Examining the use of instructional video clips for teaching macroeconomics

EXAMINING THE USE OF INSTRUCTIONAL VIDEO CLIPS FOR TEACHING MACROECONOMICS Alfonso Expósitoa , Javier Sánchez-Rivasb, María P. Gómez-Caleroc and María P. Pablo-Romerod* a. Departamento de Análisis Económico y Economía Política, Ramon y Cajal 1, Sevilla. Universidad de Sevilla (Spain) [email protected] b. Departamento de Análisis Económico y Economía Política, Ramon y Cajal 1, Sevilla. Universidad de Sevilla (Spain) [email protected]s c. Departamento de Análisis Económico y Economía Política, Ramon y Cajal 1, Sevilla. Universidad de Sevilla (Spain) [email protected] d*Corresponding author. Departamento de Análisis Económico y Economía Política, Ramon y Cajal 1, Sevilla. Universidad de Sevilla (Spain) [email protected] . Abstract Information and communication technologies (ICTs) have been integrated in teaching activities to develop new learning environments. Within ICTs, the use of multimedia, such as instructional videos, has attracted significant academic attention. Nevertheless, the use of these technologies in teaching economics has generally lagged behind other disciplines. This paper adds empirical evidence to show the effectiveness of the use of instructional videos in the field of economics. Firstly, videos illustrating dynamic graphical representations of macroeconomic processes have been developed and used in the class of one student group at the University of Seville (Spain), as complementary teaching materials in the macroeconomics curriculum. Secondly, the effectiveness of these videos has been tested by carrying out an inferential analysis on experimental and control groups. In addition, probit and multinomial probabilistic regressions have been estimated in order to assess the impact of these materials on the probability of achieving higher test scores. The findings confirm the superiority of using instructional video-clips to achieve higher test scores. Keywords: instructional video; teaching; Macroeconomics; inferential analysis; probabilistic regressions. 1. Introduction. Generational characteristics, perceptions and motivational drivers of digital native students require the implementation of innovative educational tools based on multimedia and social media (Kara, 2018). With this purpose, information and communication technologies (ICTs) have been integrated in teaching activities to develop new learning environments, such as those based on e-learning and blended-learning (Alexander, 2006). Within ICTs, the use of multimedia (e.g., instructional videos) has attracted significant academic attention, due to its learning benefits in terms of higher attention and motivation of students (Berk, 2009). Though multimedia instruments for teaching and learning purposes have been used in the classroom since the beginning of the 20th century (De Koning, Hoogerheide & Boucheix, 2018; Snelson & Perkins, 2009), the 21st century has observed an increasing use of these technologies as educational tools due to the revolutionary advances in personal technologies (e.g., cell phones, laptops and tablets), an extraordinary growth of social media platforms to share multimedia materials (e.g., YouTube), and their extraordinary penetration among the student population (Fleck, Beckman, Sterns & Hussey, 2014; Jones, Ramanau, Cross & Healing, 2010). In the last decade, many online learning platforms such as Coursera, Khan Academy, and TED, have enormously increased their presence in formal educational environments (Chen & Wu, 2015). In this context, social media platforms designed to share and visualize instructional videos have shown their learning effectiveness as complementary materials in traditional face-to-face lectures (in multiple disciplines of science, health, business and economics, among others), as well as in online environments (Al-Bahrani, Patel, & Sheridan, 2017; Fleck, Richmond, & Hussey, 2013, 2014; Snelson, 2011). For the purposes of this research, instructional video refers to a multimedia tool generally accessed online and intended to teach conceptual knowledge through the use of visual and verbal materials (Fiorella & Mayer, 2018). Empirical studies have generally confirmed that online instructional videos present information in a more attractive and effective manner than traditional face-to-face lectures, and thus achieve higher engagement levels and learning capabilities among students (Al-Jarf, 2012; Brecht, 2012; Castro-Alonso, Ayres, & Paas, 2016; Davis, Deil-Amen, Rios-Aguilar & Canche, 2012, Garrison & Kanuka, 2004; Moghavvemi, Sulaiman, Jaafar & Kasem, 2018; Orús, Barlés, Belanche, Casalo, Fraj & Gurrea, 2016; Roodt & Peier, 2013; Sherer & Shea, 2011; among others). In the same vein, Marchionini (2003) argues that videos increase students’ motivation and improves learning effectiveness, especially when they can be easily indexed and incorporated into lessons and specific contents by the students, thus helping to maximize their learning potential. Clifton & Mann (2011) found that online instructional videos increased students’ attention and memory. Additionally, studies such as Fleck et al. (2014) and Chen & Wu (2015) show that social media platforms contribute to the effectiveness of instructional videos by allowing flexible learning on behalf of the student. Finally, Kay (2012) argues that instructional videos let students revise difficult concepts and prepare them for examinations in a more effective way. Though empirical evidence appears to show more positive effects of instructional videos, especially when integrated with social media platforms (Kay, 2012; Orús et al., 2016), some studies have shown mixed and contradictory findings. In this vein, studies such as Zhang, Zhou, Briggs & Nunamaker (2006) and Figlio, Rush & Yin (2013) argue that the use of video clips may not necessarily guarantee better academic performance. Similarly, Liu & Kender (2004) show that videos based on capturing a portion of the blackboard in order to make the instructional content of classroom lectures viewable, do not always offer positive results, since classroom explanations may be interrupted and there could be video quality limitations. Finally, Cerezo, Sanchez-Santillan, Paule-Ruiz & Nunez (2016) find that watching video-supported materials is not necessarily related to better examination scores. Thus, the study of the impact of instructional videos in the learning process and academic performance of students still needs more research. These contradictory findings suggest that more research is required in this field (Lee & Lehto, 2013; Martin, 2016; Shoufan, 2018). Additionally, though the potential for the use of instructional videos has been highlighted as an important area of research in the literature, this type of study has generally focused on primary and secondary education levels (van der Meij, 2017). Furthermore, within studies focused on university studies, the use of these technologies in teaching economics has generally lagged behind other disciplines (Al-Bahrani & Patel, 2015; van Wyck, 2011). This can be explained by several factors, such as the lack of technological knowledge, not identifying its benefits in the curriculum or the instructor’s privacy concerns (Al-Bahrani & Patel, 2015). In fact, a few studies such as Kassens (2014), Kwak, Menezes & Sherwood (2015), Al-Bahrani & Patel (2015) have documented experiences in economics studies. With the aim of contributing to this scarce literature, this research shows the preliminary findings of an educational innovation project based on the development and use of instructional videos to teach and learn macroeconomics. Specifically, this research presents the findings of an experiment carried out in the Faculty of Economics and Business Administration of the University of Seville (Spain). This experiment is part of an educational innovation project which consists in the development of short video clips and their use in the classroom as complementary teaching materials in the macroeconomics curriculum. These videos illustrate dynamic graphical representations of macroeconomic processes, which generally imply additional comprehension and retention difficulties among students. The project was designed with the aim of improving students’ understanding of dynamic macroeconomic processes and therefore their academic performance. With this aim, this research describes the results of a first empirical assessment, thus adding new empirical evidence to show the effectiveness of the use of instructional videos in the field of economics. In doing so, the following questions will be tested and discussed: Does the use of instructional videos have a positive impact on students’ learning outcome (measured by a test score)? Furthermore, does it increase the probability of achieving higher scores? To answer these questions, this study shows the preliminary results of an experiment based on comparing the scores achieved across two treatment groups of students: those who used the video clips and those who did not. Then, both groups carried out a short test to assess the potential learning benefits of using the videos. Additionally, this paper aims to contribute to the academic discussion about the use of instructional videos as educational material in the economics curriculum. After this introduction section, the rest of the paper is structured as follows. The next section presents the materials and method used in this research. Section 3 outlines the results of the research, and a brief discussion of the results is given in Section 4. Lastly, some concluding remarks are reviewed in the final section. 2. Materials and method. 2.1. Case description. The case study in our assessment focuses on teaching macroeconomics in business administration studies at the University of Seville (a public higher education institution in southern Spain). The subjects of Macroeconomics are taught in the second year of the bachelor’s degree in Business Administration. Over the last few years, previous studies have detected that a significant number of students have difficulty understanding and retaining dynamic graphical representations explained in face-to-face sessions, as well as engaging in forward thinking (i.e. the concatenated changes in macroeconomic variables) (Pablo-Romero, Gómez-Calero & Pozo-Barajas, 2009; Pablo-Romerio, Pozo-Barajas & Gómez-Calero, 2012). A possible explanation may be found in the particular characteristics of digital native students, who are accustomed to the use of multimedia tools in previous educational levels. Therefore, the static nature of learning materials in university studies (basically, books and students’ notes taken during lectures) and the lack of multimedia materials may explain these learning difficulties. Online instructional videos have been highlighted in existing literature as a dynamic, flexible and on-demand way to learn (Whatley & Ahmad, 2007): 1) it allows a more flexible and portable learning process; 2) it represents cost and time savings for both students and educational institutions; 3) it promotes the student’s autonomy and selfpaced learning; and 4) it enhances online collaborative and on-demand learning. With the aim of offering students a more effective learning experience, the educational innovation project developed by the authors aims to provide multimedia material in the form of short video clips that describe dynamic macroeconomic processes. These materials are designed to serve as a complement to other materials (e.g., books and notes taken in face-to-face classes), thus being used in a blended-learning environment based on the integration of online multimedia materials with face-to-face learning experiences (Garrison & Kanuka, 2004). Though these video clips are available in the university virtual space of the macroeconomics subject, the authors’ final aim is to upload these multimedia materials to a public social media platform (e.g., YouTube), thus making them available for all students and the general public. Based on empirical evidence discussed in previous section, we believe that offering dynamic videos to the students as complementary materials could help to improve students’ comprehension and retention of macroeconomic dynamic processes and thereby, their impact on students’ academic performance. This research shows an assessment of this potential impact. 2.2.Participants. Two groups of undergraduate students that attended the subject of Macroeconomics in the Degree of Business Administration during the first semester (September-January) of the academic course 2018-2019 were selected to participate. A total of 120 students participated and informed consent was obtained from all of them prior to the experiment. There were 68 males and 52 females in the sample and their ages ranged from 19 to 29 years (average age of 19.9 years). The average examination mark obtained in the first semester course was 1.9 (see variable definition in Table 1). 2.3.Materials. In total, 5 instructional videos are being produced and indexed to the subject’s syllabus as a complementary multimedia material. Videos have been developed in the participants’ native language. Regarding its design, students taking the Macroeconomics subject in the first semester of the academic course 2018-2019 were asked to answer a short questionnaire about their perceptions and preferences regarding instructional videos (Expósito, Pablo-Romero, Gómez-Calero & Sánchez-Rivas, 2018). Additionally, findings regarding the basic characteristics of video clips for educational purposes in the existing literature were also taken into account. 2.3.1. Narrative and visual content Videos have been produced with the support of the Multimedia and TV department of the University of Seville. This has allowed us to produce dynamic animations (Figure 1) without the need to film classical lecture sessions (on blackboard). In this sense, computer animations have been particularly suitable to illustrate changes over time (Tversky, Morrison & Bétrancourt, 2002), such as in a macroeconomic equilibrium graphic. Narration in the videos came from a real person (i.e., a native male lecturer), thus avoiding the use of a computer-generated voice. The audio has been recorded at a normal speaking rate (120 words per minute), allowing pauses when required. Moreover, signaling techniques such as zooming-in and dynamic circles to draw the attention of students to certain complex objects in the presentation have been used. This coincides with the findings of Jin (2013) and Richter, Scheiter & Eitel (2015), who argue the positive learning effects of these signaling techniques. Figure 1. Captured image of the video clip. Translation (left to right): Change in the function’s slope. Position. Slope. 2.3.2. Video segmentation and sequencing Video segmentation refers to breaking down a continuous presentation into meaningful segments. In doing so, segmentation helps learners to manage content processing and prevent cognitive overload. Empirical evidence shows that segmentation of instructional videos helps to achieve better learning outcomes (Fiorella & Mayer, 2018; Mayer & Pilegard, 2014). Following this recommendation, video clips have been organized following a simple-to-complex sequence to describe the macroeconomic equilibrium process. This sequencing organized in different stages helps the viewer to assimilate complex dynamic processes (Merrienboer & Sweller, 2005). Each stage is presented by a subtitle and two-second pauses have been included to clearly define the end and the beginning between stages. During such pauses no information is provided to the user, thus allowing them to digest the dynamic nature of the video. Several studies have highlighted the learning benefits of these pauses (van der Meij, 2017). 2.3.3. Length Existing literature has shown the limitations on the time students commit to reviewing classroom lectures, and regarding video materials it is recommended to create video clips of limited length (generally 5 minutes maximum) in order to avoid early dropout by students (Guo, Kim & Rubin, 2014; van der Meij, 2017; Whatley & Ahmad, 2007). In our specific case, instructional videos have been designed to show specific macroeconomic equilibrium processes reviewed in macroeconomic curricula with a maximum length of 4.30 to 5 minutes. 2.4. Procedure and measurement instruments. Before uploading the video clips to a social media platform and fully using them in all student groups, authors decided to carry out this experiment to test the potential benefits of the instructional videos for students’ academic performance. As argued by Shoufan Test score >=2 Video 0.327 (0.058)*** Gender 0.034 (0.072) Semester score 0.065 (0.046) Observations 120 Wald Chi2 28.03 Pseudo R2 0.19 Note: ***; ** Statistical significance at 1% and 5% levels, respectively. To analyze the impact on achieving each of the possible test scores, a further step based on the estimation of an ordered multinomial logit regression has been considered. Table 4 presents the estimated marginal effects for each of the five values of the dependent variable (from 0 to 4). Estimates of cut-off thresholds do not present significant problems (at a 5% significance level). Heteroskedasticity-consistent standard errors have been obtained (shown in brackets in Table 4). As can be observed, estimated marginal effects show statistical significance for all five possible values of the dependent variable. Results show that the use of the video material significantly reduces the probability of achieving low test scores. Specifically, it reduces the probability of achieving a 0 score in -17.1% and in -12.7% in the case of a score of 1. In the case of a score of 2, the impact is negative, though less statistically significant. In contrast to the lowest scores, the probability of obtaining higher scores, such as 3 and 4, increases by 10% and 25.3%, respectively. Gender and semester score do not appear to be significant explanatory factors. According to these findings, our second research question can be answered, showing that the use of instructional videos for learning macroeconomic dynamic processes impacts positively on the probability of achieving better and higher academic outcomes. Table 4. Estimated marginal effects (ordered multinomial logit model). Test scores 0 1 2 3 4 Video −0.171*** (0.048) −0.127*** (0.032) -0.055** (0.023) 0.100*** (0.026) 0.253*** (0.056) Gender −0.023 (0.033) -0.017 (0.023) -0.007 (0.011) 0.013 (0.018) 0.034 (0.048) Sem. score 0.025 (0.019) -0.018 (0.013) −0.008 (0.005) 0.014 (0.011) 0.036 (0.026) Observations 120 23.77 0.078 Wald Chi2 Pseudo R2 Note: ***; ** Statistical significance at 1% and 5% levels, respectively. 4. Discussion Recent empirical and review studies confirm the increasing interest of academic communities in the use of multimedia and social media as educational tools (Fleck et al., 2014; Shoufan, 2018). In particular, instructional videos shared on social media platforms, such as YouTube, and online repositories, such as the Khan Academy (https://www.khanacademy.org/), have become very popular for learning and teaching purposes, thus leading to an extraordinary growth of easily accessible multimedia instructional contents (Merkt & Schwan, 2014; Shoufan, 2018). In this context, the investigation of the adequacy of these materials to achieve certain learning outcomes and its comparison with those obtained from the use of more traditional learning materials (e.g., textbooks, face-to-face classes) have been addressed by a growing number of studies in recent years (Al-Bahrani & Patel, 2015; Bétrancourt & Benetos, 2018). Following the common procedure in previous literature (Castro-Alonso et al., 2016, Fiorella & Mayer, 2018), the primary objective of this study was to examine whether the use of instructional videos (specially designed and produced to teach dynamic macroeconomic processes) positively impacts on the learning outcome of an experimental group of students, compared with a control group of students, while monitoring important variables such as age, gender and comprehension and retention capacities. The multi-stage analysis carried out in this study shows the positive impact, in terms of the achieved academic outcome, associated to the use of the instructional video to teach macroeconomics. Specifically, the inferential analysis has shown that the group of students who used the video achieves a significantly higher average test score. Subsequently, the probabilistic analysis has confirmed the positive impact of this material in the probability of achieving higher test scores. Furthermore, estimated marginal effects in the multinomial logit model indicate that the use of instructional videos significantly reduces the probability of achieving lower test scores and conversely, it increases the probability of higher test scores. In accordance with the findings of previous studies, such as Castro-Alonso et al. (2016), Davis et al. (2012), Orús et al. (2016) and Sherer & Shea (2011), among others, results would confirm that using videos as a complementary teaching material in the curriculum has a positive effect on the students’ academic performance. Additionally, this study contributes to the existing literature with respect to the proposed multi-stage analysis. To the best of our knowledge, no previous research has incorporated alternative methodologies, such as inferential analysis together with probabilistic models, to test the impact of using multimedia learning materials to teach and learn economics. As previously described, the educational innovation project carried out by the authors is based on a blended-learning educational experience, where a mix of different media tools (e.g., videos, social media) and materials (e.g., multimedia content and text books) are incorporated in traditional face-to-face learning (Wieling & Hofman, 2010). In this regard, Kwak et al. (2015) finds that the most preferred multimedia tool by the students to be used combined with face-to-face lectures is online videos. This finding was also observed in the previous interviews carried out with our students (Expósito et al., 2018). Nevertheless, as argued by Al-Bahrani & Patel (2015), the introduction of multimedia and social media in the classroom requires a good understanding of its applications by instructors, which can become a limitation for its adequate use and potential benefits. In this vein, we believe that the limited experiences documented in the field of teaching economics can be explained by several factors, such as the lack of knowledge about the technology and how to use it to explain economic concepts and processes, as well as the lack of knowledge about the potential benefits as educational materials. Another important factor can be found in the perceived risk of using online videos, such as those available on YouTube and other online repositories, in terms of quality of content, accuracy and appropriateness. Though several studies have discussed the positive benefits of using YouTube videos as instructional materials (Li & Tsai, 2017; Moghavvemi et al., 2018; Orús et al., 2016; among others), we have not been able to find adequate video materials in these online repositories that fit the requirements expressed by our students (in terms of visual and audio content, length, language, etc.) and in the current Macroeconomics curriculum. Therefore, the only alternative was to design and develop ad-hoc instructional videos that can be easily indexed in the approved curriculum of the subject. In this regard, it is worth noting that the Macroeconomics curriculum in the Degree in Business Administration of the University of Seville are similar to most curricula in other Spanish universities and worldwide. Another issue that requires further research is the assessment of the characteristics of such multimedia materials in order to maximize learning and retention (Fleck et al., 2014). In our case, previous interviews were carried out with our students with the aim of identifying their needs and expectations when learning macroeconomics. In this vein, we consider it important to analyze the way students learn in order to design materials and teaching processes that guarantee the greatest impact in terms of learning outcomes. In this regard, it is necessary to analyze the process of learning and creating memories described by the Information Processing Theory (Mayer, 2010), which explains how individuals exposed to information via sensory inputs, either of a visual and/or of an audio nature, process it in the working memory. The working memory has a limited capacity in terms of retention, but if an individual’s attention is maintained, the working memory encodes the information for storage in the long-term memory. As discussed by Mayer (2010), the use of instructional videos, as well as other multimedia tools, plays a significant role in increasing retention of the target information presented in the video. In a similar vein, Bétrancourt & Benetos (2018) show that most studies conducted to compare dynamic vs. static materials report an outperformance of the former. Moreover, they argue that using dynamic visualizations appears to be more effective for procedural learning than for conceptual learning content. In this sense, the study of Li & Tsai (2017) has investigated how different learning materials (e.g., video clips) are accessed by students and how they affect their learning performance. Findings show that the development of personalized learning materials adapted to the specific content, learning environment and the characteristics of the final users, generally leads to better learning performance. In fact, despite the fact that the use of online educational videos is growing in all types of educational environments, their effectiveness in terms of learning outcomes is still insufficiently understood (Chorianopoulos & Giannakos, 2013). In fact, as discussed by Chen & Wu (2015), no general guidelines or conventional standards are available to design instructional videos. Particularly, in the case of learning dynamic economic processes, studies testing different video characteristics and materials are scarce (Al-Bahrani & Patel, 2015). This study has aimed to contribute to filling some of the gaps discussed above. Nevertheless, we are aware of the multiple issues related to the effectiveness of instructional videos on learning performance that still require further research. To mention only some, Yang, Tsai, Chiou, Lee, Chang & Chen (2018) argue that the effects of the cognitive activities on processing multimedia presentations, the multimedia effects on learning outcomes, the use of dynamic online sharing-platforms, the roles of personal factors and the effects of instructional design are still not sufficiently addressed in the existing literature. Additionally, Hultberg & Calonge (2017) add that further research is also needed to explore the effective impact of multimedia tools on long-term memory and thus, on the retention capabilities of learners. 5. Conclusions ICTs have been integrated in teaching activities to develop new learning environments. Within ICTs, the use of multimedia (such as instructional videos) has attracted significant academic attention. Nevertheless, the use of these technologies in teaching economics has generally lagged behind other disciplines and very few studies have documented experiences in this area. This research shows the findings of an educational innovation project, carried out in the Faculty of Economics and Business Administration of the University of Seville (Spain), based on the development and use of instructional videos to teach and learn macroeconomics. Five short video clips have been created as complementary teaching materials in the macroeconomics curriculum. These videos illustrate dynamic graphical representations of macroeconomic processes, which generally imply additional comprehension and retention difficulties among students. Secondly, the effectiveness of the use of instructional videos in the field of economics has been tested. Specifically, the two following questions have been tested and discussed: Does the use of instructional videos have a positive impact on students’ learning outcome? And does it increase the probability of achieving higher scores? In order to answer these questions, this study compares the learning level achieved across two treatment groups of students: those who used the video clips and those who did not. The experiment was designed so that the only significant difference between the two treatment groups was the use of the instructional videos. The analysis has been carried out in a step-by-step manner. Firstly, an inferential analysis tests the differences between mean values of “test score” among experimental and control groups. Secondly, probit and multinomial probabilistic regressions were estimated in order to assess the impact of the variable “video” on the probability of achieving higher test scores. Findings of the inferential analysis show the positive impact of instructional videos on the average test score, so the first research question can be positively answered. Additionally, probit regression results indicate that the use of the videos leads to an increase in the probability of passing the test by 32.7%. Likewise, the multinomial logit regression results show that the use of the video material significantly reduces the probability of achieving low test scores and increases the probability of achieving high test scores. 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