Circular Materials-A Multiscale Approach to Circularity at a Building, Components and Materials Level

Chapter 2 Circular Materials—A Multiscale Approach to Circularity at a Building, Components and Materials Level Rocío Pineda-Martos ,İlker Kahraman, Genesis Camila Cervantes Puma , Viorel Ungureanu , Fernanda Paes de Barros Gomide , and Raluca Buzatu Abstract Sustainable practices and strategies to enhance resource efficiency while minimising waste in buildings and their constituent elements are key towards circularity at the urban built environment. In this chapter three implementation scales, under the paradigm of the circular economy (CE), are measured—i.e., buildings, components and materials—, considering both new and existing buildings’ implementations. Aspects such as design for adaptability and flexibility, modular and flexible spaces and concepts, energy and water efficiency are discussed. By implementing CE strategies at the component-level using a multipronged approach would extend the lifespan and contribute to environmental and economic sustainability. This includes the refurbishment and upgrading of components and the adoption of modular construction techniques, among other techniques and solutions. The last part R. Pineda-Martos (B ) Departamento de Ingeniería Aeroespacial y Mecánica de Fluidos, Escuela Técnica Superior de Ingeniería Agronómica, Universidad de Sevilla, Sevilla, Spain e-mail: [email protected] İ. Kahraman İzmir University of Economics, İzmir, Türkiye G. C. Cervantes Puma ·F. Paes de Barros Gomide ISISE, ARISE, Department of Civil Engineering, University of Minho, 4804-533 Guimarães, Portugal V. Ungureanu ·R. Buzatu Department of Steel Structures and Structural Mechanics, Politehnica University of Timisoara, Timisoara, Romania V. Ungureanu Laboratory of Steel Structures, CCTFA, Romanian Academy - Timisoara Branch, Timisoara, Romania F. Paes de Barros Gomide PPGTE, Postgraduate Program in Technology and Society, Federal University of Technology-Paraná (UTFPR), Curitiba, Brazil © The Author(s) 2025 L. Bragança et al. (eds.), Circular Economy Design and Management in the Built Environment, Springer Tracts in Civil Engineering, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-73490-8_2 25 26 R. Pineda-Martos et al. of the chapter presents the concept of circular materials and its circularity potential at promote extended product lifecycles and transforming waste into valuable resources. Integrating sustainable and circular design principles within construction practices is proposed towards more sustainable and resource-efficient industries’ transformations. Keywords Circular economy ·Urban built environment ·Buildings · Construction materials ·Design for disassembly ·Modularity 2.1 Introduction Circular economy (CE) principles find application across various levels within the built environment, encompassing buildings, components and materials. In a framework for CE, a core tenant is the continuous circulation of products and materials, aiming to minimise waste and optimise resource utilisation throughout their lifecycle. This is accomplished through various strategies, including (i) routine maintenance to prevent early deterioration, (ii) reuse of products in their original form, (iii) refurbishment to upgrade functionality, (iv) remanufacturing to create like-new products from used components, and (v) recycling to convert used materials into new products. The essential purpose is to optimise resource efficiency, minimise waste, and advocate for sustainable practices throughout the entire lifecycle of buildings and their constituent elements. 2.2 Building Level The principles of the CE offer a transformative approach to building design, construction, and operation. These principles encourage consideration of a building’s entire life cycle; including designing for disassembly and adaptability to future uses, as well as incorporating materials with high reuse and recycling potential. By designing buildings with circularity in mind, it becomes possible to extend their lifespan and reduce waste. The application of CE principles at the building level necessitates a holistic approach that considers the total life cycle of the structure. This approach promotes strategies to minimise resource consumption and waste generation throughout all stages, from design and construction to operation, renovation, and end-of-life. Whether it is a new building or an existing one, different approaches need to be considered. New Buildings When it comes to new buildings, the goal is to build for long-term use, build efficiently and use materials resourcefully in order to minimise waste. Careful design and planning are crucial, alongside adopting resource-efficient construction techniques like 2 Circular Materials—A Multiscale Approach to Circularity at a Building … 27 prefabrication and modularisation, to minimise waste and enhance resource utilisation. Increasing the building utilisation and designing for durability and adaptability are also crucial strategies, considering the future needs of the generations to come. The latter is also associated with using circular materials with high recyclability and recycled content, low environmental impact and non-hazardous components. Existing Buildings For existing buildings, the focus is on adaptive reuse, giving new purposes and functions to existing structures. This helps towards extending the lifespan of the building and avoiding unnecessary demolition and waste generation. Building renovations and retrofits should prioritise incorporating energy efficiency goals to enhance the building’s overall performance and optimise energy consumption. Additionally, deconstruction techniques can be employed to carefully dismantle the building and recover materials for reuse, remake or recycling. At the buildings level, the application of CE principles translates to designing, constructing, and operating buildings with a comprehensive life-cycle approach. This means focusing on minimising resource consumption and waste generation across the building’s life cycle, from design and construction to operation, renovation, and deconstruction. There are some key steps to follow, as explained in the four sub-sections below: Design for Adaptability and Flexibility. In the twenty-first century, the dominant feature is rapid technological advancement. The advent of new technologies and smart building concepts is reshaping people’s lifestyles. Although buildings are constructed with the intention of serving for many years, it is clear that in just a decade, the needs of occupants can evolve significantly. To address this challenge, buildings must be designed with a long-term perspective, minimising the need for frequent replacements or demolitions. The emphasis is on creating designs that allow easy modifications or repurposing as evolving needs arise. This adaptability is crucial because the social, economic, and environmental conditions are constantly changing, necessitating a corresponding evolution in the functions and purposes of buildings. Besides aligning with circularity, this approach offers distinct advantages. Designing for adaptability and flexibility is a pivotal step in ensuring that buildings can respond effectively to changing circumstances. By proactively considering future requirements and potential changes, the lifespan of buildings can be extended, hence reducing waste, and curtailing the necessity for extensive renovations or demolitions. Modular and Flexible Spaces. The concept of flexibility and adaptability in architecture has been present since the emergence of modernism and continues to be highly relevant in our daily lives. According to Kronenburg [1], flexible design aims to create spaces that can be adjusted to unforeseen circumstances, evolving user needs, and new operational requirements. The twentieth century witnessed a progressive adoption of modular design principles, both in building structures and individual products, marking a development in industrial history [2]. The term “flexible housing” is a more appropriate phrase to describe flexibility in the built environment, as explained by Schneider and Till [3]. They broaden the 28 R. Pineda-Martos et al. definition of flexibility to encompass all design choices that depart from rigid functionality. This highlights the criticality of creating spaces capable of adapting to accommodate diverse needs and functions over time. In summary, flexibility and adaptability are crucial considerations in architecture and engineering at the built environment. They enable spaces to respond to changing requirements and operations, and the use of modular structures and flexible design approaches can facilitate this adaptability. The term “flexible housing” encompasses the range of design decisions that allow for the transformation and reconfiguration of spaces, moving away from rigid functionality. Energy Efficiency. Sustainable building design prioritises energy efficiency, a critical strategy for minimising energy consumption, lowering greenhouse gas (GHG)) emissions, and contributing to environmental well-being. To achieve this, several key considerations should be weighed, such as: Passive Design Strategies. Implementing passive design strategies is important to optimise energy flows, natural lighting, infiltration, and ventilation. Minimising heat loss through the building’s envelope using effective insulation, and reducing the effect of thermal bridges, along with the management of solar heat gains can also significantly lower the heating and cooling energy needs. Efficient HVAC (Heating, Ventilation, and Air Conditioning) Equipment. Integrating high-performance HVAC systems within a holistic building design fosters significant energy savings and improved indoor thermal comfort. In addition, adopting energyefficient lighting solutions, such as LED bulbs and harnessing daylighting strategies, further minimises the reliance on artificial lighting. Smart Controls and Energy Management Systems. Using occupancy sensors, thermostats, and smart controls can automatically adjust energy use according to occupancy, daylight, or other factors; thus, optimising energy consumption. While energy management systems offer the ability to leverage data from connected devices, ensuring effective control and management relies on the implementation of a user-friendly interface. Renewable Energy Systems. Incorporating renewable energy systems such as geothermal systems, solar power, wind power, biomass, or biogas can greatly contribute to sustainable performance targets. Installing solar photovoltaic (PV) systems on rooftops or vacant land can generate clean electricity, offsetting the building’s energy demand and reducing reliance on grid power. Integration of smallscale wind turbines or utilising geothermal heat pumps for heating and cooling purposes are also viable options. It is important to consider user-friendliness when implementing energy-efficient systems. Complexity can hinder effective management and usage, so the systems should have a basic interface that is easily understandable and manageable by users. Additionally, integrating energy-efficient equipment and systems throughout the building, such as HVAC systems, will contribute to overall energy efficiency. 2 Circular Materials—A Multiscale Approach to Circularity at a Building … 29 By incorporating these strategies and technologies, buildings can significantly improve the prevailing comfort conditions and, at the same time, reduce their energy consumption, reduce carbon emissions, and advance a more sustainable future. It is essentially important that designers prioritise energy efficiency in building design and construction to create environmentally responsible and resource-efficient structures. Water Efficiency. Water management in buildings encompasses the implementation of strategies and technologies to optimise the utilisation, conservation, and overall management of water resources. The goals of effective water management include eliminating wasteful practices and unnecessary expenses associated with the use of clean water, reducing the reliance on freshwater resources to preserve ecological balance, and ensuring adequate water supply in areas facing water scarcity. By implementing efficient water management practices, buildings contribute to achieving sustainable water use, conservation, and resilience in the face of growing challenges of water scarcity. This can be achieved through the adoption of water-efficient appliances such as dishwashers and washing machines, and fixtures—e.g., toilets, showerheads, and faucets. Grey water recycling provides water savings of up to 50% in residences. For commercial purposes such as hotels and dormitories, this rate exceeds 60%. The water used to bathe and wash hands accounts for 50–60% of total greywater, the greywater from the washing machine accounts for 25–35% of total greywater, and the greywater from the kitchen accounts for 50–60% of total greywater. Rainwater harvesting systems have huge potential to reduce water consumption in buildings. 2.3 Component Level The principles of the CE extend beyond the building itself, encompassing the individual components that form itself. This includes the use of components that are designed for disassembly, facilitating their seamless separation and subsequent reuse or recycling. By incorporating circular design principles into the selection and use of components, it becomes possible to minimise waste and maximise resource efficiency. At the component level, several key strategies can be used to promote circularity: (1) Encouraging Product-as-a-Service (PaaS) Business Model: Emphasising the PaaS model can facilitate the sharing and reusing of components, promote resource efficiency, and reduce waste. (2) Supporting Reverse Logistics and Take-Back Programmes: Smart take-back systems and efficient reverse logistics keep resources in the loop, enabling recycling and repurposing of materials at their end-of-life. (3) Designing for Repairability: Emphasising repairability in component design extends their lifespan and reduces the need for replacements. This can include using easily replaceable parts or providing access to repairs. 30 R. Pineda-Martos et al. (4) Promoting Remanufactured Components: Encouraging the use of remanufactured components instead of new ones contributes to resource conservation and reduces the demand for new production. (5) Facilitating Component-Sharing Platforms: Providing platforms for individuals or organisations to share components fosters resource sharing and reduces the overall demand for new production. (6) Collaborating for Resource and Component Sharing: Collaborating with others to share resources and components further reduces the requirement for new production and upholds circularity. (7) Encouraging Innovation in Sustainable Materials and Technologies: The support of research and development in the component field promotes the development of innovative materials and technologies that enable sustainable and circular components. (8) Raising Awareness and Demonstrating the Benefits: Educating consumers, producers, and policy makers about the advantages of implementing componentlevel circularity can elevate public awareness and drive responsible consumption behaviours. (9) Advocating for Supportive Policies and Regulations: Advocating for policies and regulations such as tax incentives or extended producer responsibility laws that support CE practices at the component level can further drive adoption and implementation. In the built environment, implementing CE strategies at the component level necessitates a multipronged approach, encompassing the reuse of building elements, the refurbishment and upgrading of components, and the adoption of modular construction techniques. These strategies extend the lifespan of components, reduce waste, and contribute to environmental sustainability. Reusing Components While the term of CE may be recent, the underlying principles of resource recovery and component reuse have a long history, dating back to pre-industrial times and practised extensively then [4]. Material recovery is a complex process influenced by numerous factors, encompassing economic changes, technological advancements, and evolving trends such as fashion. In particular, the reuse and recycling of metals have been practised since their very first utilisation [5]. The landscape of decision-making is evolving, with environmental considerations gaining significant weight alongside traditional economic and social factors. Due to this importance and increasing material costs, the disassembly and reuse of components is attracting more attention [6]. Recognising the importance of sustainable practices, the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) developed a tool to measure the energy savings from responsible material management. Their findings demonstrate that recycling and source reduction can conserve significant energy and minimise greenhouse gas emissions, contributing to a healthier planet [7]. Achieving seamless deconstruction hinges on two key factors: (1) incorporating the right technologies into the design 2 Circular Materials—A Multiscale Approach to Circularity at a Building … 31 process; and (2) developing innovative building systems and technologies that prioritise component reusability. By combining these approaches, we get closer to a circular construction model where materials have multiple lives. The Canadian Standards Association (CSA) has released a draft guide outlining principles and strategies for Design for Disassembly and Adaptability (DfDA) in buildings, offering valuable guidance for architects, engineers, and construction professionals [8]. This research uses life cycle assessment (LCA) methodologies to comprehensively evaluate various approaches toward reuse of materials and components in the built environment. By providing designers with robust data and insights, the study aims to develop a practical evaluation tool for selecting building layers and components that optimise both environmental performance and reusability potential [6]. The practice of recovering and incorporating individual components salvaged from previous construction projects into new buildings is called “component reuse”. This can encompass structural elements like beams and columns, or nonstructural components like cladding panels, bricks, and even staircases. Compared to recycling, reusing building components or entire structures typically requires less reprocessing, leading to a more significant reduction in environmental impact [6]. The U.S. (United States) Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) study revealed that component reuse offers significantly greater environmental benefits than recycling, with waste reduction efforts leading to more than 60% higher energy and GHG emissions savings [7]. Implementing a materials reuse strategy requires significant flexibility from design teams, necessitating an openness to adapting plans as components become available. Timely access to accurate information throughout the design process is highly important. Having precise dimensions of reclaimed components readily available in the early stages of the design empowers informed decision-making. Reuse of structural components enjoys greater feasibility when the intended new purpose aligns with the original function. Incorporating such as components into a new project is facilitated by similar structural layouts and preservation of the original span sizes in the new design. Client engagement plays an important role in driving the success of deconstruction and reuse strategies. Their decisions regarding budget, design goals, and level of risk tolerance significantly impact the feasibility and success of such projects. The decision to reuse materials in a project demands a nuanced approach, considering the unique characteristics of each site and the context of the project. Factors such as location, available space, project timelines, and specific design requirements all have a significant impact on the feasibility and suitability of utilising previously used materials. Refurbishment (Repair-Repaint-Retrofit) and Upgrading The environmental footprint of the construction industry can be significantly reduced through refurbishment, solidifying its position as a vital facet of the CE. Alongside repair, remanufacturing, and direct reuse, refurbishment empowers the industry to prioritise resource conservation and waste reduction. 32 R. Pineda-Martos et al. Refurbishment involves the process of improving buildings by cleaning, decorating, and reequipping them to achieve energy efficiency and sustainability goals. It often includes elements of retrofitting, which focusses on upgrading existing building components and systems to enhance their performance. Refurbishment encompasses the targeted intervention on defective or outdated elements, such as components and surfaces. This involves repair or replacement while preserving the core structure. This approach promotes the conservation of existing buildings while simultaneously enhancing their functionality and aesthetics. Furthermore, refurbishment can extend to upgrades in fire protection, acoustics, and thermal performance, ultimately leading to an overall increase in the building’s quality and sustainability. Retrofits, on the other hand, refer to the process of strengthening, upgrading, or adding additional equipment to a building after its initial construction. This often includes improved thermal insulation, energy-efficient HVAC systems, or even renewable energy sources, together with the aim of improving building performance and minimising environmental impact. By implementing refurbishment and retrofitting practices, the construction sector can contribute to resource conservation, waste reduction, and the promotion of sustainable building practices. These approaches allow for extending the lifespan of existing buildings, significantly reducing the need for construction projects made with elements from new materials, thereby minimising the associated environmental impacts. 2.4 Material Level The construction industry can unlock significant environmental benefits by embracing the principles of CE. Prioritising recycled materials in buildings reduces the dependence on virgin resources, minimising waste and GHG emissions. This paves the way for a more sustainable and resource-efficient future for the built environment. The concept of circular materials revolves around the reusing, recycling, or transforming of materials within a closed-loop system. This approach represents a paradigm shift, transitioning from the traditional “use and throw away” model towards a more efficient paradigm of utilising existing resources through reuse. Additionally, the development of new construction materials based on zero carbon principles can also be considered part of the circular materials approach, as they lower costs, speed up construction, improve quality and safety, and extend the lifespan of buildings. The use of circular materials in construction offers several benefits. It reduces waste, conserves resources, and lowers the environmental impact of the built environment. Some innovative construction materials and systems that contribute to circularity include self-healing concrete, concrete canvas, topmix permeable, aerogel, and nanomaterials. These materials offer improved durability, strength, and sustainability. 2 Circular Materials—A Multiscale Approach to Circularity at a Building … 33 To promote circularity at the materials level, several strategies can be implemented: (1) Material Recovery and Recycling: Implementing strategies to recover and recycle materials from demolition or renovation of buildings, such as concrete, metals, or wood, reduces waste and conserves resources. (2) Closed-Loop Material Systems: Encouraging the adoption of circular materials within construction and manufacturing processes. These materials prioritise ease of separation, recycling, and reuse. (3) Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR): Encouraging manufacturers to take ownership of their components beyond the point of sale, including responsible recycling, repurposing, or alternative end-of-life solutions. (4) Digital Platforms and Material Passports: Using digital platforms and material passports provides information about the origin, composition, and recyclability of building materials, facilitating their future reuse or recycling. (5) Optimise Material Usage: Practices such as reducing overdesign, decreasing the weight of products, and eliminating waste in production processes help optimise material usage and minimise waste. (6) Bio-based Materials: Exploring the development and use of bio-based materials that are renewable and biodegradable contributes to circularity and sustainability. (7) Advanced Recycling Technologies: The implementation of advanced recycling technologies, including chemical recycling and upcycling, facilitates the extraction of valuable materials from waste streams. (8) Collaboration with Product Designers: Collaborating with product designers to select materials that align with principles of CE, such as ease of disassembly and recyclability, promotes circularity. (9) LCAs: Conducting LCAs to evaluate the environmental impact of materials and products, considering factors from extraction to disposal. (10) Lean Manufacturing Practices: Promoting lean manufacturing practices to minimise material waste during production. (11) Stakeholder Engagement: Fostering multi-stakeholder collaboration, including manufacturers, consumers, and policymakers, to educate and advocate for the use of circular materials and responsible consumption practices. (12) Supportive Regulations: Advocating for regulations that mandate minimum recycled content in products. (13) Innovation and Collaboration: Collaborating with research institutions, startups, and industry partners to drive innovation in materials and circularity. 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