Internal and external factors in the success of graduates with disabilities in higher education and employment: an international comparative study in Germany and Spain

Vol.:(0123456789) Higher Education https://doi.org/10.1007/s10734-025-01446-8 Internal andexternal factors inthesuccess ofgraduates withdisabilities inhigher education andemployment: aninternational comparative study inGermany andSpain Rosari’oLopez‑Gavira1 · InmaculadaOrozco2 · AuroraVirginiaPerez‑Lopez3 Accepted: 31 March 2025 © The Author(s) 2025 Abstract Initiatives in legislation and improved resources dedicated to inclusive education have contributed to an increase in the number of people with disabilities with higher education and access to a profession in the primary market. However, people with disabilities often face a lot of difficulties and injustices before they can finish their university career and obtain a job according to their education, abilities, and wishes. This article presents an empirical, international, comparative study that analysed, from the perspective of 56 German and Spanish graduates with disabilities belonging to 34 universities, which key factors promoted the successful completion of their studies and which factors facilitated their inclusion in the labour market. The research was qualitative through individual interviews with graduates with disabilities. The results revealed many common aspects in the internal (selfknowledge, self-determination, autonomy, self-efficacy, and resilience) and external factors (family, classmates, friends, disability services, and faculty members) that explain the academic success and labour market transition (work experience, accommodations, and awareness) of graduates with disabilities of both countries. However, these factors also revealed some differences between the two countries that serve as an impulse to mobilise cultural, political, and practical change in higher education institutions, employers, and society in general. Keywords Inclusive education· Graduates with disabilities· Academic success· Employment· Comparative studies * Rosario Lopez-Gavira [email protected] Inmaculada Orozco [email protected] Aurora Virginia Perez-Lopez aurora[email protected] 1 Department ofDiversity Education andInternational Educational Research, Friedrich Alexander University Erlangen-Nuremberg, Erlangen, Germany 2 Department ofPedagogy andDidactics ofSocial Sciences, Language andLiterature, University ofJaume I, Castellon, Spain 3 Deparment ofAccounting andFinancial Economics, University ofSeville, Seville, Spain Higher Education Introduction Both Germany and Spain have ratified the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (United Nations, 2006) and aim to comply with the inclusion policies included in the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development (UNESCO, 2017). However, despite all the safeguards provided by legislation, much remains to be done to enable people with disabilities (PwD) to pursue higher education (HE) and experience equitable inclusion in the labour market (Edwards etal., 2022). This empirical, international, and comparative research aims to understand and contribute to mobilising action for the success of students with disabilities (SwD) at university and in the labour market in Germany and Spain. In the current context of increasing participation of SwD in HE (Accardo etal., 2019) and a shortage of skilled labour (Liu etal., 2024), research that builds on the experience of those students who have resisted exclusionary practices at university is a priority to make a firm step towards the academic and professional inclusion of PwD (United Nations, 2006). Unfortunately, PwD still experience a significant gap between the rights expressed in policies and their real-life experiences (Järkestig etal., 2016). Inclusive HE institutions must therefore not only ensure access to HE and participation in study programmes for PwD, but also engage in their academic success and transition to the labour market (Bauer etal., 2016; Römhild & Hollederer, 2023). Recent research shows that inclusion in the HE sector is shaped differently depending on the specificities of state education policy, labour markets, and the framework conditions of national HE systems (Salmi & D’Addio, 2021). Therefore, in this study, we consider it essential to emphasise the potentials of PwD (Kohli & Atencio, 2023) and to identify the internal and external factors that cause various barriers to their participation and success without discrimination or limitations due to disability (Russak & Hellwing, 2019). This variety of participants brings richness to the analysis of university experiences by having two different contexts (Biewer etal., 2015; Järkestig etal., 2016; Peschke, 2019). Specifically, with this comparative study with an international perspective we pursue a double objective. First, to confirm which factors driving success in HE and work inclusion are common in both contexts and, second, to identify what lessons can be drawn in both countries from those differentiating factors, challenges, and opportunities to reciprocally improve the academic success and work inclusion of PwD in Germany and Spain. Background aspects Socioeconomic indicators The economies of both countries analysed are developed in socio-economic terms and have a strong commitment to inclusion policies. However, in terms of population wealth, in 2023, Germany had a gross domestic product (GDP) per capita of 48.750 €, which is 60% higher than that of Spain in the same year (30.320 €) (Spanish National Statistical Institute, 2024; German Federal Statistical Office, 2024). In terms of HE expenditure per student in 2019, Germany spent 37.7% more resources (18.408.4 €) than Spain (13.366 €) (National Institute for Educational Evaluation, 2023). Finally, in terms of resources dedicated to improving the inclusion of PwD, Germany spent 2.7% of its GDP on disability inclusion in 2020, which was 50% more than Spain, which spent only 1.8% of its GDP (European Higher Education Union, 2023). The above numbers show that the wealth and level of resources available to SwD in HE are significantly higher in Germany than in Spain. With regard to the financing of HE studies, in both countries, tuition is free of charge (except for long-term students). In relation to the cost of studies, there are different general and special aids for SwD in both countries. Nonetheless, it can be stated that offers, amount, and periodicity of support are higher in Germany. Thus, German SwD receive an average of 1.078 € per month (Steinkühler etal., 2023), while in Spain, the average support for SwD is 1.870 € per year (Universia Foundation, 2023). Statistics onstudents andemployees withdisabilities In relation to the transition from pre-university stages to HE, according to data from 2022, the percentage of SwD studying in a special school for children with special educational needs and disabilities, was much higher in Germany (56.6%) (Statista Research Department, 2024) than in Spain (16.2%) (Ministry of Education & Vocational Training, 2023). Research literature indicates that students who have completed their studies in mainstream schools have a higher probability of accessing HE and face fewer difficulties in the transition to HE (Aichele etal., 2019). Regarding the participation of PwD in HE, there are large differences in the two countries. In Germany, the share of SwD in HE as a percentage of the total has increased by 45%, from 11% in 2016 to 16% in 2021 (Steinkühler etal., 2023). However, the participation of SwD in HE in Spain is much lower, having decreased by 6%, from 1.7% in 2016 to 1.6% in 2021 (Universia Foundation, 2023). The intention to drop out of studies is a good indicator of the difficulties students are facing. Thus, in 2021, 13% of SwD in Germany reported having the intention to drop out of their studies, compared to 4.7% of students without disabilities (Steinkühler etal., 2023). In Spain, according to the 6 th Report of the Observatory on Disability and the Labour Market, in 2019, 20.3% of SwD left their studies prematurely, compared to 9.8% of students without disabilities (ONCE Foundation, 2021). On the other hand, the numbers of students in Spain who undertake study or practical stays abroad are much lower than in Germany. In 2021, 17% of German SwD undertook such stays, compared to 19% of students without disabilities (Steinkühler etal., 2023). However, only 0.8% of Spanish SwD undertook a stay abroad, compared to 3.3% of students without disabilities (SEPIE, 2022). Finally, in relation to the labour market, the unemployment rate in 2022 for graduates with disabilities (GwD) in Spain was 13% (Spanish National Statistical Institute, 2023). In Germany, it was 8% for academics with severe disabilities and 16% for academics with non-severe disabilities (German Federal Employment Agency, 2023). These figures are much higher than for graduates without disabilities in both countries (8.16% and 2.2%, respectively). Theoretical framework Disability, inclusion, andsuccess inHE There is general agreement on the complexity of the definition of success in HE (Moriña & Biagiotti, 2022; Russak & Hellwing, 2019). Traditionally, some research has addressed the Higher Education measurement of study success through grades and academic performance (Goegan & Daniels, 2020). However, research that has analysed the definition of success from the voices of the GwD themselves coincides that success goes beyond finishing studies and obtaining good grades (Accardo etal., 2019; Moriña & Biagiotti, 2022; Russak & Hellwing, 2019). For example, demonstrating their abilities to others (Wieland, 2023), consolidating their autonomy and independence (Jones, 2020), acquiring skills relevant to their personal and professional lives (Accardo etal., 2019) and improving their social environment (Bailey etal., 2020; Yssel etal., 2016). Thus, from an ecological approach, the scientific literature has pointed out that there are personal (internal) factors and contextual (external) factors (Moriña & Biagiotti, 2022; Russak & Hellwing, 2019). Personal factors appear to be related to acceptance of own disability and recognition of strengths and weaknesses through intrinsic motivation, self-determination, autonomy, efficacy, and resilience (Accardo etal., 2019; Collins etal., 2019; Fabri etal., 2022; Francis etal., 2019; Fullarton & Duquette, 2016; Ju etal., 2017; Russak & Hellwing, 2019; Vaccaro etal., 2015; Yssel etal., 2016).Similarly, other studies have highlighted the importance of proactivity, positive attitude, creativity, and time planning (Accardo etal., 2019; Chiu etal., 2019; Francis etal., 2019; Jones, 2020). Moreover, numerous studies have shown that contextual factors such as family, faculty, classmates, friends, university, and disability offices are key supports for SwD to be successful in HE (Bailey etal., 2020; Biewer etal., 2015; Järkestig etal., 2016; Moriña & Biagiotti, 2022; Moriña etal., 2024; Redshaw & Deehan, 2024; Russak & Hellwing, 2019; Yssel etal., 2016). Disability, inclusion, andlabour market success Obtaining a dignified job is an essential component for the well-being and social and employment inclusion of PwD (Nadai et al., 2019; United Nations, 2006). In addition to the importance of employment as a means of personal and professional growth, there are also the benefits of employment for mental health and self-confidence (Lindsay etal., 2018). Therefore, finishing HE is essential as a passport to obtaining a skilled job in the primary market (Järkestig etal., 2016; Liu etal., 2024). However, GwD still face numerous difficulties in their labour market inclusion (Bjørnshagen & Ugreninov, 2021; Niehaus & Bauer, 2013). For this reason, it is fundamental to know and promote those factors that can contribute to removing the barriers that are preventing the full social and labour market inclusion of PwD (Niehaus & Bauer, 2013; Vornholt etal., 2018). Thus, it is urgent to continue transforming work environments to make them accessible to all people, enabling PwD to perform their professions equally and fairly (Aumann etal., 2021). To achieve this, it is necessary to first raise awareness and remove prejudices in companies about the real contributions of PwD (Odame etal., 2021). In the current European labour market, characterised by a concerning lack of qualified workers, it is essential for employers to be able to attract and retain potential candidates with disabilities (Liu etal., 2024). To this end, employers need to be advised, motivated, and supported in the recruitment of PwD (European Union, 2022). There is substantial research literature that has addressed the analysis of the success in HE of SwD (Bailey etal., 2020; Chiu etal., 2019; Fabri etal., 2022; Francis etal., 2019; Fullarton & Duquette, 2016; Goegan & Daniels, 2020; Mayo-Pais etal., 2024; Yssel etal., 2016). Despite this, internationally, there has been little comparative research on this topic (Biewer etal., 2015; Järkestig etal., 2016, Peschke, 2019). Also, few studies have Higher Education investigated success from the voice of GwD (Accardo etal., 2019; Jones, 2020; Russak & Hellwing, 2019). Moreover, these studies have focused on graduates with particular disabilities and/or have been limited to the national context of one or a few universities. Additionally, there are few studies that have examined the success in both HE and labour market inclusion of GwD (Kiesel etal., 2018). Thus, this research aims to fill a gap in the existing research literature by examining, from an empirical, qualitative, ecological, international, and comparative point of view, the personal and contextual factors favouring success in HE and labour market inclusion according to the testimonies of GwD. To this end, we pose the following research questions: • What do GwD in Germany and Spain understand as success in HE and in the labour market? • What are the key factors that contribute to the academic and employment success of German and Spanish GwD? • What practical conclusions can be drawn from the comparison of the academic and employment inclusion of PwD in Germany and Spain? Method The methodological choice of our study is justified by the need to identify, analyse, and understand the factors that have supported university and employment success from the voices of GwD. Following Denzin and Lincoln (2018), we opted for qualitative research, as it is the most suitable type of research to immerse ourselves in the subjectivity, authenticity, and diversity of the experiences of PwD. Recruitment First, an interdisciplinary research team with extensive experience in qualified projects on inclusive education and disability in HE established the following selection criteria to identify suitable participants: German and Spanish university graduates with a certified disability who had completed their Bachelor’s, Master’s, or PhD studies in the last five academic years (2016–2022). Several recruitment paths were established to find suitable participants. On the one hand, disability support offices of different German and Spanish universities were contacted and distributed the project information to GwD who met the above-mentioned criteria. On the other hand, the same task was carried out by various student organisations, foundations, and associations working with PwD. In addition, social media such as Facebook and Instagram were used to promote the research project and attract more GwD interested in participating in the study. Finally, we used the non-probabilistic snowball technique to find other potential candidates (Cohen & Arieli, 2011). Participants This study involved 56 German (n = 28) and Spanish (n = 28) GwD from different areas of knowledge from a total of 34 universities (16 German and 18 Spanish universities). Table1shows the detailed profile of the participants of this study. Higher Education Table 1 Profile of participants Country Type of disability Area of studies Type of degree Age Gender Current situation Germany Physical 11 Science 9 Bachelor 7 22–30 21 Female 17 Work 16 Chronic 6 Social and legal sciences 8 Master 21 31–45 7 Male 11 Other higher studies 11 Visual 3 Arts and humanities 7 Doctorate 0 + 45 0 Unemployment 1 Auditive 3 Engineering and architecture 3 Cognitive 3 Health sciences 1 Learning difficulties 2 Spain Physical 12 Science 0 Bachelor 12 22–30 14 Female 21 Work 13 Chronic 1 Social and legal sciences 19 Master 15 31–45 10 Male 7 Other higher studies 2 Visual 7 Arts and humanities 2 Doctorate 1 + 45 4 Unemployment 13 Auditive 2 Engineering and architecture 1 Cognitive 3 Health sciences 6 Learning difficulties 3 Higher Education Instruments anddata collection For data collection, two interview scripts were developed by an interdisciplinary research team with experience in disability, inclusive education, and HE projects. The interview scripts were created based on a review of previous international research. These interviews were validated by professional experts in disability, administrative and services staff and university teaching staff. Subsequently, pilot interview scripts were realised with SwD by German and Spanish experts. The first interview script focused on personal factors contributing to success of GwD, the second about external factors. In the case of Spain, the interviews were oral and were conducted online (n = 21), face-to-face (n = 6), and by telephone (n = 1). In Germany, we first held a preliminary interview with the participants to explain the project to them and to verify that there were no doubts about the questions. These meetings took place online (n = 20) and faceto-face (n = 8). Afterwards, participants were given unlimited time to respond to the interview scripts in writing (Schreier, 2023). Examples of the questions posed to the participants are included: • What does it mean to you to live with a disability? • What does it mean to you to be successful in your studies? Why? • Which of the internal and external factors you mentioned was decisive for you to continue and complete your studies (academic success)? • What is your current situation? Please tell us a bit more about what you are currently doing. How did you get there? Would you describe this situation as a success? Why? Ethical aspects oftheresearch This study was approved by the ethics committees of one German and one Spanish university (names omitted). Compliance with ethical principles and accessibility aspects were considered before, during, and after each interview. After being informed of the research goals, participants gave their signed consent to participate in the project. This informed consent also stated that their participation was voluntary and that they could withdraw from the study at any time. When conducting the interviews, the individual needs and response times of each participant were taken into account. In the case of face-to-face interviews, it was ensured that the location was free of physical barriers. The online meetings were conducted through platforms offering subtitles, screen readers, and voice synthesisers. Finally, the data collected in the interviews were returned in accessible Word format to the participants by email for approval. The anonymity of the transcripts was guaranteed by replacing the participant’s real name with an identifying number in both the German (PG1-PG28) and Spanish (PS1-PS28) contexts. Data analysis The collected data was analysed by a qualitative analysis of content according to a combined deductive-inductive procedure (Kuckartz, 2014). The data analysis was conducted by the authors, who systematically reviewed the interview transcripts to gain a comprehensive understanding of the participants’ narratives. Before analysing the interviews, Higher Education a common coding system was formed deductively based on the interview scripts and previous research findings. To ensure the validity of the data, the authors independently reviewed the transcripts, engaged in discussions to resolve discrepancies, and reached a consensus. Subsequently, an inductive content analysis was performed to identify the key topics, along with their corresponding categories, subcategories, and dimensions (Miles & Huberman, 1994). Throughout the qualitative analysis, working sessions were conducted to help researchers identify potential biases, critically examine their interpretations, and consider alternative explanations (Gale etal., 2013). To enhance the organization and management of the extensive data collected, the research team utilized qualitative MAXQDA 2022 data analysis software. Table2 shows the final categories, subcategories, and dimensions used for this article. These are explained in detail in the “Results” section. Results Concept ofuniversity andlabour market success The testimonies of the German and Spanish GwD showed that both have a very similar understanding of what success in HE means to them. Thus, most participants in both groups agreed that success was a personal and complex concept depending on multiple factors (vision of one’s own disability, proactivity in asking for support, resilience, family support, friendships, support from the university…) and that it went far beyond finishing the degree, achieving good grades and getting a job in the future. In addition to grades and knowledge, I think it is also about consolidating your personality during your studies and becoming a rational, questioning, and enlightened person who is aware of their weaknesses and strengths and has an open-minded view of the world (PG11, Germany). I believe that university success is not measured quantitatively, but by the quality of the education you receive and the personal learning, you acquire on that journey (PS1, Spain). GwD in both countries particularly valued practical learning, the possibility of personal development and the improvement of their social networks. Also, German and Spanish participants perceived success as a balance between doing well in their studies and maintaining their health. Finally, the great majority of participants in both contexts indicated that obtaining a HE degree offered them the possibility to prove to others that they were able to overcome any adversity, despite their disability. Success in my studies means a lot to me because I can show myself and others that I am stronger than my disability (PG23, Germany). Since I started university, I had to get from one place to another and learn my way around the campus on my own. This is what I consider a successful experience: to be able to surpass yourself as a blind person in the field of mobility (PS14, Spain). However, there was a difference in the conception of success in HE of the two groups. Some of the German participants, in contrast to the Spanish participants, particularly valued the possibility of a study stay or an internship abroad as a key to success in HE. Higher Education Table 2 Categories, subcategories, and dimensions Category Subcategory Dimension Similarities Differences Concept of success Higher education - Personal and complex concept - Professionally useful learning - Social inclusion - Balance between studies and health - Personal development and self-improvement Stay abroad (Germany) Labour - Holding a higher education degree - Application of acquired knowledge and competences - demonstration of their capability - Having appropriate support - Performance of an activity linked to the experience of one’s own disability Not identified Internal factors promoting success in higher education and labour market inclusion Self-awareness - Recognition and acceptance of disability - Identification of strengths and empowerment Not identified Self-determination - Perseverance - Confidence - Willpower - Discipline, planning, and time management Not identified Autonomy - Strengthening independent living Importance of emancipation during higher education (Germany) Self-efficacy - Proactivity in defending their rights and looking for support - Creativity and search for solutions Not identified Resilience - Ability to adapt - Positive attitude - Tolerance to stress Not identified Higher Education to the next and don’t really get any helpful information anywhere (PG25, Germany). I went once to the disability service and did not get much help from them. I would have liked them to show more empathy with my situation, I didn’t feel supported (PS2, Spain). On the other hand, they recommended that services should be more proactive in communicating information, offering services, and maintaining contact with SwD. Specifically, Spanish GwD considered that, in compliance with data protection legislation, it would be very important for HE institutions, through their disability services, to inform teaching staff in advance of the presence of SwD in their classrooms and the necessary adaptations for each type of disability. It is recommendable to inform faculty that they are going to have a student with these characteristics, to inform them of what it means and what needs they are going to have (PS24, Spain). In this sense, some participants from both countries considered that, given that the individual characteristics of students were so diverse, it would be necessary for these services to provide individualised attention to identify what their particular needs are. Specifically, they underlined the need to improve the necessary supports and adaptations for students with cognitive disabilities. I have a mental illness and feel that there is not yet the appropriate accommodations for this (PG26, Germany). According to my experience, the University is not prepared to deal with certain disability profiles. I found a lot of ignorance when it came to how to help me (PS9, Spain). Faculty German and Spanish graduates reported some negative experiences with the faculty members, but most of them indicated that the faculty was a fundamental support. Actually, some participants even stated that without this support they would probably have had to drop out of their studies. If the lecturers hadn’t taken me seriously, I would have had problems passing my exams and therefore my studies (PG4, Germany). If my time at university was already hard and complicated, without having met this kind of faculty, the experience would have been much harder, and I don’t really know how I would have managed to finish my studies (PS9, Spain). Thus, German and Spanish graduates reported that faculty members supported them through methodological accommodations (tutorial action, accessible materials, and alternative assessments) and encouraged them throughout their university career. In this respect, both groups of graduates underlined the importance that the lecturers took SwD seriously and were able to see their potential. For them, it was fundamental that the faculty was committed to inclusive teaching. The Spanish differed from the German GwD in stressing the importance of a closer attitude and more trust from the faculty members towards the students, which helped them to feel like others and more self-confident. I have not been treated as a different student at any time, nor have I been made to feel different because I have a disability. This is a very positive thing (PS8, Spain). Higher Education Also, in general, participants from both countries emphasised the need for faculty members to be trained in disability in HE. Related to this, it was particularly relevant for both groups that faculty should be better trained to serve students according to the type of disability. I think it would be good if there was a (compulsory) training course for faculty where they were made aware of common disabilities/problems and explained how they can help students (PG7, Germany). If a faculty member is going to have a student with a disability, he/she should be trained on that specific disability. I have come across faculty members who do not know how to act when faced with a student with Asperger’s Syndrome (PS24, Spain). Financial support Apart from the family as the main source of funding, a large proportion of Spanish and German GwD needed additional support for their university studies. In addition to the regular study expenses (lodging, living expenses, materials, etc.), GwD in both countries had to face significant extra costs due to their disability (treatments, therapies, software, study assistants, accommodations, etc.). In this sense, both groups of participants highlighted the importance of having more and better financial support for their HE studies. In particular, some Spanish graduates indicated that without this additional support they would not have been able to complete their studies. If I hadn’t been covered by the disability grants and the tuition fee discount, I wouldn’t have been able to pay for my lodging at university (PS19, Spain). External factors promoting success inlabour market inclusion Factors supporting work inclusion were related to the attainment of work experience, adaptations in the workplace, and awareness of society. Work experience Both German and Spanish graduates stated that initially, to gain access to the labour market, it was very important to have support to be able to do practical training and gain work experience. In the case of the German participants, they particularly emphasised the importance of being able to have a work experience abroad to enrich their CV and improve their employment options. It was also important for me to gain experience in the countries whose languages I was learning, which is why I spent a semester abroad in [city omitted] during my Bachelor’s degree and an Erasmus semester in [city omitted] during my Master’s degree (PG1, Germany). Adaptations intheworkplace On the other hand, German and Spanish graduates agreed on the importance of having appropriate adjustments in the workplace to be able to perform their professional work under equal conditions. In this respect, both groups of participants agreed on the need for Higher Education special support and necessary adjustments for workers with cognitive disabilities. They also considered that there is a need for more support and counselling for employees with invisible disabilities regarding the difficulties they face in disclosing their disability, so that they can handle their situation in a natural way and have the necessary professional supports and adaptations. What I find a pity is that I shouldn’t talk openly about my disability in working life, as this can be seen as a disadvantage (PG22, Germany). I think they will look first if you have a disability. The degree is important, but the moment you put the disability on the table the future is dissolved (PS13, Spain). Raising awareness ofsociety In addition, the participants from both countries made some recommendations to improve the inclusion of PwD in the labour market. They underlined the need to inform, train, and raise awareness among employers in particular and society in general about wrong prejudice towards employees with disabilities. In this line, they indicated that it would be essential for society to become aware of the real contributions and benefits of employing PwD. I do believe that people with a disability often have a different way of thinking and perceiving things, which can make discussions, interactions etc. more diverse (PG11, Germany). I try to use this life experience to help people who are going through a difficult situation, my patients. I feel very satisfied to work as a doctor and to understand the fears, doubts and everything that comes with living with a chronic illness (PS23, Spain). Finally, some German participants indicated that it was important that more and more PwD were in positions of responsibility. Specifically, they considered it relevant that the voices of PwD are heard and considered when policy decisions are made or when actions related to inclusion are carried out. At the same time, I am not blind to the discrimination I experience because of my disability. I would like to see more representation and visibility of PwD in the media and in management positions (PG19, Germany). Discussion The results of this study showed that the perceptions of university success of GwD from both countries are common and were related to useful and practical learning, to well-being and personal development, and to the sense of belonging to social support networks (Accardo etal., 2019; Moriña & Biagiotti, 2022; Russak & Hellwing, 2019). This reality shows that it is urgent to continue promoting useful learning for practice from the approach of inclusive pedagogy, favouring the full participation of SwD and for the benefit of all students (Gale etal., 2017; Redshaw & Deehan, 2024). Moreover, within inclusion plans, HE institutions should go further and implement actions to support the personal well-being of SwD. For example, by providing psychological and emotional support, and measures to strengthen and broaden the social environment of these students, such as support for networking, associations, and student clubs. Higher Education Furthermore, this study, in contrast to previous research, has pointed out the importance of study and work placements abroad for the academic success of German GwD. This result is of great relevance because it shows that, given the importance of internationalisation and language learning for the employment opportunities of GwD, greater efforts are needed, especially in Spain, to support them in achieving this goal with great benefits for their autonomy and independent living. On the other hand, similarities have also been found regarding the conceptions of success in labour market inclusion. Thus, the importance of HE has been underlined to achieve employment expectations and to be able to demonstrate the value of PwD (Liu et al., 2024). Although the link between HE and improved employment opportunities is universal, for PwD support for HE is particularly relevant as it is often the only way to avoid a “typically disability-related” profession, and because it has a particular influence on their mental health and personal development (Lindsay etal., 2018). It also became clear that, to be successful at work, it is necessary to have the appropriate adaptations and supports to avoid discrimination and inequality (Aumann etal., 2021). Finally, a highly valued aspect was the possibility to use their experiences with disability to pursue a profession related to inclusion. This underlines the potentials and relevant contributions that still need to be made visible and can be made by PwD in professional activity (Odame etal., 2021). In addition, this study has highlighted that it is not enough to guarantee access and provide support to PwD, but it is necessary to identify and act on the promotion of internal and external factors that positively influence their success. In relation to internal factors enhancing success in HE and in the labour market, it has been revealed that for both German and Spanish graduates it is important to know themselves, accept their disability and be able to focus on their strengths (Accardo etal., 2019; Vaccaro etal., 2015). This evidence shows the relevance of promoting and developing a positive and socially just perspective on PwD in society that focuses on their potential (Kohli & Atencio, 2023). As previous research has concluded, our study shows that it is necessary to support the development of personal capabilities relevant to success such as self-determination, autonomy, self-efficacy, and resilience-based strategies to face difficult situations (Russak & Hellwing, 2019). Furthermore, the results indicated that, through self-awareness of disability, participants were able to strengthen these internal factors important for their academic and occupational success. The successful completion of HE and the acquisition of a suitable job enabled them to strengthen these personal capabilities. In the case of the German participants, it was particularly important to be sufficiently autonomous to be able to emancipate themselves and live independently during HE. It is therefore crucial to support these students to develop and strengthen these capabilities, as they are essential for the motivation and self-confidence they need in their studies and working life (Ju etal., 2017). As established by the social model of disability (Jones, 2020), several external factors have been found to play a key role in the inclusion and success of SwD at university. Thus, as previous research (Bailey etal., 2020; Järkestig etal., 2016; Moriña etal., 2024; Russak & Hellwing, 2019) indicated, emotional and financial support from families and social and academic support from peers were key for GwD. Financial support is especially essential in Spain, given the lower per capita wealth figures (Spanish National Statistical Institute, 2024) and the lower financial aid received compared to German students (Universia Foundation, 2023). It would also be essential to offer more support to family members and peers by providing them with information and practical training on disability so that they can create fairer and less overprotective relationships with these students. Moreover, it has been shown that the support and accommodations offered by disability services are key to promoting the success of SwD (Accardo etal., 2019; Russak & Higher Education Hellwing, 2019). In this regard, improvements are recommended in employee training and empathy, in proactivity in offering support, and in offering personalised quality services to students. To this end, it is necessary to ensure that these services have sufficient resources and that staff have the possibility of receiving adequate training, away from the medical model of disability. In the same vein, it has been stated that faculty members are an essential part of academic success (Accardo etal., 2019), especially with their positive attitude and willingness to make adjustments. In Spain, it was especially valued when faculty members established close and trusting relationships with students (Redshaw & Deehan, 2024). However, in both contexts, it has become clear that efforts are still needed to improve faculty training in disability from an inclusive approach (Yssel etal., 2016). In this sense, it is important to continue advancing in the implementation of Universal Design for Learning (UDL) in HE institutions to establish accessible spaces and enable learning for all students (Collins etal., 2019; Edwards etal., 2022). Finally, considering the additional costs faced by SwD (Steinkühler etal., 2023; Universia Foundation, 2023), it is necessary that SwD, beyond family support, have adequate external funding to perform their studies on equal terms. Similarly, external factors in both countries have been shown to provide critical support for labour market transition and inclusion. In particular, as other research has pointed out (Bjørnshagen & Ugreninov, 2021), this study indicates that it is high time to strongly support PwD in gaining the necessary work experience, but also underlines the importance of being supported to do internships abroad. It also is essential that workers with disabilities have the necessary adjustments and input in the workplace and feel supported in making the decision to disclose their disability (Aumann etal., 2021; Vornholt etal., 2018). To this end, it is important that employers obtain sufficient support and training on how to mobilise effective workplace inclusion. It is also essential to raise awareness among society in general and employers in particular of the benefits and potentials of employing PwD (Odame etal., 2021). Limitations andfuture research This study provides relevant results that can be used to improve the conditions for the success of PwD in HE and in their transition to the labour market. Nevertheless, this research relies exclusively on testimonies from PwD and does not include a detailed analysis based on the specific nature of the disability. Future research could therefore analyse the determinants of success according to the type of disability. In particular, it would be relevant to analyse the complexities in the case of people with cognitive disabilities. From the perspective of the social model of disability, it is essential to incorporate the perspectives of key actors within the social and professional environments of PwD. Therefore, conducting in-depth interviews with main figures across different domains would be highly relevant. These include individuals from the personal sphere (family members, partners, and friends), the academic sphere (faculty, classmates, institutional heads, and disability support staff), and the professional sphere (colleagues, employers, and career guidance professionals). Furthermore, complementing these interviews with focus group discussions would provide an opportunity for participants to engage in collective reflection and dialogue. This approach could yield valuable insights and contribute to the implementation of equitable and inclusive practices that enhance the academic and labor market inclusion of PwD. Higher Education Conclusions From a comparative and international perspective and through the voices of GwD, this study makes a relevant contribution to improving the academic and employment inclusion of PwD in Germany and Spain by highlighting the internal and external factors that need to be strengthened to achieve real success in HE and employment inclusion (Edwards etal., 2022). In this sense, this research from a critical and practical approach has shown that it is critical to move away from the perspective of the medical model and the ableist conceptions of disability that hold PwD exclusively responsible for their own inclusion. Thus, it is necessary to recognise that for PwD to successfully pursue HE and careers, they need external support to remove barriers in the context around them and internal support to strengthen and develop the personal capabilities that are essential for success. Based on this study, the authors would like to encourage HE institutions to mobilise their knowledge and build sufficiently strong support networks with companies to build more sustainable, democratic, and inclusive societies. Implications forpractice HE institutions, employers, governments, and society as a whole must take further steps towards inclusion and implement actions that effectively promote the success of PwD in both university and the labor market. These actions should focus, in particular, on creating environments based on universal design in universities and workplaces, while also supporting the physical and psychological well-being of PwD. Achieving this requires an increase in financial resources allocated to inclusion in both countries, particularly in Spain, where the percentage of resources dedicated to this area is lower. Additionally, awareness-raising measures must be implemented in academic and professional settings, as well as in society at large. This can be achieved through conferences, seminars, and training sessions led by experts in disability and inclusion, along with PwD themselves. Fundamentally, these measures should highlight the positive contributions and benefits of the participation of PwD in HE and the labor market, ensuring conditions of equity and social justice. Author contribution All authors made substantial contributions to every section of the manuscript and have reviewed and approved its final version. Funding Open Access funding enabled and organized by Projekt DEAL. This study was funded by the Ministry of Science and Innovation of Spain, State Research Agency and FEDER funds European Union [grant numbers EDU2020 - 112761RB100/Feder Funds]. The research work was supported by a Bavarian Equal Opportunities Sponsorship – Realisierung von Chancengleichheit von Frauen in Forschung und Lehre (FFL) – Realization Equal Opportunities for Women in Research and Teaching, obtained by Rosario LopezGavira.This paper is part of a postdoctoral fellowship Juan de la Cierva-Training (JDC2022-049600-I) obtained by Inmaculada Orozco, funded by the Spanish Ministry of Science, Innovation and Universities/ State Agency/10.13039/501100011033 and by the European Union Next Generation EU/PRTR. Data Availability The anonymized data without any identifying information are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request. Higher Education Declarations Ethics approval and consent to participate This study was approved by the ethics committee of FriedrichAlexander University Erlangen-Nürnberg (Germany) and the ethics committee of the Autonomous Community of Andalusia (Spain, code: 156/2021). All participants provided written informed consent before taking part in the study. Competing interests The authors declare no competing interests. Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article’s Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. 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