n- abili y, se e o swell he anks o managemen p esc ip- ions, which ha e been p og essi ely g owing, and which, despi e ad oca ing sel - egula ion, sha ed managemen , social dialogue and he p ese a ion o he en i onmen , un he isk o being discou se a he han eal poli ical in e en ional p axis o he fishe ies c isis [41]. Re e ences [1] C ean K, Symes D, edi o s. Fishe ies managemen in c isis. Ox o d: Fishing News Books/Blackwell Science; 1996. [2] Eu opean Commission. Dissemina ion o he esul s o biological s udies 1997–2000. B ussels: Eu opean Comisio ´n/Fishe ies and Ma i ime A ai e, Di ec o a e Gene al; 2004. [3] Eu opean Commission. Synopsis o selec ed R & D p ojec s in he field o fishe ies and aquacul u e. Ag icul u e and Fishe ies including ag o-indus y, ood echnology, o es y, aquacul u e and u al de elopmen . FAIR 1994–98. EUR 18949 EN. 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An ins i u ional de elopmen p ocess in communi y based coas al esou ce managemen : building he capaci y and oppo uni y o communi y based co-managemen in a small-scale fishe ies communi y. Ocean and Coas al Managemen 1999;42:439–56. [10] Wilson DC, Nielsen JR, Dengbol P, edi o s. The fishe ies co- managemen expe ience: accomplishmen s, challenges and p ospec s. Bos on: Kluwe Academic Publishe s; 2003. ARTICLE IN PRESS JMPO : 713 1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23 25 27 29 31 33 35 37 39 41 43 45 47 49 51 53 55 57 59 61 63 65 67 69 71 73 75 77 79 81 83 85 87 89 91 93 95 97 99 101 103 105 107 109 111 113 10 An analysis o fishe ies go e nance and poli ical ins i u ions can be ound in [39]. 11 The me apho ical use o Russian ma yoshkas deno es a ecognizable ela ionship o ‘‘simila objec -wi hin-simila objec ’’ which could be applied o he cons uc ion o social and poli ical o mula ions. J.L. 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Ams e dam: Ams e dam Uni e si y P ess; 2005. [43] FAO. E hical issues in fishe ies. FAO e hics se ies, 4. Rome: Food and Ag icul u e O ganiza ion o he Uni ed Na ions; 2005. ARTICLE IN PRESS JMPO : 713 1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23 25 27 29 31 33 35 37 39 41 43 45 47 49 51 53 55 57 59 61 63 65 67 69 71 73 75 J.L. Sua ´ ez de Vi e o e al. / Ma ine Policy ](]]]])]]]–]]] 7 Please ci e his a icle as: Sua ´ ez de Vi e o JL, e al. The pa adox o public pa icipa ion in fishe ies go e nance. The ising numbe o ac o s and he de olu ion.... Ma ine Policy (2007), doi:10.1016/j.ma pol.2007.06.005