The integrated maritime policy of the European Union in the context of the new oceanic paradigm

Abs ac The In eg a ed Ma i ime Policy (IMP) o he EU is included wi hin he new ma i ime policy ini ia i es a isen in he las yea s bo h in de eloped and de eloping coun ies. This a icle claims ha hese ini ia i es a e he espon- se o he new challenges in he oceanic domain. The IMP is he Eu opean answe o he new oceanic o de . In he global con ex , he IMP compe es wi h o he eme ging coun ies wi h dynamic economies, whose compe i i e- ness es s on no so igo ous social and en i onmen al s anda ds. On he o he hand, his a icle unde lines he impo ance o ma i ime policies o secu i y, as hey con ibu e o a be e go e nance o he oceanic domain which, o a g ea ex en , alls ou side he ju isdic ion o he S a es. In oduc ion A a global scale, oceans a e a aining an e e g owing p o agonis ole in he poli ical agenda, al hough no ye p opo ional o he o e all impo ance o ma ine basins in he wo ld and o he na u e o en i onmen al con lic s. These ci cums ances oughly coincide wi h he u n o he cen u y, which could he e o e be aken as he miles one which sepa a es wo isions o concep s o he oceans. The old pa adigm connec ed wi h he geog aphic disco e ies, he es ablishmen o colonial empi es, and he alliance be ween comme ce and na al powe s is gi ing way o a model based on compe i i e- ness, inno a ion and knowledge. This new ision implies a loss o s a egic in e es in he adi ional ac i i ies and a shi owa ds new echnologies, ene gy secu i y and global leade ship (Fig. 1). 2010] 27 THE INTEGRATED MARITIME POLICY OF THE EUROPEAN UNION IN THE CONTEXT OF THE NEW OCEANIC PARADIGM P o esso Juan Luis SUÁREZ DE VIVERO P o esso Juan Ca los RODRÍGUEZ MATEOS Uni e si y o Se illa, Human Geog aphy Depa men In his con ex ake place, and a e o be unde s ood, he ew bu impo an ini ia i es unde aken by a ious S a es, bo h de eloped and de eloping, om he beginning o he 90’s and mo e ex ensi ely since 2000. (Fig. 2). The ini ia- i es a e wide- anging: new s a egic isions, de elopmen o policies o new ocean laws wi h an in eg a ing spin, o he es ablishmen o new ins i u ions o he de elopmen o in eg a ed go e nance. In gene al e ms, hese s a e- gic, poli ical, legal and ins i u ional s uc u es a e aimed a unde s anding he new ole o he oceans and he way he S a es lean on he ma i ime domain o ace up new wo ld challenges. Fo he in e na ional communi y, he las decade o he 20 h cen u y — he UNCLOS was implemen ed in 1994— was he culmina ion o he mode n age o ma i ime adi ion whe eby he oceans a e conside ed as «commons», uled by he ma e libe um p inciple and a public ac ion which balances he di e ences among S a es. Thus, he «A ea» was decla ed a common he i age o mankind and he «Au ho i y» and he «En e p ise» we e es ablished. Bu , in u n, he UNCLOS ga e ise o ma i ime na ionalisms ex ending ju isdic ions and educing he common spaces: he high seas and he sea bo om. De eloped coun ies a e shaping a new ision o he oceans di e en om he 19 h cen u y na al ision; he en i onmen is now a key ac o (sus aina- bili y and egula ions based on ecosys ems), ood secu i y is eplaced by ene gy secu i y, and in e na ional leade ship is based on inno a ion, know- ledge and new echnologies a he han on he o me na al powe - ade expansion connec ion. De eloping coun ies, pa icula ly eme ging econo- mies o BRIC coun ies— B azil has o mula ed pionee ing poli ical p opo- sals —ha e de eloped a adi ional ma i ime hinking (Mahan e isi ed) in luenced by he huge impo ance o ma i ime comme ce in hei economies, he eno mous size o hei po acili ies, and he po en ial o he ma i ime e i o y and i s esou ces (ex ended con inen al shel ). Thei ma i ime p ojec is aimed a making up o pas sho ages and a he appea ance o a new need: o build up a mili a y na al powe . The Eu opean Union, wi h a ma i ime dimension o a plane a y scale (economic and e i o ial) has an in ica e ne wo k o ma i ime policies (Fig. 3). I s oceanic s a egic ision is being de eloped by he 2007 In eg a ed Ma i ime Policy, pe haps he mos ambi ious and mos ad anced policy in he in e na ional scene, based on a wide a ie y o EU social and en i onmen al p inciples and long ange s a egic goals. In such an in e na ionalised ealm as he ma i ime domain, he easibili y o he IMP is de e mined by Eu opean compe i i eness in on o na ions wi h a high bi h a e bu poo social and en i onmen al s anda ds. In his sense, he aim o his a icle is o o e some IMP pe spec i es in ela ion o: i) The ini ia i es de eloped by a g owing numbe o na ions; despi e being some commonali ies, he di e en models o economic and poli- ical de elopmen and he geopoli ical eadjus men o he in e na ional SUPLEMENTO REVISTA GENERAL DE MARINA 28 [Mayo communi y c ea e g ea di e ences in he cons uc ion o hese new public policies - an o e iew and in e p e a ion o he mos ele an policies is p o ided. ii) The s eng hs and weaknesses o he IMP in ela ion o he goals sough a e and he p inciples go e ning i . iii) The en i onmen whe e he IMP is o be implemen ed, cha ac e ised by a deep ans o ma ion o he main poli ical ac o s and in e na ional leade ship; he IMP mus be con on ed wi h he oceanic ision o i s majo compe i o s, he eme ging na ions. i ) The secu i y dimension linked o he IMP; his policy, by i s e y na u e, exceeds he EU amewo k and mus , demands o be conside ed ac oss he global oceans ( he high seas and he a ea) wi hin he con ex o mul ila e al coope- a ion. A signi ican pa o he secu i y a a global scale depends on an e ec- i e go e nance o he oceans, bu only a small pa o he in e na ional communi y ha e he asse s o en o ce i . Poli ical ini ia i es o ocean managemen : i s e olu ion The o mula ion and implemen a ion o ma ine policies is s ill a no el y. I s inse ion wi hin he go e nmen al poli ical agenda depends, o a g ea ex en , on he signi icance each na ion a aches o ma i ime issues, as well as he economic ele ance o he oceanic esou ces o hei socie ies and hei geopoli ical and geos a egic in e es s. Al hough he i s oceanic manage- men p ojec s da e om he la e 60’s (1) and ea ly 70’s (appea ance o he in eg a ed app oach, en i onmen al conce ns, i s na ional and in e na ional ag eemen s —Regional Seas P og amme and MARPOL Con en ion among o he —), i is in he 80’s and 90’s when wo main p ocesses ake place: he gene a ion o a new oceanic legal amewo k ( he UNCLOS) and he o mu- la ion o new policies acco ding o a new pa adigm based on sus ainabili y and go e nance (2). F om hose policies, new poli ical and legal o mulae eme ged in leading coun ies which could be e y well deemed as he spea - head o oceanic go e nance; hese included de eloped coun ies (Aus alia, Canada, Uni ed S a es) and some eme ging na ions (basically B azil, China and India). Aus alia showed as o he ea ly 80’s a deep conce n abou oceanic mana- gemen issues (3) and in 1998 ou lined Aus alia’s Oceans Policy (4); Cana- da, howe e , s a ed wi h a key judicial ins umen : he Oceans Ac o 1996 ollowed by he Oceans S a egy o 2002 (5). The Uni ed S a es has also shown in e es in ma i ime issues and he managemen o ma i ime spaces ( he Coas al Zone Managemen Ac o 1972 is a case in poin ) and has ecen ly passed he Oceans Ac o 2000 and a na ional oceanic policy (6) which deals wi h a wide a ie y o ma i ime aspec s, om managemen o conse a ion o ma ine esou ces, pollu ion, ma ine science suppo , comme - ce, anspo and, o cou se, he US leade ship ole in oceanic and coas al SUPLEMENTO REVISTA GENERAL DE MARINA 2010] 29 ac i i ies (7). The h ee coun ies sha e some in e es ing aspec s. Apa om hei size and, abo e all, he ex ensi e ma i ime zones unde hei espec i e ju isdic ions, hese coun ies ha e aced in he las decades many economic and en i onmen al challenges and an e e g owing esponsibili y in hei ma i ime spaces. Thus, he en i onmen al p o ec ion and he sus ainable use o he ocean, oge he wi h he p ese a ion o li ing ma ine esou ces, a e i al mo i a ions o he implemen a ion o na ional ma i ime policies. Those ini ia i es a e complemen ed by o he s om economically de eloped coun- ies such as New Zeeland (s ill a p ojec ), Japan ( he Basic Ac on Ocean Policy o 2007 and Basic Plan on Ocean Policy 2008), o F ance (Li e bleu. S a égie na ionale pou la me e les oceans, 2009) wi h solid planning and impo an legal o ins i u ional suppo . In less de eloped na ions, he si ua ions a e di e se and he e ogeneous. Some coun ies enac ed laws in he 80’s and 90’s like he Sou h Ko ean Ma ine De elopmen Basic Ac o 1987, and he Na ional Ma ine Policy o he Philippi- nes in 1994. O he na ions ha e joined he p ocess, no wi hou di icul ies (8), in la e da es; examples a e he Es a egia Ma í ima Nacional o Panama (2004), he Polí ica Nacional del Océano y de los Espacios Cos e os o Colom- bia (2007). The so called eme ging coun ies dese e a special men ion, as ea ly de elopmen s appea amongs hem ( he Polí ica Nacional pa a os Recu - sos do Ma o B azil (1980) and he 1982 Ocean Policy S a emen o India). The EU In eg a ed Ma i ime Policy: weaknesses and s eng hs The G een Book (2006), he Blue Book (2007) and he Ac ion Plan (2007) o he IMP es ablish as he main d i ing o ces o he ans o ma ion and de elopmen o he ma i ime ac i i ies he inno a ion, compe i i eness and knowledge, including aspec s such as quali y o li e in coas al a eas, go e - nance and ma i ime he i age (Fig 4) wi hin a public policy amewo k wi h he highes social and labou s anda ds among he in e na ional communi y. The Eu opean oceanic ision is, as a consequence, an op ion ha mus be made compa ible wi h he demand o compe i i eness (one o he easons which igge ed he IMP), e iciency, inno a ion and a p o ound eno a ion o he ma i ime sec o , which is a con adic ion in i s own e ms: globaliza ion and ad anced social p ac ices do no gi e he imp ession o being compa ible nowadays. I his app oach was ques ioned when o mula ed in 2007, he cu en inancial and economic c isis insinua es new doub s on i s easibili y. The IMP philosophy, igh ly connec ed o inno a ion, knowledge and echno- logical de elopmen s may esul in a pa adox: a he same ime ha hose elemen s a e an oppo uni y o eac i a e and guide ou economic sec o s (including new sou ces o ene gy), he need o new in es men s (9) may u n i un easible o , a leas , slow i down. SUPLEMENTO REVISTA GENERAL DE MARINA 30 [Mayo The EU IMP includes a se ies o ac ions (Ac ion Plan) which o e espon- ses o he g ea global challenges and hei epe cussion on he oceans (10). Mos ac ions a e no easible wi hou subs an ial in es men s, and he espon- ses o he p eca iousness o he labou ma ke and he deg ada ion o social policies, such as ein o cing he ma i ime ca ee s and he c ea ion o new labou models (and quali y employmen ) in he ma i ime sec o , mus be unde aken in an economic si ua ion domina ed by eme ging na ions. Na io- nal esponses like he ones con ained in he F ench Li e Bleu sugges ing a kind o e-na ionalisa ion o he me chan lee gi en he social and en i on- men al deg ada ion o he ma i ime sec o , hough pa o a b oade Eu ope- an e o , may ha e an unce ain ou come. The g ea challenge o he IMP is he e o e o econcile he social and en i onmen al p inciples wi h he demand o being compe i i e in a global scene spu ed on new economic, poli ical and ma i ime powe s. The IMP wi hin he global con ex : BRIC na ions as eme ging ma i ime powe s The Eu opean Union, hanks o i s ma i ime adi ion, economic in luence and ex ension (a ound 24 million squa e kilome e s) may be conside ed a ma i ime empi e (11), bu he global scena io is gi ing ise o new ac o s which challenge i s leade ship and he e y easibili y o he IMP, which will ha e o ake in o accoun he ision and ma i ime o ien a ion o he new compe i o s. The so-called eme ging na ions a e playing an impo an ole in he sphe- e o in e na ional ela ions and he managemen o he oceanic space. The needs de i ed om hei high economic g ow h a es and om he a eas o abjec po e y ha e condi ioned he ma i ime de elopmen o hese coun ies. I is especially no ewo hy he case o he BRIC na ions (B azil, Russia, India, China), which a e o mula ing ma i ime policies and na al s a egies aimed a acing he new en i onmen al, economic and secu i y challenges in e e la ge ju isdic ions. Excep in he case o Russia (12), which will p obably y o es o e i s los ma i ime capabili y as a g ea na al powe , he o he h ee (B azil, India and China), which ha e al eady made poli ical o mula ions applying o he ma i- ime spaces, sha e ce ain ea u es and y o es ablish ad-hoc ins i u ions and ules, and implemen policies in he ma i ime domain which may allow hem o acqui e a p o agonis ole which hey a e al eady assuming in economic and geopoli ical issues. In his way, en i onmen al challenges, he p o ec ion o sea lines o communica ion and he managemen o o sho e esou ces, a e impo an goals o he BRICS. The B azilian Polí ica Nacional pa a os Recu sos do Ma (amended in 2005) p oposed o unde line he goal o sus ai- SUPLEMENTO REVISTA GENERAL DE MARINA 2010] 31 nabili y o ma i ime ac i i ies and he a ainmen o social ela ed objec i es (like job c ea ion), complemen ing he goals o he Polí ica Ma í ima Nacio- nal o 1994 (de elopmen o a na ional ma i ime cul u e, a ionaliza ion and p o i in ma i ime ac i i ies, en i onmen al p o ec ion, and sa egua d o na ional ma i ime in e es s). The cu en Oceanic Policy o India, on i s pa , is also based on he sus ainable use o oceanic esou ces as a way o bene i socie y (13). The ou h o hese na ions, China, has ied o imple- men a sus ainable ma ine managemen egime om he 70’s on, coinciding wi h Deng Xiaoping’s economic e o ms and he c ea ion o i e Special Economic Zones in he coas . The se ious demog aphic, en i onmen al, ene gy (14) and na u al disas e s p e en ion p oblems in he sea-coas al sphe e (which had al eady pushed o he Na ional Ma ine De elopmen Plan, 1994) ha e inc eased, and demand new ins umen s (China Oceans Agenda 21, Whi e Book on he De elopmen o Chinese Ma ine Issues) o e icien esponses o economic de elopmen needs and imp o emen s in he quali y o li e and ma i ime en i onmen al issues which a e dange ously beginning o ge wo se. In any case, i is a ac ha he eme gence o hese powe s in he in e na- ional scene will esul in a geopoli ical and s a egic eshu le, a s ong compe i ion (comme cial, indus ial, na al) o he adi ional powe s and changes in he planning o he IMP. The EU will be o ced o compe e wi h na ions whe e economic challenges and he sea ch o in e na ional p es ige ha e mo e weigh han en i onmen al and social-labou issues (mo e “pe missi eness” in hese wo a eas may o ce he EU o ease he condi ions and es uc u e/adap i s ma i ime sec o s), and whe e a mo e na al app o- ach is g owing again; some hing ha he Eu opean secu i y a angemen s mus ake in o accoun (15). IMP and secu i y Secu i y is in insic o IMP bu wi h di e en angles; om de ence (which is exp essly excluded om his policy (16)) o ood secu i y (biodi e si y, and illegal, undecla ed o un egula ed ishing), bu wi h a i al co e a ound secu- i y in shipping (Eu opean Commission: Thi d Ma i ime Sa e y Package, 2009). All hose angles concu in one gene al ac ion: ocean go e nance (17). In his sense, he concep o secu i y is igh ly connec ed wi h ocean go e - nance in he sense ha powe and capabili y o en o ce i de e mine he easi- bili y o ma i ime economy, he wellbeing o he en i onmen , he egene a- ion o li ing esou ces, he exe cise o essen ial igh s as ee shipping and he access o o e seas a eas beyond na ional wa e s: igh s and du ies (S a es esponsibili y in he p o ec ion o common spaces) which demand uni e sal ules o enjoy hem and o sanc ion iola o s. To go e n 40 % o he plane SUPLEMENTO REVISTA GENERAL DE MARINA 32 [Mayo (18) made up o seas and oceans is a challenge he in e na ional communi y mus ace and is he main goal o ma i ime policies. In so a as na ional ma i ime policies include all e i o ial wa e s o a S a e up o he exclusi e economic zone o he ex e nal limi o i s con inen al pla o m beyond 200 miles, hey a e included wi hin he o eign ac ion o he S a e since na ional igh s and he igh s o hi d S a es concu in hose spaces. Fo his eason, oceanic issues ha e adi ionally been connec ed wi h he exclusi e ac ion o he cen al S a e. Al hough his is being modi ied by he poli ical decen alisa ion p ocess and by an inc easing use o he ma i ime spaces and hei esou ces (19), he ma i ime en i onmen is s ill being conside ed as a ansi ion e i o y ( om ull so e eign y exe cised o e land o a ee access space open o all na ions) whe e many challenges and isks come om. Fo he Eu opean Union and i s IMP his ci cums ance is conside ably wo sened since his poli ical en i y has he g ea es oceanic p ojec ion o all he in e na ional communi y. As a consequence, «… he IMP canno be limi ed o jus a Eu opean policy» (20). Besides, i is no only a policy which clea ly goes beyond he Eu opean con inen and ex ends whe e EU na ions ha e ju isdic ional wa e s, bu his policy and he EU ins i u ions ha e impo an esponsibili ies in he go e nance o spaces ou side he na io- nal ju isdic ion. And his is, no doub , a key secu i y issue: he con ibu ion o he go e nance o a la ge pa o he plane (40% o high seas and hei a eas). The ques ion o pi acy clea ly illus a es he each o one o he issues ha his esponsibili y should add ess, bu i is no he only one i we keep o he abo e men ioned documen , whe e he global oceanic challenges a e deal wi h (clima e change, biodi e si y, ma ine esou ces, shipping compe i- ion, na al shipbuilding and wo k egula ions o ma ine labou o ce). Wi h an in e na ional communi y which is mainly se up by S a es wi hou p ope asse s and capabili ies o in e ene in oceanic issues, he EU is pa o he limi ed g oup o poli ical en i ies which can exe cise he necessa y go e nan- ce o he oceans. The EU leade ship and i s secu i y a e linked o he ma i i- me domain (21). Ma i ime policies, as public policies gene a ed and implemen ed by he S a es, ha e an in e nal angle —managemen o spaces and esou ces unde na ional so e eign y— bu he e also exis s a o eign angle, since he S a es mus ace he managemen o wide ju isdic ional a eas which demands mo e esponsibili ies and obliga ions wi h a iew o he p ese a ion o esou ces and en i onmen al p o ec ion, and he secu i y and in eg i y o such spaces (which in u n equi es mo e in e na ional coope a ion). In so a as hey a e « o eign policies», ma i ime policies a e d a ed and implemen ed based on speci ic alues and expec a ions and hey ake in o accoun he exis ing in e - na ional eali y o each momen . Nowadays, he in e na ional poli ical agenda includes aspec s which a e e e mo e complex and in e dependen ; so much so ha i is impossible o so ou opics like con lic s, secu i y, economic SUPLEMENTO REVISTA GENERAL DE MARINA 2010] 33 globalisa ion and he ansna ional p og esses so cha ac e is ic o he global agenda (22). The mos accep ed discou se as ega ds o in e na ional ela- ions exceeds he s a e cen alised pe spec i e and con empla es ans-bo de and global ac s (23) (clea examples a e ma ine en i onmen al issues, mana- gemen o mig an li ing esou ces, and shipping), inco po a ing «low poli- ics» o he agenda (socio-economic issues, en i onmen ) al hough keeping ali e he geopoli ical conce ns o «high poli ics» (powe dis ibu ion, in e na- ional leade ship, asse s o he con ol and secu i y o na ional spaces) and, o cou se, he geo-economic conce ns. In all likeliness, he cu en oceanic policies and s a egies a e well adap ed o such an app oach. (Table 1). Pa adoxically, al hough secu i y and de ence issues a e no included in he IMP, i is in hose ields we e in e es ing ad ances a e being made. The e a e exis ing examples in he EU like he Eu opean Secu i y S a egy (24) whe e di e en ins i u ions and o ganisa ions ( he Spanish Ins i u e o S a egic S udies; Na al Wa a e College; EU Ins i u e o Secu i y S udies, e c) a e s i ing o assess he possibili ies o implemen ing speci ic mechanisms o p o ec ing he secu i y o spaces and ma i ime ac i i ies; su eillance and p o ec ion missions ha e al eady been ca ied ou success ully (ATALANTA ope a ion). In his way, he minis ies o De ence o he EU and hei espec i- es Na al S a s a e in line wi h wha o he na al o ces ha e been doing o some ime (25). In he coming yea s we may likely wi ness he o ma ion o , a leas , h ee main pilla s o he Eu opean oceanic managemen : an en i on- men al pilla (Ma ine S a egy); a poli ical pilla ( he IMP i sel ) and a secu- i y and de ence pilla (a na al secu i y s a egy?; an enhancemen and eo ien a ion o EUROMARFOR?) capable o acing wide- anging asks such as he p o ec ion o economic and echnological lows; en i onmen al p o ec- ion; bo de con ol ope a ions; o human elie (26) in ca as ophes, all in ha mony wi h a new and b oade concep o secu i y (27). (1) In 1996 he USA passed he Ma ine Resou ces and Enginee ing De elopmen Ac which, among o he s, es ablished he Commission on Ma ine Science, Enginee ing and Resou - ces —o S a on Commission—. This commission p esen ed in 1969 i s well known epo Ou Na ion and he Sea. (2) Fo an assessmen o he mos ecen e olu ion ega ding ocean Managemen see Smi h (1994) and Vallega (2001 a, 1-20, 2001 b). (3) This conce n appea s in legal ins umen s such as he O sho e Cons i u ional Se le- men (1979) o he Coas al Wa e s Ac (1980). (4) See Commonweal h o Aus alia (1998). (5) See Fishe ies and Oceans Canada (2002). (6) The US oceanic policy P ojec appea s in he epo An Ocean Bluep in o he 21s Cen u y (US Commission on Ocean Policy, 2004; Tibbe s, 2005). SUPLEMENTO REVISTA GENERAL DE MARINA 34 [Mayo (7) The Oceans Ac es ablishes he new ocean policy will p omo e «… he p ese a ion o he ole o he Uni ed S a es as a leade in ocean and coas al ac i i ies, and, when i is in he na ional in e es , he coope a ion by he US wi h o he na ions and in e na ional o ganiza ions in ocean and coas al ac i i ies» (Oceans Ac o 2000, sec ion 2.8). (8) The easibili y o any oceanic Managemen p og amme o policy mus ake as i s a - ing poin a se ies o minimum equi emen s such as poli ical will o unde ake ha s a egy, a legal amewo k, su icien economic- inancial asse s, social suppo , quali ied echnical eams (and specialized agencies) and app op ia e echnical-scien i ic in o ma ion abou he speci ic spaces whe e he policy is going o be applied. I is clea ha he i s ou equisi es cons i u e a basic en i onmen wi hou which he ocean policy would be un easible and unsuccess ul. Un o una ely, in he less de eloped coun ies, o he di icul ies inhe en o he o mula ion, design and implemen a ion o ocean policies, o he s uc u al de iciencies in legal, ins i u io- nal, inancial and poli ical p ac icali ies a e o be added. (9) In his sense, i is enligh ening he US adminis a ion ini ia i e known as Ocean Rese- a ch P io i ies Plan de la Join Ocean Commission (2009) p oposes an Ocean In es men Fund o iden i y sou ces o e enue and a budge o he coas al-ma ine en i onmen . (10) See Suá ez de Vi e o, Rod íguez Ma eos (2010) (11) See Suá ez de Vi e o (2007) (12) The guidelines o he Russian ma i ime policy ha e been ecollec ed in he Ma i ime Policy Documen o July 2001 (clea ed by he P esiden o he Russian Fede a ion, V.V. Pu in, Nº P -1387). (13) The oppo uni ies ha he sea o e o economic de elopmen and he need o ex end coas al managemen p oceedings u he in o he high seas b ough abou he so called Ocean Policy S a emen o 1982. This documen is based on he idea ha he use o li ing and non- li ing ma ine esou ces mus be done in a sus ainable way and bene i ing he en i e socie y. (14) Mos o he Chinese ma i ime policies y o add ess he equi emen s o he Fas and eno mous comme cial and indus ial g ow h o Chinese coas al egions since he economic e o ms o he 80’s. Jus conside how o sa is y a g owing ene gy demand, which has os e ed he sea ch o ossil uels unde nea h he seabed and has a ou ed speci ic egula ions on he ma e (Regula ions conce ning he En i onmen al P o ec ion in he Explo a ion and Exploi a- ion o O sho e Pe oleum, 1983; Mine al Resou ces Law, 1986, amended 1996, se e al laws dealing wi h he a ious Chinese ma i ime ju isdic ion in 1992 and 1998). These ini ia i es in suppo o he de elopmen o o sho e pe oleum will also be inco po a ed in o he new Na io- nal Ma i ime De elopmen P og amme (2001-2010) whe e he ma i ime sec o s, specially he oil indus y, a e s a ing o be conside ed pilla s o he na ional economy. (15) See Se e iano Teixei a, N. (2009, 147). (16) The IMP does no e e o de ence and secu i y explici ly. Th ough he analysis o he key documen s ha suppo i s implemen a ion i may be concluded ha hose who p omo ed his policy declined es ablishing a any so o guideline o coo dina ion mechanism a ec ing a ouchy na ional so e eign y an issue as de ence. No wi hs anding his, when add essing opics such as coo dina ing he Membe S a es coas gua ds, es ablishing he (ma i ime) bo de s su eillance and con ol, os e ing a Eu opean ma i ime anspo a ion space wi hou ba ie s (and secu e) o p omo ing he Eu opean in e na ional leade ship in ma i ime issues (Commis- sion o he Eu opean Communi ies, 2007), i is qui e clea ha , one way o ano he , a mo e e ec i e and i m app oach o ma i ime secu i y will be equi ed (Howo h, 2009). (17) The e a e di e en de ini ions o «go e nance». Koolman and Ba inck (2005) p opo- se: «Go e nance is he whole o public as well as p i a e in e ac ions aken o sol e socie al p oblems and c ea e social oppo uni ies. I includes he o mula ion and applica ion o p inci- ples guiding hose in e ac ions and ca e o ins i u ions ha enable hem». As a as «ocean go e nance» is conce ned, we could de ine i as a se o ules, p ac ices and ins i u ions ha in e ac a all le els o ensu e equi y and sus ainabili y in he alloca ion and managemen o ma i ime spaces and esou ces (Mann Bo gese, Baille , 2001); ha is o say, a so o «go e n- SUPLEMENTO REVISTA GENERAL DE MARINA 2010] 35