Le Corbusier’s urbanism: An urban characterisation of his proposals for inner cities

RESEARCH ARTICLE Le Corbusier’s urbanism: An urban characterisation of his proposals for inner cities Juan-Andre ´s Rodrı ´ guez-Lora*, Daniel Navas-Carrillo, Marı ´ a Teresa Pe ´rez-Cano Heritage and Territorial Urban Development in Andalusia, School of Architecture, University of Seville, Seville, Spain Received 28 January 2021; received in revised form 8 May 2021; accepted 14 May 2021 KEYWORDS Cities; Modern city; Twentieth century; Urbanism; Plan voisin Abstract Le Corbusier’s urbanism is routinely met with a backlash of criticism, which often overlooks the complexity of his work. There is a tendency to focus on the characteristics of his proposal for Paris in 1925 or on the ideas of CIAM’s Athens Charter. However, such affirmations ignore the conceptual and qualitative evolution of his urban proposals. In this sense, the research hypothesis is that Corbusian urban models go beyond the Plan Voisin, diffused by urban planning theories as the unique paradigm of his urban ideas. Through analysis and characterisation of the inner-city urban plans of Le Corbusier, this report seeks to demonstrate the existence of other models and compares them to those often showcased in the partial examination of Le Corbusier’s urbanism. The following parameters will be analysed: (1) population densities and areas for (2) buildings, (3) vehicles, and (4) pedestrians. The results of this research indicate the need to parameterise and analyse Le Corbusier’s cities beyond a single case to demonstrate the diversity and evolution of his urbanistic work. This process seeks to dissipate the common view that falsely extrapolates ideas of his urban planning, largely that of his first proposal, for Paris. ª2021 Higher Education Press Limited Company. Publishing services by Elsevier B.V. on behalf of KeAi Communications Co. Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/). * Corresponding author. E-mail address: [email protected] (J.-A. Rodrı ´guez-Lora). Peer review under responsibility of Southeast University. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foar.2021.05.002 2095-2635/ª2021 Higher Education Press Limited Company. Publishing services by Elsevier B.V. on behalf of KeAi Communications Co. Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/). Available online at www.sciencedirect.com ScienceDirect journal homepage: www.keaipublishing.com/foar Frontiers of Architectural Research 10 (2021) 701e714 1. Introduction Le Corbusier’s work and the man himself (1887e1965) are internationally recognised, and the impact he made during his lifetime continues to have an influence on the present day. As a result of his incursion into a variety of fields and subject matter, research into his proposals remains relevant and open to reinterpretation. In this respect, the aforementioned international importance and influence of his work that occurred during the twentieth century have been acknowledged by the inclusion of at least part of his work on the List of UNESCO World Heritage Sites (2016). A total of 17 architectural works became a part of the list in 2016, and the preservation of these constructions became of international interest and made them the heritage of society as a whole. Among the selected works, some are located in the Chandigarh Capitol Complex (India), the only city of Le Corbusier to be built and a case study in this research. Le Corbusier’s architectural work is among his main achievements. Nevertheless, the diversity of disciplines undertaken by him goes beyond architecture, and an example of this is grouped under the concept of “synthesis of the arts” (Calatrava et al., 2020: 8). In addition to amplifying his reputation as an architect, he enjoyed production on a grand scale as an urban planner, with a repertoire of more than twenty projects; and as a plastic artist. Paintings using different techniques, sculptures, and tapestries were the worthiest of note. He also created furniture, in addition to being a writer and theoretician of material that spans almost his entire career. A large proportion has been collected and is now in the Fondation Le Corbusier in Paris. Le Corbusier was such an interdisciplinary figure that a number of different aspects are combined in his works. One side is sometimes inseparable from the others. Therefore, regarding urban planning, it is crucial to understand the urban-theoretical formula that characterises him: “It is not possible to separate the texts that Le Corbusier dedicated to urbanism from that of the rest of his professional career” (Barbarin and Luque, 2004: 555). When investigating the origins of the Fondation Le Corbusier, it could be inferred that the architect-urban planner did not want to leave anything to chance. Therefore, before his passing, Le Corbusier could already be found designing and laying the groundwork for a site in which the materials produced throughout his career would reside, as implied by a text summarising the history of the foundation (Fondation Le Corbusier, n.d.). Currently, it is the most important source of information for his work and the place researchers go in order to pick apart the intricacies surrounding each of his works. Consequently, the Fondation Le Corbusier constitutes an essential part of this research. Its digital archive lends itself to the consultation of image documentation for each city under analysis. Among all the disciplines undertaken by the Swiss- French master, this research is focused on urban planning. The general assumption is that Le Corbusier’s urban contributions were based on a series of parameters and characteristics repeated in each proposal throughout his career. This assumption is invariably supported by past and present publications, focusing primarily on the 1925 Plan Voisin for Paris (Colmenares, 2019: 67; Kunzig, 2019: 27; Sennett, 2019). The recurrent use of this proposal results from its contribution to modern urban planning and the concepts taken from the Athens Charter in 1933 (Le Corbusier, 1943). A tendency to address his urban proposals via only a small selection of his works has been a constant in architecture reference books worldwide, old and new, in which urban issues are covered at large. Publications such as Historia crı ´ tica de la arquitectura moderna (Frampton, 2009) and Historia de la Arquitectura Moderna (Zevi, 1954) tend to focus on his designs for La Ville Contemporaine de trois millions d’habitants and La Ville Radieuse, as well as realised projects such as the aforementioned Plan Voisin and that of Chandigarh. The descriptions given are only brief. In this regard, Kenneth Frampton’s position on the matter is worth highlighting: he acknowledges “the other Le Corbusier”, that is, looking beyond his initial link to purism-mechanisation, which he cut ties with at the beginning of the 1930s (Frampton, 1987: 30). Richard Sennett points out the evolution of Le Corbusier’s urban projects in similar terms. He highlighted the notable differences between the Plan Voisin and Chandigarh, which transcended “Le Corbusier’s earliest convictions and lack of experience” (Sennett, 2019: 104). Given this rationale and light of the incomplete interpretations of his work and the vagueness surrounding its context, there is a pressing need to address the projects and other such things that he undertook beyond his first years. In doing so, there is an advocation for overcoming and breaking away from preconceived ideas surrounding Le Corbusier (Sequeira, 2013: 5). Although the Plan Voisin and Chandigarh are the works addressed most often in the literature consulted, it should be noted that several of the cities proposed by Le Corbusier have undergone detailed analysis and been thoroughly researched. Indeed, some of them appear in publications by MoMa (Cohen (Coord.), 2013) and in the Spanish magazine AV Monografı ´ as 176 (Ferna ´ndez-Galiano (Dir.), 2015). In addition, it would appear that his Bogota proposal has experienced a remarkable level of analysis, namely, in the case of Marı ´a Cecilia O’Byrne’s research (2008,2018) and in that of Doris (Tarcho ´pulos Sierra, 2010). In terms of cross-sectional readings as a whole, Xavier Monteys’ doctoral thesis and subsequent publication La Gran Ma ´quina. La Ciudad en Le Corbusier (1996) stands out for already conducting such research and has been an essential bibliographical source for developing this research. However, its focus is mainly historiographic. It is written in an essay style and is descriptive in nature, as acknowledged by the author in the synopsis. Therefore, the research hypothesis is that Corbusian urban models go beyond the Plan Voisin, diffused by urban planning theories as the unique paradigm of his urban ideas. J.-A. Rodrı ´guez-Lora, D. Navas-Carrillo and M.T. Pe ´rez-Cano 702 2. Objectives The partial insight into his work, based on the examination of only one of more than twenty urban projects developed over the course of his career, contributes to an incomplete understanding of Le Corbusier’s urbanism. Moreover, it is usually paired with a lack of knowledge regarding a contextual analysis or an objective characterisation using urban parameters. The need to conduct in-depth studies to better understand his work’s vicissitudes is all too often ignored. Consequently, this research does nothing more than perpetuate preconceived ideas. Considering the importance of analysing the context in which the urban planning proposals were made, it is regarded as equally important to address his work as a whole where possible. Therefore, this proposal conducts holistic natured research to demonstrate the significant evolution experienced by Le Corbusier (Rodrı ´guez-Lora et al., 2020). Thus, the main objective of the research is to characterise and parametrise a group of Le Corbusier’s cities to highlight the diversity of his work. The study sample is composed of Le Corbusier’s urban planning proposals featuring inner cities (Table 1,Fig. 1,Fig. 2). In contrast to those located on the coast, the various urban dynamics of these cities were crucial to creating the sample analysis. They also allow us to include his first proposal for Paris and Chandigarh, his only build. Furthermore, the proposed parameterisation seeks to demonstrate the need for broader analyses of his work, to highlight the conceptual evolution of his urban planning over time, and to try to overcome preconceived ideas about Corbusian urbanism. 3. Research method This research was structured around three consecutive and interrelated phases. Therefore, the methodology focused in particular on obtaining data intended for the characterisation and parameterisation of the cities in the study. Therefore, the variables selected for the analysis are as follows: demography (inhabitants and density), areas for use (residential/other), built-up areas, and areas for mobility (pedestrianized areas/footpaths/roads). First, a bibliographic and planimetric search was conducted in order to generate the database used in the research. Once the group of cities that composed the study sample was determined, it was then necessary to obtain a new bibliography and planimeter for each of them for their future characterisation. In order to proceed with the task at hand, an examination of the research and publications by various authors was conducted; and the bibliographical sources and documents considered essential or of the highest interest, with a focus on the study of Le Corbusier’s urban planning profile, were in turn selected and examined. The previously mentioned La Gran Ma ´quina. La ciudad en Le Corbusier by Xavier Monteys (1996) stands out in particular for its combination of all of the architect’s urban projects in different stages. Likewise, numerical data of the Plan Director de Bogota ´ (LC08) were obtained consulting the plan’s records, recovered from Le Corbusier in Bogota ´, 1947e1951. Anexos (O’Byrne Orozco (Coord.), 2008). The consultation of documents produced by Le Corbusier himself was indispensable. Data were obtained from three of the books from the Le Corbusier et Pierre Jeanneret. Oeuvre Comple `te works d1938-1946 (Boesiger (Ed.), 1995), 1946e1952 (Boesiger (Ed.), 1995a) and 1952e1957 (Boesiger (Ed.), 1995b)das well as from the publication La Ville Radieuse (Le Corbusier, 1964). Equally, the Fondation Le Corbusier digital archive, which has allowed downloading the designs from the architect’s studio, proved another indispensable component in the process. Using this tool, incomplete areas of the numerical data obtained from the bibliography could be completed planimetrically using graphical estimations. In the second phase, the planimeters of each city were redrawn using CAD in order to obtain more data. Once the informationnecessarytocompletethedatabaseinthe first phase had been identified, in order to be able to obtain data on surface areas, the selected cities were redrawn based on the planimeters acquired from the Xavier Monteys’ document (1996)andtheFondation Le Corbusier. Thesoftwarewasusedtoscaleeachoftheplansandto draw each of their elements so that the surface areas could be calculated. The calculations drawn from specific areas allowed the surface areas for each of the uses to be obtained. Finally, in the third phase, graphs were developed to enable cross-referencing. Thus, through graphical representation of the numerical data recorded throughout the research, the similarities and divergences present throughout the entire analysed sample are demonstrated. Therefore, the decision was made to use linear graphs set over a timeline that shows the trajectory and characteristics of the cities. The clear display of the varying cities in this particular representation allows for crosssectional examination that sheds light on the complexity of Le Corbusier’s urban development beyond examining the plans in isolation. Table 1 Selection of cities for the study. Source: own production. Code Year City Country LC01 1925 Paris France LC02 1933 Geneva Switzerland LC03 1933 Antwerp Belgium LC04 1935 Zlin Czech Republic LC05 1935 Hellocourt France LC06 1945 Saint-Die ´France LC07 1945 Saint-Gaudens France LC08 1950 Bogota Colombia LC09 1950 Chandigarh India LC10 1955 Meaux France LC11 1958 Berlin Germany Frontiers of Architectural Research 10 (2021) 701e714 703 4. Findings 4.1. Inhabitants in Le Corbusier’s cities Le Corbusier worked on multiple urban scales, not only in terms of surface area but also in terms of population numbers to be considered in each case. This alone gives an idea of the divergent magnitude of the study sample, which ranges from projects for capital cities to others of minor importance or on a much smaller scale. It also includes limited contributions made within larger cities, as in the case of Geneva (LC02). The range of inhabitants (Fig. 3) varies from 5000 for Saint-Gaudens (LC07) to 500,000 in the case of Antwerp (LC03). Cases such as Zlin (LC04), which has the second-largest population in the sample at 290,000, and other groups slightly below this, at approximately 150,000e200,000, which include Berlin (LC11) and the first phase of Chandigarh (LC09), are between these two ranges. The Plan Voisin for Paris (LC01), with approximately 78,000 inhabitants, and the portion analysed from Bogota (LC08), with 64,000 inhabitants, are in intermediate positions. Below that are Hellocourt (LC05) and Meaux (LC10), with slightly above 30,000 inhabitants. Finally, close to the minimum are Saint- Fig. 1 Representation of the cities in the study on the same scale (LC01 to LC04). Source: own production. J.-A. Rodrı ´guez-Lora, D. Navas-Carrillo and M.T. Pe ´rez-Cano 704 Gaudens (LC07), Saint-Die ´(LC06), with approximately 12,800 inhabitants and the analysed portion of Geneva (LC02) with 9000. To relate the population data with the surface area of the proposals, population densities were calculated and estimated in terms of inhabitants per hectare (Fig. 4). Fig. 2 Representation of the cities in the study on the same scale (LC05 to LC11). Source: own production. Fig. 3 Inhabitants of the cities analysed. Source: own production. Frontiers of Architectural Research 10 (2021) 701e714 705 It should also be noted that several of the density figures were obtained with the aid of graphic estimation according to the type of building, the surface area allocated per inhabitant by Le Corbusier in each phase, and/or data sourced from the corresponding bibliography. Despite being composed of different sources, this case intends to review the evolution of the urban parameter of density throughout its trajectory. Finally, it is essential to note that research considers the differentiation of densities according to whether the cases are exclusively residential areas or the entire proposal, regardless of the general use. This is represented in two levels or layers of densities for each graph and analysis (Fig. 4): residential (grey) and complete (black). After a thorough reading of the documentation and books written by Le Corbusier himself, it is clear that one of his strategies when planning the modern city was densification, aiming to achieve it through building height. This was the case in his earliest projects and made more evident by his proposals for the Ville Contemporaine, his plan for Paris and the Ville Radieuse. This commitment to densification was a reinterpretation of the garden city. That is, he considered a greater integration of nature and vegetation alongside the built environment to be the ideal: “Live! (Breathing) We must do away with the suburbs and bring nature into the cities” (Le Corbusier, 1964: 104). However, he rejected the idea of placement in the periphery and low density because of the land consumption it required and an increase in displacement. Proposals for high buildings with a free floor plan for pedestrians and the buildings integrated in the city centre instead of in the periphery emerged from this analysis. Thus, the Plan Voisin (LC01) serves as a clear example of developing such concepts in their initial stages. Its characterisation demonstrates that the proposed number of inhabitants was approximately 300 inhab./ha for the predominantly residential areas, and it was almost half that for the complete proposal: 147 inhab./ha. The redensification proposals are especially visible in his design for the Ville Radieuse, which proposes a higher density level than was usually seen in city centres, doubling it even: “Thousand per hectare instead of 400e500” (Le Corbusier, 1964: 110). Thus, a substantial increase can be seen in the first two cities where this design is applied to a greater extent, Geneva (LC02) and Antwerp (LC03), reaching 1000 inhab./ha, according to the book La Ville Radieuse. This increase compared with the rest of the sample can also be identified in the Ville Verte plan, where the redent layout is proposed. It should be noted that among the Corbusian proposals analysed, this kind of density was not repeated until his last project, which was submitted in the competition for Berlin (LC11), where he revived levels of densities similar to those proposed for the Ville Radieuse. A decrease in density can be seen in the proposal for Zlin in 1935 (LC04), being approximately coetaneous to Geneva (1932) and Antwerp (1933). Nevertheless, it remained at a higher level than that of Paris, in this case, duplicating his initial proposal. In Zlin, where a design change was made, more akin to the linear city, Le Corbusier chose a density of 624 inhab./ ha for residential areas and 276 inhab./ha for the complete area, showing the duplication of the French city, but with levels of approximately 62% of the immediately preceding plans. The downward trend is strengthened in the following three cities analysed, Hellocourt (LC05), Saint-Die ´(LC06) and Saint-Gaudens (LC07), which show populations on a medium-low scale. This casuistry can be observed in three cities where three different models are applied (Ville Radieuse, CIAM, and Ciudad Lineal Industrial), with a decade separating the Hellocourt proposal from that of Saint-Gaudens. The latter has the lowest density of the sample for the complete urban area, 45 inhab./ha; and the second lowest values of this subgroup with 145 inhab./ha. The density values for the other two cities are as follows: Saint-Die ´shows densities of 142 inhab./ha (the lowest value of the compared trio) for the residential area and 122 inhab./ha for the complete area. Hellocourt has a density of 177 inhab./ha for the residential area and 65 inhab./ha for the entire zone. However, this trend increases in the Bogota Master Plan (LC08), the first city in the sample where the 7 V model is applied, increasing the density to the levels in the proposal Fig. 4 Densities of the cities analysed (inhab./ha). Source: own production. J.-A. Rodrı ´guez-Lora, D. Navas-Carrillo and M.T. Pe ´rez-Cano 706 for Zlin (LC04). The data for this city stand at 582 inhab./ha for the residential area and 272 inhab./ha for the complete area proposed. A comparison between the densities proposed for Bogota (LC08) and Chandigarh (LC09) shows the adaptability of the models, even in projects conducted almost simultaneously (around the 1950s) and having the intention of catering to two very different contexts, America and Asia. However, both cities enjoyed high levels of institutional representation due to their capital status. Regarding Chandigarh (LC09), there is a return to the density levels that characterise the downward trend shown from the mid-1930s onwards. It is worth noting the similarity in densities, both in residential areas and when considering the rest of the city. This convergence demonstrates a greater variety of uses intended in the case of the Indian city, where the data almost coincide. It includes 84 inhab./ha for the residential area versus 67 inhab./ha for the complete area. It should also be noted that these are the lowest numbers for the entire sample. The uniqueness of Chandigarh is evident in several ways, including the components and scale of the city, which is lower in height than any of the other cities analysed. Last, in the final stretch of his urban planning, there is a significant increase in density, especially in Berlin (LC11). The density of Meaux (LC10) reaches levels close tothoseofParis,with241inhab./haintheresidential area and 143 inhab./ha in the complete area. These data show an increase in, and rethinking of, the density in the modern city. In the case of Berlin, densities close to that of the Ville Radieuse are seen, approaching 1000 inhab./ ha. Based on the estimations, a density of 938 inhab./ha in the residential area and 217 inhab./ha in the complete area was calculated, considering only the residential area ortheentirecity. 4.2. Surface areas AspartofthecharacterisationofLeCorbusier’surban projects, an analysis was made of the surface areas and their intended use in each of the proposals, highlighting the importance placed on predominantly residential use in the Corbusian city. The use of the surface area for nonresidential and tertiary buildings and elements appears on a lesser scale, although both urban functions are compatible. Nonresidential and tertiary uses will be referred to collectively as “others”. Likewise, the total percentages of built-up surface area in relation to open space, whether having been allocated to roadways or recreational areas, are also demonstrated. Next, all of the space not built upon was analysed, and the results showed how much of it was allocated to pedestrian movement and vehicle movement. The final analysis focuses on defining how much of the pedestrian space is concentrated on paths and walkways. The aim is to demonstrate how the networks of paths play agreaterorlesserroleineachcity,whichcitiesfeaturea network for pedestrian movement, and how cities’ pedestrian routes have the most negligible impact on open spaces. Last, it should be noted that all of the surface areas in question were obtained via graphic analysis and measurement. The first analysis (Fig. 5), which focuses on the total surface areas in use, shows that there is a tendency towards equal distribution, approximately 50% for residential use and similar in other uses. This tendency is especially clear in Le Corbusier’s initial urban proposals. Therefore, it can be seen in cities such as Paris (LC01), Geneva (LC02), Antwerp (LC03) and Zlin (LC04). Such tendencies and overall balance are only seen again in the case of Bogota (LC08), with 53.2% of the use allocated to “others”. The percentage allocated to other uses besides residential rises to 63.3%, going slightly higher than the 50% mark commonly seen in previous projects. A similar range, close to 60%, is seen in later proposals, such as Saint- Gaudens (LC07) with 68.6% allocated to “other”, Hellocourt with 63.3%, and Meaux (LC10) with 59.2%, though it is allocated to residential use. Berlin (LC11) has the highest value, with 76.9%. Besides, the greatest imbalances with respect to the indicated trend are found in Saint-Die ´(LC06), where 85.7% is allocated to residential use compared to an area of 14.3% for other uses; and in Chandigarh (LC09), with 79.1% and 20.9%, respectively. The second analysis focuses on the proportion of built elements in the form of buildings in relation to open space, consisting of roadways, areas allocated for pedestrian activity and green space. Ten cities in the sample have much lower percentages of built-up area than unbuilt area (Fig. 6), and four have an intermediate percentage of approximately 10% of built-up area. Below these are another four, the lowest being Hellocourt (LC05) at 2.6% built-up area. The highest of the ten are Meaux (LC10) and Geneva (LC02), which have the aforementioned 22% of built-up area. The only city proposal in which this does not occur is Chandigarh, where built-up areas amount to 63.2% of the total area proposed. Having characterised the presence of the open space in the Corbusian city, it is necessary to further analyse it by parameterising the allocated uses for its total surface area. Thus, as a third analysis in this section, the percentage of each city allocated exclusively for pedestrian use and road use is shown (Fig. 7). The importance of roads for the modern city is expressed by Le Corbusier himself in his publication of El urbanismo de los tres establecimientos humanos (Le Corbusier, 1964a: 37). The graph (Fig. 7) shows that the lowest percentage of the study sample is 9.5% in the case of Saint-Die ´(LC06). Four other cities have approximately the same proportion: Antwerp (LC03) and Berlin (LC11), with 11% and 11.1%, respectively; Saint-Gaudens (LC07) with 12.2%; and Meaux (LC10), with the highest in the grouping, with 15.5% of its surface area allocated to road use. At double the lowest figure is the plan for Zlin (LC04), with 20.3%; and Bogota (LC08) with 22.1%. The first two Frontiers of Architectural Research 10 (2021) 701e714 707 urban proposals analysed in this research are those that have the highest percentages. Both Paris (LC01) and Geneva (LC02) allocate 33.6% of their surface area to vehicle movement, highs which are not seen again until the proposal for Hellocourt (LC05), despite the roadway being a simplified closed circuit in the shape of an “8” with two linear bypasses leading away from it. The Chandigarh master plan (LC09) allocates the largest area to vehicle movement, with 33.8% of the open space allocated to it after deduction of all built-up areas. In terms of areas marked as being free of vehicle circulation, two uses of the space have been identified: one as a space for recreation and the other as a network of paths and pedestrian routes overlapping the road network. The importance of these urban walkways is not always equally considered, with them taking precedence in some cities more than others, as detailed below. It should be noted that, in the most extreme cases, potentially that of Paris (LC01) where paths are not proposed, there was a slight trend towards doing so after analysis of the Plan Voisin design. Although the network does not have a sufficient scope to be able to be defined as a pedestrian movement system, it could be that the movement is less guided than in other cases. In Chandigarh (LC09), however, the opposite is true. The large spaces are taken to be pathways because of the direction they take. Fig. 5 Percentage of surface areas allocated to residential use compared to other uses. Source: own production. Fig. 6 Percentage of built-up areas compared to open space. Source: own production. Fig. 7 Percentage of areas allocated to pedestrian and road use. Source: own production. J.-A. Rodrı ´guez-Lora, D. Navas-Carrillo and M.T. Pe ´rez-Cano 708 Without losing sight of the changes in surface area that the public space undergoes, it manages to accommodate recreational spaces while at the same time directing pedestrian movement. The analysis of the obtained parameterisation data of their characteristics shows the evolution of this pedestrian network’s importance throughout Le Corbusier’s active career as an urban planner (Fig. 8). Thus, starting from the 0% in Paris, Zlin (LC04) with 0.2% and Saint-Gaudens (LC07) with 1.4% are the cases that present the lowest percentages of his surface allocated to paths. These last two cities share the common factor that they are based on the Ciudad Lineal industrial model and that, together with the third in the sample based on this model, Meaux (LC10) with 5.2%, they emerge as those in which a pedestrian network is least important, alongside the aforementioned plan for Paris. Bogota should also be added to the list (LC08) at 5.7%. A little above those previously mentioned cities are Geneva (LC02) at 12.8%, Antwerp (LC03) at 12.2%, Saint-Die ´ (LC06) at 9.5%, and Berlin (LC11) at 10.7%. Their plans also have common factors in that they are all based on the same urban model. Even though paths appearing as a network are displayed clearly and with unquestionable prominence in the plans for the Ville Radieuse model, and especially in those of the Ville Verte, in the first two plans mentioned, this was not the case. This case contrasts with Hellocourt (LC05), which is also based on this model and had the second largest surface area of paths, 41.1% in total, in the sample studied. Saint-Die ´and Berlin, both designed under CIAM concepts, have approximately 10% of their surface allocated to paths. Finally, Chandigarh (LC09) stands out at the top of the sample, with 98.1%. It is the only urban project to exceed the 50% threshold. Regarding the total area allocated to public space per inhabitant, as the final analysis of this section, variations were noted across the studied trajectory, with cases that have values substantially exceeding those of others (Fig. 9). The lowest values are those seen in Geneva (LC02) and Antwerp (LC03), with 14.8 m 2 /inhab. and 16.5 m 2 /inhab., respectively. This similarity is reinforced by the proximity in time between both proposalsd1932 and 1933dand by both having been based on the same Ville Radieuse model. This is not the case for the other city based on the same model and developed a few years later, Hellocourt (LC05), with a profile closer to that of the “industrial green city” developed by Le Corbusier. The differences between the latter and the previous cases are substantial. Hellocourt allocates 111.5 m 2 /inhab., making it the city with the second-largest surface area per inhabitant allocated for pedestrians. The higher proportions are claimed by Zlin (LC04) with 28.9 m 2 /inhab., Bogota (LC08) with 28.6 m 2 /inhab., and Chandigarh (LC09) with 35.4 m 2 /inhab., despite being among the cities with the most space allocated to vehicles as opposed to pedestrians. The Plan Voisin is characterised by its proposal of a surface area of 45.1 m 2 /inhab., a figure that is not repeated until the end of Le Corbusier’s career as an urban Fig. 8 Percentages of surface areas allocated to generic pedestrian areas and to the network of paths and routes for pedestrian movement. Source: own production. Fig. 9 Public space (m2) per inhabitant in each city. Source: own production. Frontiers of Architectural Research 10 (2021) 701e714 709