An Overview of the Origins and Effectiveness of Commercial Fitness Equipment and Sectoral Corporate Settings: A Critical Review of Literature

applied sciences A icle An O e iew o he O igins and E ec i eness o Comme cial Fi ness Equipmen and Sec o al Co po a e Se ings: A C i ical Re iew o Li e a u e Sil io Addolo a o 1,* , Je ónimo Ga cía-Fe nández 2, Leono Galla do 1and Jo ge Ga cía-Unanue 1 1IGOID Resea ch G oup, Uni e si y o Cas illa-La Mancha, A da. Ca los III, s/n, 45071 Toledo, Spain; leono [email p o ec ed] (L.G.); jo ge.ga [email p o ec ed] (J.G.-U.) 2Physical Educa ion and Spo Depa men , Uni e si y o Se ille, C/Pi o ecnia, s/n, 41013 Se ille, Spain; [email p o ec ed] *Co espondence: [email p o ec ed] Recei ed: 25 Janua y 2020; Accep ed: 19 Feb ua y 2020; Published: 24 Feb ua y 2020   Abs ac : Resea ch Ques ion: Fi ness equipmen is a wo ldwide e e -g owing phenomenon and i s usage is nowadays popula bo h in human ou ines and academic in es iga ions. Resea ch Me hods: This pape is a li e a u e e iew aiming i ness equipmen in ela ion o all he a ailable indings connec ed o he comple e p oduc li e-cycle phases. Resul s and Findings: Manu ac u ing indus ies, which a e ac i e eali ies o he sec o , ha e no been a majo conce n o spo esea che s wi hin he p oduc ion applicabili y sub- ield. Pas oo hypo heses, he cu en s a e o he a and u u e guideline applica ions a e add essed. Selec ed a icles we e ca ego ised ch onologically, by jou nal, by geog aphic a ea and, ex ensi ely, by con en . Fi e hema ic a eas we e included: (1) his o ical backg ound, (2) c ea ion s ages, (3) p oduc ea u es, (4) inno a ion pa hs and (5) sec o al en i onmen s and ma ke ing p ocesses. Implica ions: By means o he p o ided indings, he e is an oppo uni y o widen app oaches o s udy i ness equipmen ha could be ex ended o he sec o ’s en e p ise applica ions and me hods o wo k. Keywo ds: i ness equipmen ; i ness indus y; li e-cycle app oach; li e a u e e iew; manu ac u ing indus ies; p oduc design; p oduc de elopmen 1. Backg ound Fi ness is gene ally seen as a la e 20 h-cen u y phenomenon, bu i is impo an o ecognise ha some o i s oo s had al eady e ol ed mo e han a cen u y be o e [ 1 ]. Mode n echnological i ness equipmen has been ans o med in o a conside able and success ul indus y, and ma ke ing p oduc s and hei omnip esence, as human- ela ed machines, play a c ucial ole [ 2 ]. A mode n i ness cen e is highly e icien in i s use o ime and space, bo h in a chi ec u e as well as in he simul aneous use o i ness echnologies. Use s ha e lea ned o moni o hei own bodies acco ding o he s anda ds o being ‘ i ’. The globalisa ion o mode n i ness cul u e can be conside ed an illumina ing example o he mo e emb acing momen um owa d a global monocul u e, and i is a ecognisable and adap able phenomenon wo ldwide [ 3 ]. The uni ica ion and s anda disa ion o i ness (bo h equipmen s and p ac ices) ha e been c ucial o he globalisa ion o he i ness indus y [ 4 ]. The his o ical de elopmen o mode n gym and i ness cul u e can be desc ibed analy ically o unde s and he eme gence o his mul i-billion-dolla phenomenon [5,6]. The p i a e sec o o he global heal h club indus y expe iences con inuous g ow h, and sec o al acili ies se e 162 million membe s wo ldwide [ 2 ]. The ou look o he i ness indus y is p omising Appl. Sci. 2020,10, 1534; doi:10.3390/app10041534 www.mdpi.com/jou nal/applsci Appl. Sci. 2020,10, 1534 2 o 19 and he sec o is expec ed o h i e in he global ma ke place, se ing consume s wi h a a ie y o heal h and i ness needs. Wi h access o i ness ameni ies, ins uc o s, pe sonal aine s and coaches and club ope a o s a e well posi ioned o lead a heal hie wo ld. ‘Heal h’ and ‘ i ness’ (H&F) a e by no means unambiguous e ms. The Wo ld Ea h O ganiza ion de ined heal h as a s a e o comple e physical, men al and social well-being, no me ely he absence o diseases o in i mi ies [ 7 ]. The e m i ness poses simila p oblems; oday i is o en equa ed wi h muscle size, body con ou and he abili y o sus ain a 30-min exe cise bou . I is expec ed ha ypical li es yles o he cu en and u u e popula ions will be opulen and com o able, as quali y o li e imp o es due o he inc ease in household income and educ ion in wo king hou s [ 8 ]. In he mean ime, as he s anda d o li ing becomes inc easingly mo e com o able, he oll on physical heal h becomes magni ied as a esul o bodily weigh issues and insu icien exe cise caused by supe nu i ion and change in wo k condi ions ( om physical o men al labou ). Fo his eason, H&F indus y is an impo an con ibu o o e e y na ional p e en a i e heal h policies agains o e weigh and obesi y li es yles, and di ec ly associa ed wi h he ela ed human isk ac o s [ 9 ]. Fo his eason, e e y i ness cen e plays an impo an ole and, e e y ype o a ailable i ness ameni y, is he common mean h ough which is possible o mee he ma ke demand [10]. This has c ea ed a deep awa eness o i ness o many people, o cing hem o ecognise he impo ance o daily exe cise and physical ac i i y. The high annual g ow h a e in he i ness and a hle ic equipmen ma ke , which is mo e han 20%, is a ibu ed o his phenomenon [ 11 ]. Fi ness equipmen can be used o imp o e ca dio-pulmona y unc ion, s eng hen leg muscles, consume body a and imp o e he physical cons i u ion. I is di icul o make a clea dis inc ion be ween i ness ‘goods’ and ‘se ices’, since classes o p og ammes a e ha dly e e sold wi hou some ma e ial goods and ice e sa [ 12 ]. Fi ness p oduc s mean equipmen s, classes, p og ammes and se ices (inco po a ing in angible and new ‘concep s’) in ol ing all kinds o i ness accesso ies and ameni ies, including guide books, DVDs and u o ial ideos [ 12 ]. E alua ing he i ness wo ld, i has been ound as a li e al sense o a bodily s a e, in how a ious a ibu es o di e en ex ac ion come o he in elligible as inhabi able wo lds [13]. Fi ness equipmen is an impo an pa o i ness ‘ ou ines’. I has become an unescapable end due o he apid de elopmen o in o ma ion echnology (IT) and elec onic echnology, using, o example, pho oelec ic me hods o de ec he physiology index o he human body [ 14 ]. Acco ding o Dibble [ 15 ], ca dio- ascula equipmen s a e mo e p one o becoming mono onous, muscle-condi ioning de ices de elop hemsel es in o compu e ised e sion o s eng h aining machines. Bo h ca ego ies p o ide use s isual and sona eedback (based on eloci y, measu ing dis ance, ange o mo ion, e c.) b ing hese ‘ma u e’ p oduc s o a new inno a i e e a as well. As globally deli e ed, H&F se ices will become mo e common in he u u e [ 4 ]. The ques ion o s anda dising bodily mo emen s hus becomes mo e ele an and could ep esen new ways in which human imma e ial esou ces a e capi alised. Gymnas ics, wi hou ma e ial equipmen , we e de ined as oo ou ine, and aining wi h new de ices gene a es s ong and bold people [16]. Ye , compa a i ely speaking, esea che s in he ield o spo s p oduc inno a ion ha e la gely igno ed he impo ance o manu ac u ing indus ies as he sou ce o e e y appa a us a ailable in e e y spo acili y a ound he wo ld. The i ness ‘b and’ is independen o he ac ual p oduc and is unique o he company o which a po en ial buye main ains loyal y [ 17 ]. Fo he same eason, du ing pu chasing choices, spo clubs need o ake in o conside a ion se e al aspec s and no only ocus on supply managemen o i ness equipmen alloca ion in ela ion o indus y p o ide s [18]. Agains his backd op, he aim o his pape is o p o ide a adi ional li e a u e analysis on all p oduc s’ li e-cycle s eps: om he his o ical hypo heses ha lead o he ini ial sec o al miles ones, h ough he s a e o he a ela ed o he c ea ion ways o wo ks and he quali y a iables ha compose wha al eady exis s in in e na ional ma ke s, o he inno a ion p ocesses ha cu en ly de ine and p esen his indus y’s inal ‘ma e ial’ esul s inside con ex s and socie ies. Appl. Sci. 2020,10, 1534 3 o 19 Fo his eason, his esea ch is able o highligh his gap in he knowledge abou i ness equipmen and wha has eme ged in published s udies in ela ion o sec o al ‘companies’, simul aneously o all which is de ined in li e a u e as p oduc ‘ ea u ing’, ‘inno a ion’ and ‘ echnology’ de elopmen . The selec ed objec i e could also p o ide and b ing p ac i ione s o a newly e sion o ‘win-win solu ion’ be ween academics and co po a e se ings, in ma ching and sha e use ul in o ma ion. The a icle p esen s ele an a icles published in he las 40 yea s, he mos impo an age o he i ness indus y. In his con ex , i has been deba ed whe he spo s scien is s need o en e his i ness indus y sub- ield mo e p oac i ely. 2. Me hodology T adi ional li e a u e analysis is de ined as a me hod in ol ing a comp ehensi e sea ch o ele an knowledge and s udies on a speci ic opic, and hose iden i ied and selec ed a e hen app aised and syn hesised [ 19 , 20 ]. The pu pose o his ype o e iew is o analyse a la ge and a ied body o li e a u e, in o de o unde s and he cu en s a e o he a , in his case ega ding - i ness equipmen - in ela ion o o he speci ic independen a iables, h ough an app op ia e sea ch in elec onic da abases. Fo his e iew, he sea ch was no limi ed o spo s- ela ed jou nals bu included a icles loca ed in he a eas o communica ion, design, enginee ing, his o y, IT, managemen , ma ke ing, medicine and su ge y, psychology and human esou ces (HR), obo ics and ae ospace and social sciences. The in es iga ion was limi ed o esea ch a icles in a s ic sense, including li e a u e e iews, me a-analyses and o iginal pape s. The ollowing ypologies we e excluded (alphabe ical o de ): bibliog aphic a icles and chap e s, books, con e ence abs ac , edi o ial and news a icles, manu ac u e o co po a i e ca alogues, sec o al le e s and ex ended p oduc ’s adema ks (deposi ed licenses and pa en s). A key p oblem encoun e ed du ing he analysis is ha , while he e a e nume ous co po a e case s udies and in e nal en e p ise su eys (mos unpublished o no made public), li le is known abou he in o ma ion a ailable in scien i ic da abases. The analysis s a ed in No embe 2015, and he la es sea ch was pe o med on 31 May 2017. Da a collec ion was pe o med by one eam o in es iga o s expe ienced in he managemen and ma ke ing o p oduc s in he H&F sec o and spo s science. 2.1. Da a Sou ces and Sea ches Elec onic da abases, including Spo Discus, Academic Sea ch Comple e, MEDLINE, ISI - Web o Science, CINAHL, Coch ane Lib a y, PsycINFO, E gonomic Abs ac s, Business Sou ce P emie , Science Di ec , Scopus and Google Schola , we e used o he ex ended li e a u e analysis. This mul iple sea ch s a egy has been conside ed as an app op ia e s a egy due o he eclec ic na u e and wide ange o he a ge ed li e a u e base (Table 1). - Sea ches included he ollowing e ms: ‘ i ness equipmen ’ and (1) ‘company’, (2) ‘ ea u e’, (3) ‘inno a ion’ and (4) ‘ echnology’. The i s key wo d has been kep ixed a ying he emaining ou by using he Boolean Logic ‘AND’. - The e e ences o each selec ed a icle we e e alua ed o iden i y o he po en ially ele an pape s ha we e no included among he indexed da abases u ilised by using he known ‘snowball’ echnique [21,22]. - Bibliog aphies om he e ie ed li e a u e we e sea ched, oge he wi h he esea che ’s pe sonal iles, o add a icles ela ed o he pu pose o he esea ch. - The sea ches we e limi ed o a icles published in English bu we e no limi ed by coun y o o igin. - Rele an indus y epo s, o e ed by Eu ope Ac i e [ 3 ] o IHRSA [ 2 , 6 ], we e sough by acking he la es leading ends and geog aphical/socie y’s p oduc applica ions. Appl. Sci. 2020,10, 1534 4 o 19 Table 1. T adi ional li e a u e e iew c i e ia and app oaches. C i e ia App oaches Adop ed Main opic Fi ness Equipmen Rela ed opics (‘AND’) (1) Company, (2) Fea u e, (3) Inno a ion and (4) Technology Resea ch me hod Snowball echnique Bounda ies de ined Ti le, abs ac o key wo ds include opics ( i s phase) Full- ex con en a icles (second phase, assessed by Jadad scale) No by in es iga ion a eas, no by pe iod/ ime ame Publica ions in English 2.2. S udy Selec ion and Me hodological Quali y Assessmen The i les and abs ac s ob ained we e sc eened o emo e i ele an o duplica ed publica ions. The ull- ex e sions o he emaining pape s we e hen ead, analysed and e alua ed in de ail o iden i y hei eligibili y. The inclusion c i e ia o he selec ed a icles we e as ollows: - Publica ions ela ed o he con en c i e ia o ‘ i ness equipmen ’ ha we e published h ough academic jou nals and di ec ly in e sec ed wi h he opics o ‘company’, ‘ ea u e’, ‘inno a ion’ and ‘ echnology’ ha should appea in he i le, abs ac , o keywo ds. - Whe e aims we e no included in hose opics, i has been analysed i has been ex ensi ely aced o ea ed be ween he o e ed con en s o he ull- ex e sion. - A icles published be ween 1978 ( he lowe limi was no p e iously de ined a he beginning o he e iew) and 2017 a he da e o he las sea ch pe o med. - Pape s w i en in English. Once he ele an publica ions we e inalised, he Jadad scale [ 22 , 23 ], was used o sys ema ically de e mine he quali y o he a icles o app o al and accep ance. Ha ing been done en i ely by a single e ise , a high s anda d o he esul s was sough o analysis selec ion. The s anda d se o selec ion was all he a icles ha ea ned a punc ua ion o h ee o mo e poin s, which indica es good quali y. The chosen scale has he capaci y o p o ide a comple e o e iew o he ex e nal and in e nal alidi ies o pape s included in his e ision o de e mine he cu en s a e o he a . Being a adi ional li e a u e e iew (and no a sys ema ic one), he p ocess h ough which hese wel e scien i ic selec ed da abases ha e been analysed co esponds o he ini ial sample o ma e ial e ie ed. The inal sea ch, de ined by he selec ion and quali y assessmen s abo e lis ed, e ealed 73 a icles, o which 50 we e ound applying he p e iously explained con en - ela ed c i e ia. 2.3. Da a Analysis The a ionale o his app oach was ha , a ge ed hema ic analysis has been conside ed a use ul and lexible ool, which can po en ially p o ide a ich and de ailed unde s anding o eclec ic da a [ 19 ]. Addi ionally, his me hod enables esea che s o iden i y, analyse and epo pa e ns o meaning ( hemes) ac oss di e en epis emological and on ological posi ions. When he selec ion was eady, indings we e o ganised in o i e key pa ag aphs ollowing he adi ional p oduc ’s s eps de elopmen [ 24 ]: (a) his o ical backg ound, (b) c ea ion s ages, (c) p oduc ea u es, (d) inno a ion pa hs and (e) sec o al en i onmen s and ma ke ing p ocesses. This o e all ca ego iza ion has been de ined acco ding o he logical li e-cycle p ocesses associa ed wi h he i ness equipmen (especially om he poin ‘b’ o ‘e’), wi h a s a ing addi ion (poin ‘a’) ocused on he o igins and oo s ( o mally named as ‘miles ones’) o he comme cial i ness equipmen p o ided by he selec ed pape du ing he analysis. Appl. Sci. 2020,10, 1534 5 o 19 3. Resul s and Discussion When conside ing he yea s o publica ion, an e iden inc ease in pape s on he ocused opics o in e es was obse ed. Un il he beginning o he 21s cen u y, he e is no con inui y on p oduc ion. F om 1978 (lowe limi de ined du ing he analysis) o 2006, only 14 a icles we e published (28%). In he las 10 yea s ( om 2007 o 2016), a mean o mo e han h ee publica ions pe yea (M =3.1) was e idenced, wi h wo peaks du ing 2011 and 2014 wi h a mean o 5.5 selec ed a icles (Figu e 1). Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 5 o 19 3. Resul s and Discussion When conside ing he yea s o publica ion, an e iden inc ease in pape s on he ocused opics o in e es was obse ed. Un il he beginning o he 21s cen u y, he e is no con inui y on p oduc ion. F om 1978 (lowe limi de ined du ing he analysis) o 2006, only 14 a icles we e published (28%). In he las 10 yea s ( om 2007 o 2016), a mean o mo e han h ee publica ions pe yea (M = 3.1) was e idenced, wi h wo peaks du ing 2011 and 2014 wi h a mean o 5.5 selec ed a icles (Figu e 1). Figu e 1. Numbe o publica ions by yea . Rega ding he o igin o he published pape s, he esul s e idenced a wide di e si y o in e es a eas, as p e iously lis ed. Up o 22 jou nals ha e been published on he opics in es iga ed. Jou nals wi h a g ea e numbe o publica ions we e as ollows: In e na ional Jou nal o he His o y o Spo wi h h ee a icles and Applied E gonomics, Jou nal o Spo Managemen and Managing Leisu e (now Managing Spo and Leisu e) wi h wo pape s each. These nine publica ions ep esen mo e han a hi d (40.90%) o he jou nals on he subjec s udied (Table 2). Table 2. Jou nal i les and numbe o ela ed publica ions. Jou nal Ti le Numbe o Publica ions pe Jou nal The In e na ional Jou nal o he His o y o Spo 3 Applied E gonomics 2 Jou nal o Spo Managemen Managing Leisu e (now: Managing Spo and Leisu e) ACSM’s Heal h & Fi ness Jou nal 1 Ac a As onau ica Cu en Spo s Medicine Repo s Eu opean Business Re iew Eu opean Jou nal o Cul u al S udies Eu opean Jou nal o Ma ke ing Expe Sys ems wi h Applica ions Gende , Place and Cul u e: A Jou nal o Feminis Geog aphy Human Resou ce Managemen Jou nal In e na ional Jou nal o P ecision Enginee ing and Manu ac u ing In e na ional Jou nal o Spo s Ma ke ing and Sponso ship Jou nal o Beijing Spo Uni e si y Jou nal o Spo His o y Pe cep ual and Mo o Skills 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 1978 1984 1989 1994 1996 1997 1998 1999 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 Uni s Figu e 1. Numbe o publica ions by yea . Rega ding he o igin o he published pape s, he esul s e idenced a wide di e si y o in e es a eas, as p e iously lis ed. Up o 22 jou nals ha e been published on he opics in es iga ed. Jou nals wi h a g ea e numbe o publica ions we e as ollows: In e na ional Jou nal o he His o y o Spo wi h h ee a icles and Applied E gonomics, Jou nal o Spo Managemen and Managing Leisu e (now Managing Spo and Leisu e) wi h wo pape s each. These nine publica ions ep esen mo e han a hi d (40.90%) o he jou nals on he subjec s udied (Table 2). Table 2. Jou nal i les and numbe o ela ed publica ions. Jou nal Ti le Numbe o Publica ions pe Jou nal The In e na ional Jou nal o he His o y o Spo 3 Applied E gonomics 2 Jou nal o Spo Managemen Managing Leisu e (now: Managing Spo and Leisu e) ACSM’s Heal h & Fi ness Jou nal 1 Ac a As onau ica Cu en Spo s Medicine Repo s Eu opean Business Re iew Eu opean Jou nal o Cul u al S udies Eu opean Jou nal o Ma ke ing Expe Sys ems wi h Applica ions Gende , Place and Cul u e: A Jou nal o Feminis Geog aphy Human Resou ce Managemen Jou nal In e na ional Jou nal o P ecision Enginee ing and Manu ac u ing In e na ional Jou nal o Spo s Ma ke ing and Sponso ship Jou nal o Beijing Spo Uni e si y Jou nal o Spo His o y Pe cep ual and Mo o Skills P esence: Teleope a o s and Vi ual En i onmen s Scien ia I anica Social Ma ke ing Qua e ly Spo Science Re iew Appl. Sci. 2020,10, 1534 6 o 19 A geog aphical analysis may also be as enligh ening ollowing some sample s udies encoun e ed in li e a u e, mos ly ocused on Eu opean [ 25 ] and No h Ame ican [ 26 ] en i onmen s and hei e enues, cash lows and p o i abili y. Rega ding he geog aphical dis ibu ion om which he selec ed s udies ha e been pe o med (bo h i s au ho and co-au ho ), he mos ac i e academics ha e been in Eu ope wi h 41.57% (22 a icles) o he o al sample assessed, ollowed by he Asia-Paci ic a ea, wi h 33.96% (n =18) and No h Ame ica, wi h 20.75% (n =11). The lowes ep esen a ion was in he Middle Eas , wi h 3.77% (n =2). No publica ion ma ched he es ablished c i e ia o A ica (including an associa ion o he Middle Eas and No h A ica (MENA) a ea, as uni ied by he desc ip o s o he no he n pa o he con inen ) o La in Ame ica (Table 3). Table 3. Numbe s and pe cen ages o publica ions’ geog aphic a eas. Geog aphic A eas Coun ies Selec ed A icles N% Asia—Paci ic Aus alia 1 33.96 China 9 Japan 1 Sou h Ko ea 3 Taiwan 4 Eu ope Denma k 1 41.57 Finland 3 F ance 2 Ge many 2 I eland 1 No way 2 Sweden 2 The Ne he lands 1 UK 8 Middle Eas Jo dan 1 3.77 UAE 1 No h Ame ica US 11 20.75 The Eu opean obus pe o mance, bu abo e all e iden ly sp ead in all he con inen and con i med by sec o al in es iga ion, led in i s posi ion by he UK wi h annual e enue o 6.1 billion dolla s/yea [ 2 , 6 ]. E en in he Asia-Paci ic a ea he e is a co ela ion wi h he in es iga ion’s indings; hese coun ies a e home o ma u ing indus ies and cu en g ow h, and main examples a e ound in ci ies such as Beijing, Shanghai, Kuala Lumpu and Jaka a. Fo No h Ame ica, his analysis was ep esen ed exclusi ely by he US; he la es annual e enue ob ained was 27.6 billion dolla s/yea , accoun ing o mo e han 35,000 acili ies among all s a es [ 2 ]. No c i e ia ma ched s udies om Canada. Despi e con lic s in se e al MENA coun ies, he e is a demand o i ness, as consume s seek o exe cise and eap he bene i s o an ac i e li es yle. Recen ly, success ul in e na ional i ness ope a o s ha e expanded hei ope a ions in o his a ea. 3.1. His o ical Backg ound Some in es iga ions encoun e ed h ough his s a e o he a analysis, e ealed he his o ical oo phases on wha de ined he i ness equipmen ca ego ies a i ing un il how a e nowadays in e na ionally labelled. These wo ks came mainly om o he li e a u e e iews and a e he e edac ed wi h a ch onology logic o wo easons: (a) o in oduce he ollowing pa ag aphs (p oduc ’s li e-cycle p ocesses) and (b) o p o ide he cu en and upda ed ision o he i ness equipmen sec o since i s incep ion (Appendix C). Appl. Sci. 2020,10, 1534 7 o 19 Van Hil oo de [ 1 ], using a con inen al Eu opean app oach, explains ha a F ench isiona y named Hyppoli e T ia , in he la e-19 h cen u y, was one o he i s o de elop i ness ‘ideals’ by opening comme cially-exploi ed gymnasiums in Li è ge, B ussels and Pa is. Gymnas ics we e ans o med in o hea ical spec acles, planned wi h he ci cus g oundwo k ( apezes, beams, ope ladde and mas s), and a comple e collec ion o weigh s (dumbbells, ba bells, Indian clubs, e c.). A he same ime, in he Du ch con ex , D . Ge aldus A noldus Nicolaas Allebe has been ci ed o his g ea e ele ance. In Ge many, e idence has been ound o ideas and machines ocused on isola ed muscula g oups bu no de eloped wi hin educa ional con ex s. In sum, in his s age, i ness equipmen was ‘ eed’ om ideological associa ions and was neu al wi h ega d o a iables such as gende , age and social class (public o p i a e spaces). Du ing he same his o ical momen , when he i s ‘a is -en ep eneu s’ such as MacFadden and Sandow inally a i e o he inal audience, he e olu ion o i ness de ices in jou nals, o spo s and physical educa ion ha e de ini i ely s a ed. In his pe iod, he main communica ion ools we e newspape ad e ising, pe iodicals, books, pho og aphy and ilms. In he la e-19 h cen u y and he i s h ee decades o he 20 h cen u y in Ge many, England and No h Ame ica, dis inc ions be ween weigh -li ing, bodybuilding, w es ling and ci cus-s ongman pe o mances we e no always clea ly d awn [ 27 ]. These a ious disciplines we e nei he conside ed no p ac iced sepa a ely, and hey we e some imes e en unde s ood as an o ganic whole. The inal goal in aining wi h weigh s was o inc ease s eng h and de elop an a ac i e body. These nume ous ideas and models we e b ough oge he a ound he u n o he cen u y unde he gene al e m o ‘Li e Re o m Mo emen ’. In hese en i onmen s, he mos u ilised means o ad e isemen we e eco ds, lec u es, specialis magazines and exe cise handbooks. In he pas cen u y, be ween he six ies and se en ies, a numbe o e en s a ec ed s udies abou he his o y o medicine, he body, heal h and i ness [ 7 ]. The ‘mo o ’ me apho was a use ul de ice o s udying he body’s physiological and neu ological p ocesses. Some o he mos use ul wo ks conce ning H&F we e ocused on exe cise, physical aining, spo s and a hle ics. Du ing he same pe iod, a Chinese pe spec i e was p o ided by Zhang [ 28 ] ha di ided he na ional spo s indus y in o h ee s ages: explo a o y (1978–1992), o ma i e (1993–1996) and de elopmen al (1997-p esen ). The ex apola ed s udies also ocus on ‘No dic’ miles ones o he i ness indus y, om a wide ange o iew, om he beginning [ 16 ] o he la e hal o he 20 h cen u y [ 29 ]. The i s s udy add esses he in oduc ion o gymnas ics as a subjec in he No wegian school sys em. The ooms alloca ion and he choice o equipmen s we e used as ins umen s o o m pupils’ bodies and minds. The equipmen s al eady included we e: climbing ibs (less han 100-cm-wide sec ions), opes, ope ladde s, ladde s, ne ladde s, beams, aul ing ho ses, box ho ses, bucks, sp ingboa ds, cushions, balls, jump opes and ma s. In con as o Cen al Eu ope p o ided e sion [ 1 ], hese equipmen s mus ne e ans o m gymnas ics in o ac oba ics and ‘ci cum-like’ condi ions. The second publica ion [ 29 ] conside able a en ion o he de elopmen and o ganisa ion o i ness exe cise inside he Scandina ian Peninsula (Denma k, No way and Sweden). This con ibu ion b ings o he ac ualised ision o he ac i i y o ms included in o -p o i i ness in h ee main ypes: (1) indi idual aining s udios, wi h a a ie y o physical-ameni ies, aimed a s eng hening speci ic body segmen s; (2) g oup-based ainings (ae obic ca dio-wo ks, e c.) ocused on ca dio espi a o y endu ance; and (3) elaxa ion exe cises, no always human-p oduc ela ed, ha include a a ie y o wellness concep s and app oaches. These his o ical oo s and miles ones b ing i ness equipmen o he ‘mode n e a’ o he i ness indus y. 3.2. C ea ion S ages The i s s ep, in he mode n age o he i ness indus y is, undoub edly, gi en by he phases needed o gene a e, om a ce o o basic le el, a new piece o aining sys em, o almos de ine he c ea ion s ages in wha al eady exis s in he cu en socie y (Appendices Aand B). The e is e idence ha mul i-sec o ial eamwo k is a he ounda ion o daily li e manu ac u ing indus ies [ 30 ]. Biomedical mechanics, manu ac u ing and design enginee s, IT specialis s and human body p ac i ione s ac in unison. Coun ies a ound he wo ld ypically di ide special Appl. Sci. 2020,10, 1534 8 o 19 wo kou equipmen s in o ou c ea ion ca ego ies: (1) hyd aulic, (2) elec ic/elec omagne ic damping, (3) pneuma ic and (4) g a i y-mechanical. Always du ing he concep c ea ion, in ela ion o he p ocedu es h ough which is no mally o ope a e inside an en e p ise, ano he classi ica ion o p oduc s is p o ided by Fu [ 14 ] ha di ide equipmen be ween oxygen and ae obic. Cu en ly, i is ha d o mee he i ness needs o mode n people wi h ‘ adi ional’ appa a us so bo h domes ic and in e na ional en i ies ha e begun o explo e mo e ‘in elligen ’ i ness equipmen . These ca ego ies o machines can collec physiological pa ame e s and p o iding a wide a ie y o ela ed unc ions ( i ual channels, explana o y ideos, e c.), measu e he size o ejec ion o ces, and p o ide quan i ied aining use ul o bo h aine s and ainees [30]. P oduc s ypically ollow a cycle o in oduc ion, g ow h, ma u i y, decline and e mina ion [ 31 ]. The H&F indus y is in he ea ly ma u i y phase o he sec o li e-cycle. In his ega d, Williams e al. [ 32 ] unde line ha i is no always easy, depending on he magni ude o he eali y in ques ion, o acqui e ‘Top o Mind Awa eness’ (TOMA) in po en ial u u e cus ome s. The e a e h ee p ima y easons why b and awa eness is a componen o b and ‘equi y’: o inc ease cus ome conside a ion, c ea e e ec i e decision-making and in luence he b and associa ion’s (p oduc and/o se ice) o ma ion. As a i med by wo s udies [ 33 , 34 ], manu ac u ing indus ies also need o ake in o accoun a iables ela ed o he inal ope a o s, use s and acili ies in which hey, egula ly, a e pu chased. Be ween hese, he e a e sa e y p ac ices connec ed o he ha dwa e’s layou s, wi h ope a ing p ocedu es and condi ions equi ed o co ec ly apply p oduc s in heal h cen es. The ou o e all ac o s included in he analysis a e he en e p ise’s guidelines o sa e ope a ions: (1) he impo ance o spaces o hypo he ical haza ds, (2) possible ba ie s o people wi h physical disabili ies, (3) obs acles o s ai s o ‘ge inside’ he machine and (4) he challenge o c ea ing speci ic new i ness equipmen (supposedly he ha des opic) ha does no con adic he p e ious poin s. Cu en ecommenda ions a i m ha i ness gyms and p i a e heal h clubs a e an ou s anding global business, bu new ‘ ends’ such as anchising chains, and speci ic-en i onmen wo kou spaces a e he new on ie s o p oduc c ea ion aimed a inal pu chase and consolida ion [5]. 3.3. P oduc Fea u es The li e a u e sugges s a di ec connec ion among all a iables ha de ine, ca alogue and di ide i ness equipmen s in he elec onic da abases in he pas decades. Since he beginning o he 21s cen u y, i has become e iden ha he e a e ew di e ences among he main bodies o he p oduc s (indexed o each single sub-ca ego y), b ands and ma ke ing p omo ions [ 35 ]. The ba ie s o en e ing and wi hd awing in he ades become bigge , and he poin o iew o he indus ial o ganisa ion ( om heo y o he p ac ice) plays a key ole. The size and mass o he de ices a e impo an pa ame e s [ 36 ], as well as o he pa ame e s analysed in he li e a u e (Appendices Aand B). Nume ous s udies ocus on he indispensable physiological, an h opome ic and biomechanical pa adigms [ 37 ]. H&F de ices ha e wide applica ion: labo a o ies, aining cen es, compe i i e con ex s, e c. These a e he easons why hese body- ela ed ac o s a e de ined as basic knowledge in he ield. The e sa ili y, o a p oduc designed wi h e gonomic c i e ia, indica es hypo he ically high le els o usabili y. As seen in he isiona y app oach o Reilly and Thomas [ 38 ], he man-machine in e ace needs an h opome ic da a o gi e co ec esponses o he use s who in e ace wi h i . Physiological me hods and ime-mo ion analysis ha e also been e alua ed as ele an a iables. S a ing om e gonomic easons, and s ill ela ed o mul i unc ional applicabili y, he deg ees o eedom o he ameni y is de ined as impo an including he ehabili a ion ac i e phases [39]. Simila ly, o biomechanics, lexibili y conce ns s udies do no di ec ly ela e o he ma e ial sciences, bu a he o he adap able meaning o he wo d. Scien i ic e idence unde lines he impo ance o i s e ec s and he abili y o be used in a ious con ex s [ 1 , 40 ]. S ill, muscle s eng hening, ac ions (concen ic, eccen ic, e c.), eac ions, he a ie y o speeds o con ac ions and muscle ec ui men s and all he ela ions wi h bone concep s ha e been assessed, h ough selec ed de ices, by a ious au ho s e iewed [ 36 – 38 , 40 , 41 ]. The ini ial compa ison is o en ela ed o exe cises ca ied ou wi h ee Appl. Sci. 2020,10, 1534 9 o 19 weigh s and, as a mo e gene ic de ini ion p o ided, he wo kou agains sup a-no mal loads. Findings e eal ha non-elec ically powe ed, ye ‘g a i y-independen ’ equipmen , has simila ea u es o ‘ adi ional’ equipmen known o be e ec i e in p oducing he desi ed physiological esponses [41]. In ela ion o he p e ious ea u e lis ed, he quali y o usabili y is men ioned in some s udies [ 29 , 33 , 38 , 42 , 43 ]. The main opics highligh he impo ance o he inal use guidelines and esponse ypes, depending on he ype o cus ome (la ely including senio ca ego ies) and he ope a i e capaci ies when a moni o o display is included in he physical ameni y. O he quali y a iables ea ed include he educa ional aspec s o H&F p o essionals, add essing, o example, he applica ion a iables needed o make he mos o he selec ed p oduc s om each manu ac u e in hei own con ex (o e all popula ion, popula ion pe km2, a ea in km2, pene a ion a es, e c.). Fi e addi ional angible quali y pa ame e s ha e been men ioned in mos e alua ed publica ions in ela ion o exis ing p oduc s: (1) a ac i eness [ 4 , 38 ], (2) e iciency [ 17 , 43 ], (3) high quali y and expe ienced design con ol [ 1 , 4 , 42 ], (4) unc ional and p ac ical linea i y [ 1 , 38 ] and (5) special y and cos [ 30 ]. Addi ionally, h ee in angible aspec s eme ged: (1) bene icial [ 17 ], (2) engagemen and (3) ‘magic momen s’ du ing e e y use o he i ness appa a us [4]. The analysis con inues wi h he en i onmen al pa ame e s in which he p oduc s need o be placed and begins wi h a sou ce e alua ion [ 36 ]. The su ounding s uc u e o he ex e nal en i onmen is no a ec ed h ough unnecessa y noise o induced ib a ions, especially when he e alua ed equipmen does no ha e a mechanical sys em included in he ha dwa e pa s. These aspec s could indica e he insecu i y o he p oduc and cause subo dina ed issues ela ed o he inc ease o empe a u e, humidi y and ligh ing ib a ions [42]. Aside om being one o he mos discussed opics, sec o al p o ide s al eady know he impo ance o he o e all sa e y and haza d p e en ion ela ed o he physicali y o he equipmen s which is no undamen al only o he heal h ca e and ehabili a ion applicabili ies, bu also o he en i e popula ion who daily uses he p oduc s [ 44 ]. Many s udies add ess his opic o he machines inal ea u es [ 1 , 17 , 30 , 33 , 38 , 39 , 43 ]. E alua ions began om p e en i e ac s o a oid hu s and join inju ies du ing u ilisa ion, un il ouch he com o in c ea ing a sa e i ness ‘expe ience’. 3.4. Inno a ion Pa hs I is widely accep ed ha c ea ing quali y p oduc s and se ices equi e a well- ained and skilled wo k o ce, business s a egies and poly unc ional abili ies ha gi e momen um o he i ness indus y inno a ion [ 45 ]. The ac o o success ul inno a ion is no exac ly he same o e e y company [ 46 ]. So ing and analysing he indi idual cases can se e as a basis o e e ence and ac as a guidepos o o he companies in simila indus ies du ing hei business de elopmen . Subsequen ly, i is possible o s eng hen he en e p ise’s capaci y in o de o accele a e p ocess inno a ion, educe dependence on o he economies and de elop ma ke ing b and s a egies o p omo e and gene a e mo e added alues [28]. To c ea e an a ac i e i ness b and, an en e p ise does no necessa ily need inno a ion p oduc s o se ices, bu some hing, o someone, wi h pe sonali y and he igh p epa a ion o gi e i ali y o he b and [ 12 ]. Since quali y o li e is ising cons an ly, he i ness indus y has de eloped quickly due o he high demand wo ldwide [ 47 ]. A lack o inno a ion, in addi ion o o he ela ed ac o s, such as p oduc esea ch and echnical de elopmen , could es ic he numbe o membe s which pa icipa e o he deli e ed cou se o se ice p ac ices [ 48 ]. The inno a ion ac i i y o a sec o al ade (p ocedu e inpu s/p ocesses ou pu s) is sepa a ed in o h ee phases: mo i a ion, p ocess and pe o mance [ 46 ]. Th ough hese s ages, he en e p ise’s compe i i e ad an ages and e iciencies can be clea ly seen. Thi y yea s ago, Dibble [ 15 ] made an obse a ion ha ep esen s he cu en eali y and could be w i en oday wi h an eye o he u u e (p. 74): “The i ness indus y is a om exhaus ed [ . . . ] manu ac u e s seem aking a a ional and scien i ic app oach in designing he nex gene a ion o i ness equipmen [ . . . ] no sa is ied wi h simple muscula o ca dio ascula imp o emen s hey a e aking s eps owa d an in elligen wo kou ha Appl. Sci. 2020,10, 1534 16 o 19 IT and i ual eali y Yuan e al. (2009), Long e al. (2009), Wang and Su (2012), Pa iainen (2011a) Linea i y Reilly and Thomas (1978), an Hil oo de (2008) Sa e y and com o p ac ices Bu on and Hu man (2007), Kennedy-A mb us e e al. (2011), Lee (2008), Pa o (1996), Reilly and Lees (1984), Reilly and Thomas (1978), Sekendiz e al. (2016), Teng e al. (2014), an Hil oo de (2008), Wang and Gao (2013), Yoon and Ahn (2015) Size and mass (s uc u e) Da is and Da is (2012), Long e al. (2009) Sou ce ype and ene gy s o age Da is and Da is (2012), Wang and Su (2012) Tempe a u e, humidi y and ligh Wang and Gao (2013) Appendix B Resume o Selec ed A icles on Induced and T ansmi ed Use ’s E ec s Use E ec s (Induced o T ansmi ed) Au ho /s (Yea ) A ac i i y Pa iainen (2011a), Reilly and Thomas (1978) Bene icial Kennedy-A mb us e e al. (2011) E iciency Kennedy-A mb us e e al. (2011), Yoon and Ahn (2015) Engagemen Annesi and Mazas (1997), Pa iainen (2011a) Enjoymen Dibble (1989), Mes e e al. (2011) In e ac ion (on a endance) Annesi and Mazas (1997), Dibble (1989), Mes e e al. (2011) In ol emen (on adhe ence) Annesi and Mazas (1997), Mes e e al. (2011) Physical exhaus ion, egula ed compe i ion and e i aliza ion Annesi and Mazas (1997) Appendix C Resume o Selec ed A icles on Named Companies (o Se ices) on Geog aphic Basis Au ho s (Yea ) Coun y Named Company/Ies o Wo kou Concep s Annesi and Mazas (1997) US DiamondBack Fi ness, Tec ix Be g and Tesch (1998) Sweden Flywheel Bu on and Hu man (2007) US Concep 2, Cybex In e na ional Inc., Fi Linxx, Li e Fi ness (B unswick Co p.) Dai (2014) Japan Asics, Mizuno Dibble (1989) US Bel on, Cybex In e na ional Inc., Hyd a-Fi ness (Hyd a-Gym A hle ics), Li e Fi ness (B unswick Co p.), Nau ilus Inc., P eco Inc., Reebok, S ai Mas e (Randal Spo /Medical), Uni e sal Kang e al. (2013) Sou h Ko ea Biodex Inc. Kennedy-A mb us e e al. (2011) US Johnson Heal h Tech. Co., L d. (Ma ix b anch) McCo mack (1999) UK No dicT ack Pa iainen (2011a) Finland Les Mills In . Pa iainen (2011b) Finland Pu kis o’s Me hod (s e ching, pila es and ace school) Reilly and Lees (1984) UK Cybex In e na ional Inc. 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