Measures to promote olive grove biomass in Spain and Andalusia: an opportunity for economic recovery against COVID-19

sustainability Article Measures to Promote Olive Grove Biomass in Spain and Andalusia: An Opportunity for Economic Recovery against COVID-19 Jesús Marquina, María JoséColinet and María del P. Pablo-Romero *   Citation: Marquina, J.; Colinet, M.J.; Pablo-Romero, M.d.P. Measures to Promote Olive Grove Biomass in Spain and Andalusia: An Opportunity for Economic Recovery against COVID-19. Sustainability 2021, 13, 11318. https://doi.org/ 10.3390/su132011318 Academic Editor: Brantley Liddle Received: 7 September 2021 Accepted: 10 October 2021 Published: 13 October 2021 Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. Copyright: © 2021 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ 4.0/). Department of Economic Analysis and Political Economy, Faculty of Economics and Business Sciences, University of Seville, Ramon y Cajal 1, 41018 Seville, Spain; [email protected] (J.M.); [email protected] (M.J.C.) *Correspondence: mpablor[email protected]; Tel.: +34-954-557-611; Fax: +34-954-557-629 Abstract: Olive grove biomass presents an opportunity to reduce greenhouse gases and meet the sustainability objectives set by Europe. Given the relevance of this organic matter, this paper analyzes the evolution and current situation of the regulations that regulate olive grove biomass as a source of energy in Europe, in Spain and in Andalusia. Likewise, its effect on the evolution of the use of biomass in the Andalusian region, especially the olive grove, is analyzed. The analysis is novel, since there are no previous studies that reveal this type of information for the olive grove biomass sector. The results show that, as of 2005, the development of biomass for thermal and electrical uses is favorable, reaching the objectives set by the PASENER 2007–2013. However, this situation is reversed as of 2012, with the abolition of the feed-in tariff system for renewables. Besides this, the olive grove biomass sector faces other obstacles such as the cost of residue collection and the few incentives for this sector. The reorientation of the measures, in order to enhance this energy source, would generate a positive effect for the economy of the region that has been affected by COVID-19. Keywords: renewable energy; biomass; olive grove; energy regulations; energy plans; Spain; Andalusia 1. Introduction The current health crisis caused by COVID-19 has led to a bleak outlook throughout the global economy [ 1 ]. The world economy has been hit hard, experiencing a contraction of 3.5% in 2020 [ 2 ]. This indicates a recession much worse than that of the 2008 crisis (GDP contraction of 1.3%) [ 3 ]. Faced with this current economic framework, much emphasis has been placed on a green recovery as a means to stimulate the economy [ 4 ]. In fact, the UN has established the promotion of economic recovery plans that take into account the climate and nature crisis. Likewise, the International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA) urges governments to face the challenge of economic recovery by taking advantage of the progress made in renewable energies, so as not to lose sight of the fight against climate change and the commitment to sustainability [ 5 ]. In this way, it is intended that renewable energies play a key role in economic recovery, guaranteeing sustainability and energy security, creating employment and strengthening resilience to protect people’s health and well-being. Faced with this international panorama, olive grove biomass, as a renewable energy source, plays a key role in this green recovery that is being implemented. This organic matter presents an opportunity for Mediterranean countries, which is where the highest concentration of this crop exists and, therefore, where the greatest generation of residues originate. Thus, the olive grove is considered to have high economic and energy value. Currently, it has a presence in countries where it was traditionally considered unimaginable that Sustainability 2021,13, 11318. https://doi.org/10.3390/su132011318 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/sustainability Sustainability 2021,13, 11318 2 of 33 these could exist, such as China, Australia, Latvia and Finland. However, despite its greater expansion to various countries around the world, 80% of the surface of olive groves is concentrated in the Mediterranean basin [ 6 ]. Likewise, olive oil industries also have a greater presence in Mediterranean countries, reaching 94% of the world’s olive oil production [ 7 ]. The great wealth generated by this crop and the agro-processing sector in this geographical area, means that, every year, large quantities of biomass are generated that can be used for energy use. This reveals the importance this crop has for these countries, since its waste presents an alternative clean energy source. At the same time, it contributes to improvement in climate change (one of the main objectives worldwide). Olive grove biomass as an energy source is regulated by the different rules governing this sector. In Europe, its regulation began from 1997, with the approval of the Treaty of Amsterdam (where the principle of sustainable development was included in the Community Objectives) and the preparation of the White Paper on Energy [ 8 ]. With the latter, the main aim was to promote the use of renewable energies. The first measures proposed by the White Paper on Energy focused on improving competitiveness, security of supply and protection of the environment. Its fiscal and financial measures included a favorable tax treatment for renewable energies, subsidies for the start-up of new production plants and financial incentives for consumers [ 9 ]. From that moment, companies related to the agricultural and olive sector (mainly olive mills, table olive industry, olive pomace extractors and a small number of growers) began to have greater incentives to develop tasks related to use of waste, with the purpose of producing energy, mainly for self-consumption. In parallel, in the same year, the approval of the Agenda 2000 invited the promotion of renewable energy sources. It was also proposed that biomass should be developed by all available means in the agricultural, fiscal or industrial fields, which encouraged the Member States to grant aid for their support [ 10 ]. This background influenced the development and progress of biomass as a source of renewable energy. Its relevance, at European level, is evidenced by its high level of production (102,615 ktoe, which represents 44.67% of the total production of renewable energies in 2019) [ 11 ]. Among the main European producers are Germany, France, Italy, Sweden, Finland and Poland, with 57.56% of the total production in 2019 [ 12 ]. The main consumers of biomass are the Nordic and Baltic countries, together with Austria, and headed by Finland [13]. Within this group, no Mediterranean basin olive grove cultivation countries are predominant. In this sense, at the European level, Spain did not occupy a privileged place in the production of primary energy from biomass. However, it does stand out for its ability to obtain this resource. In 2020, the Spanish territory had 50.6 million hectares cultivated (5.43% corresponded to olive groves) and had a solid and numerous agro-processing sector producing large amounts of biomass each year [ 14 , 15 ]. In spite of this, in 2018, the biomass potential was 17,287 ktoe (18.36% of the European total) and consumption was 5444 ktoe (1314 ktoe for electrical uses and 4130 ktoe for thermal uses) [16,17]. Within Spain, in 2018, Andalusia represented 17.1% of the potential biomass (2963 ktoe) which is equivalent to 16.2% of the region’s primary energy consumption [ 16 ]. The region had 8.76 million agricultural hectares in 2020, of which 1.66 million were occupied by olive groves [ 14 ]. In addition, the olive crop has continued to expand (8.1% since 2004) [ 14 ]. Thirteen of the seventeen Andalusian power generation plants traditionally use the remains of the oil production industry (olive pomace, extracted olive pomace, olive stones and olive leaves) as fuel for the olive industry itself [18]. The relevance of the olive sector in the Andalusian region, its prospects for growth in the immediate future, and its capacity to generate renewable energy from its waste, justify the interest of this study. Thus, the objective of this paper is to analyze the effects that the main approved regulations have had on the development of olive grove biomass in Andalusia, and whether their effects have been positive or negative. In the same way, this paper aims to encourage policies aimed at promoting olive grove biomass as an energy source for thermal and electrical uses. In addition, it is also intended that the use of this energy source represents a possible alternative to stimulate the economy, which has Sustainability 2021,13, 11318 3 of 33 been greatly aggravated by the health crisis caused by COVID-19. Therefore, the launch of a “Green Recovery” is proposed. For this, the plans and programs, laws, and other regulations approved for this purpose and its main consequences are analyzed in a triple scenario: European, Spanish and regional. With this aim, the following procedure is followed for the development of this paper. In the first place, the main regulations that regulate biomass production for thermal and electrical energy purposes in Europe, in Spain and in Andalusia are compiled and systematized, with special mention of olive grove biomass. Thus, the main measures and aims of these regulations are detailed. Second, the effect of these regulations on the evolution and level of development of olive grove biomass in Andalusia is analyzed. It should be said that similar analyses have been carried out previously, but referring to other renewable energy sources or referring to other countries. Proof of this are the studies by Pablo-Romero et al. (2013) on measures to promote solar thermal energy in Spain [ 19 ] or that of Bouznit et al. (2020) on measures to promote renewable energy for electricity generation in Algeria [ 20 ]. However, this paper presents a novel study, since as far as we know, there are no previous studies that analyze the regulations that have been regulating the use of olive grove biomass in recent years and its effects on the development of its capacity, particularly in Andalusia. It is important to point out that in the European and Spanish areas, there are numerous regulations that may also have an indirect influence on the development of olive grove biomass for electricity production. In this paper we refer only to those that have a direct impact. The results of the analysis allow us to determine in what way these measures have influenced the development of biomass from olive groves in Spain and Andalusia, as a renewable energy source for electrical and thermal uses. The analysis is relevant, since it may allow the orientation of the policies to be improved in the main olive-growing country and region, with extension to other Mediterranean countries, also affected by COVID-19. This paper highlights different unsolved problems that this energy sector has in Spain and, especially, in Andalusia. In this sense, the main problems are related to: current regulations, high cost of labor and transport and the limited incentives for this sector to correct the aforementioned obstacles. Thus, this paper offers an opportunity to open the debate on a problem of great magnitude that paralyzes the development of olive grove biomass in a region where its potential is high. The main contributions presented in this paper can be used to boost olive grove biomass in those places where this crop is grown. Thus, this paper provides a set of information not previously collected in any previous paper. In this way, the main novelties that this paper contributes are: • Compilation of the main regulations regarding biomass, making special references to aspects related to olive grove biomass. • Representation and critical assessment of the main energy data of olive grove biomass at European, national and regional level. • Discussion on the main contributions of this renewable energy source to the regional economy. The structure of this paper is as follows. Following this introduction, Section 2 describes the methodology used. The results are given in Section 3. Section 4discusses the results and, finally, Section 5details the latest conclusions. 2. Methodology Figure 1shows the methodological procedure of this paper: Sustainability 2021,13, 11318 4 of 33 Figure 1. Outline of the research methodology process. First, the different regulations (energy plans, laws and incentive programs) are compiled and analyzed. From these, the most relevant aspects that affect the biomass and, especially, the olive grove biomass, stand out. The analysis is carried out from the first approved renewable energy policies (1997) until 2020. The main sources of information search are: the website of the European Commission, BOE (Official State Gazette), BOJA (Official Gazette of the Junta de Andalusia) and Ministries of Spain and Andalusia. Second, energy data referring to biomass and olive grove biomass are collected. Likewise, these data are collected for the period 1997–2020. The data are obtained from different official sources such as Eurostat, the European Environment Agency, IDAE (Institute for Diversification and Energy Saving) and the Andalusian Energy Agency. Third, a critical analysis is made with the results obtained at the European, national and regional level. Fourth, the main results are evaluated at the regional level. Finally, it should be noted that the reason that justifies the search means used to collect information is the official nature and quality of the different publications in certain high-impact journals. 3. Results The results of this paper can be divided into three parts. In each of them, the main regulations and energy plans, approved in Europe, in Spain and in Andalusia, are analyzed. This highlights what effects the policies have had on the development of olive grove biomass, and what opportunities for increased waste usage would mean for the economic recovery after COVID-19. 3.1. Olive Grove Biomass Regulations in Europe The cultivation of the olive tree occupies more than 11 million hectares throughout the world. Almost 7 million (60%) are concentrated in Europe, more specifically in the countries of the Mediterranean basin [ 6 ]. As a result, the EU is a world leader in olive oil production, with an average production of 2.1 million tons per year (68% of world production) [ 21 ]. Most of this production is concentrated in the Mediterranean area, dominated by Spain, Italy and Greece (70% of European production), Spain being the main producer of olive oil Sustainability 2021,13, 11318 5 of 33 (with a production of 1.12 million tons during the 2019–2020 season) [ 22 , 23 ]. In this regard, the importance of the olive sector justifies the relevance of this crop in its contribution to the production of renewable energies. Therefore, the waste generated by this crop has been the subject of a great deal of interest in the development of different European regulations related to renewable energies. 3.1.1. Communications from the European Union The first measures to boost olive biomass in Europe took place with the approval of the White Paper on Energy in 1997 [COM (1997) 0599]. Since then, as shown in Table 1, the EU has published a range of documents related to its position in favor of reducing climate change, and its commitment to the use of renewable energies. In each of these documents, biomass is the subject of special attention, as this energy source is the most used within the European territory [11]. Table 1. Communications from the EU regarding the promotion of the use of renewable energies. Name Year White Paper “Energy for the future: renewable sources of energy” [COM (1997) 0599] 1997 White Paper on environmental liability [COM (2000) 66 end] 2000 “Biomass Action Plan” [COM (2005) 628 end] 2005 Green Paper “A European Strategy for Sustainable, Competitive and Secure Energy” [COM (2006) 105 end] 2006 “Forest Action Plan” [COM (2006) 302] 2006 “Renewable energy road map—Renewable energies in the 21st century: building a more sustainable future” (Action Plan 2007–2009). 2007 Progress Report on the implementation of the Biomass Action Plan [COM (2009) 0192] 2009 Report on sustainability requirements for the use of solid and gaseous biomass sources in electricity, heating and cooling [COM (2010) 0011 end] 2010 “Clean Energy for All Europeans” [COM (2016) 860 end] 2016 The European Green Deal [COM (2019) 640 end] 2019 Annex on guidelines for trans-European energy infrastructure [COM (2020) 824 end] 2020 Source: Own elaboration from EUR-Lex. In 2005, the European Commission launched, for the first time, a “Biomass Action Plan” [COM (2005) 628 final]. This plan established a series of measures aimed at increasing the development of this type of energy from wood, waste and agricultural crops [ 24 ]. It also aimed to reduce dependence on fossil fuels, reduce greenhouse gas emissions and stimulate economic activity in rural areas. All this was due to the fact that biomass represented more than half (from 44% to 65%) of the renewable energy consumed in Europe. In this regard, the European Commission identified three sectors in which the biomass resource should be a priority: heat production, electricity production and transport. In addition, all the points of this plan were related to a set of measures, carried out by the Common Agricultural Policy (CAP), where much of the aid was aimed at promoting energy crops and the energy use of agricultural by-products and waste. In the case of the olive grove, the established aid contemplated certain agro-environmental practices, among them, the active use of pruning waste. One year later, the European Commission presented the "Forest Action Plan" [COM (2006) 302] as part of the development of the Forestry Strategy for the European Union (1998), which also includes biomass from the olive groves [ 25 ]. This Plan contemplates four main objectives to optimize sustainable management and the multifunctional role of European Union forests: •Increase long-term competitiveness. •Improve and protect the environment. •Contribute to a better quality of life. • Encourage communication and coordination with the aim of increasing coherence and cooperation at different levels. Sustainability 2021,13, 11318 6 of 33 Thus, it was intended to promote the use of forest biomass for energy production, focusing on the development of markets for wood pellets and chips. Later, a Progress Report on the implementation of the Biomass Action Plan was carried out in 2009 [COM (2009) 0192]. It recognized the deviation from compliance with the 2010 objective, regarding renewable energy sources. This deviation was due to the increase in energy consumption within the EU and the insufficient development of renewables [ 26 ]. Among the conclusions, it highlighted the need to act prudently in the use of biomass as a source of renewable energy, and proposed an adequate supervision system. In 2010, the European Commission issued the “Report . . . on sustainability requirements for the use of solid and gaseous biomass sources in electricity, heating and cooling" [COM (2010) 0011 final]. It recommended that Member States that had introduced, or would introduce, national sustainability systems in relation to solid and gaseous biomass, ensure that these systems were equal to those established in the Renewable Energy Directive. This was intended to encourage the production and sustainable use of biomass, a well-functioning internal biomass market and the elimination of obstacles to the development of bioenergy [27]. In the same way, it is important to underline the Commission’s Release on “Clean Energy for All Europeans” [COM (2016) 860 final], in 2016. This established that only the efficient conversion of biomass into energy would receive public support, those that presented favorable characteristics and met adequate sustainability criteria. This was intended to avoid the possible adverse effects that uncontrolled use of biomass could cause for the climate [ 28 ]. In this sense, olive cultivation had favorable characteristics that placed it in a better position, with respect to other crops. This was due to the fact that the olive is an organized arboreal crop, whose biomass is controlled by the growth needs of the plants [ 29 ]. In short, although it had to comply with the EU’s sustainability criteria, it was part of a more favorable position than biomass from natural forest areas [28]. Finally, it is worth highlighting the European Green Pact [COM (2019) 640 final], which includes a series of measures related to the climate and the environment. Thus, the priority objective is to promote that the EU is the first climate-neutral continent in the world by 2050 [ 30 ]. Likewise, the Annex on guidelines for trans-European energy infrastructure [COM (2020) 824 final] aims to expand the European energy infrastructure, in order to address the fragmentation of interconnections between Member States in their isolation from the networks of gas and electricity, secure and diversify the Union’s energy supplies, sources and supply routes, as well as increase the integration of renewable energy sources [ 31 ]. Both regulations, recently approved, directly promote the use of olive grove biomass for energy purposes. 3.1.2. European Directives Directive 2001/77/EC [ 32 ] was the first to promote compliance with the objectives in the EU. Later, Directive 2003/54/EC was approved and established definitions applicable to the electricity sector in general [33]. Although there was still no express mention of the biomass sector, there was general regulation of renewables. This encouraged the EU’s energy consumption to grow steadily for years. Between 2000 and 2007, it was approximately 25 TWh per year. Likewise, biomass boiler installations increased significantly from 2004, making applications for heating and SHW supplied through pellets, a common practice in many European countries [13]. In 2009, with the entry into force of Directive 2009/28/EC, the objective to reach 20% of final energy consumption from renewable sources by 2020, was established. From that moment, biomass began to be mentioned in the regulatory field, with the establishment of sustainability criteria for biofuels and bioliquids [ 34 ]. This Directive was revised in June 2018, when sustainability criteria for the use of biomass was addressed, and in the case of residual biomass it stated the following [35]: • Biomass should not come from land of high value in terms of biodiversity, nor from peatlands that are not drained. Sustainability 2021,13, 11318 7 of 33 •Forest biomass should not be produced unsustainably. • The reduction of emissions must be at least 80% for the production of electricity, heating and cooling from biomass in installations, following its start-up on January 1, 2021, and 85% as of January 1, 2026. •Power generation plants over 20 MW must always use cogeneration technology. Finally, in December 2018, Regulation (EU) 2018/1999 came into force. It established a series of measures in line with The Paris Agreement 2015, and the specific objectives of the Union for 2030, on energy and climate. In this way, the objectives for renewable energy and energy efficiency are set for the year 2030 at 32% and 32.5%, respectively. These objectives are also included in Directive (EU) 2018/2001 and Directive (EU) 2018/2002, respectively [ 36 ]. Both objectives will be revised in 2023 and can only be updated to raise them and not to reduce them. Furthermore, this new regulation prevents charges being applied to self-consumption. Regarding transportation, it has been established that at least 14% of the fuel used must come from renewable sources by 2030, and first-generation biofuels with a high risk of "indirect change in land use", should not count towards the renewable use objectives from then on. In conclusion, these can place the olive grove biomass sector in a more favorable position, in such a way that it can be translated into a future increase in its uses. 3.1.3. The Olive Grove in the Evolution of Biomass in Europe The promotion of renewable energies in Europe has caused the proportion of their use in total energy consumption to increase in recent years. In the 2005–2015 decade, their proportion in EU consumption almost doubled, from 9% to approximately 17% [ 37 ]. However, despite the greater efforts by the EU, fossil fuels are still the dominant energy source in Europe, representing 72.6% of the energy mix. Biomass stands out for its production levels, which makes it the leading renewable energy in the EU. Figure 2shows the evolution of biomass production in Europe, over the total of renewables produced. Since 1997, it has had the highest percentage of use, followed by hydroelectric (11.97% of the total) and wind (13.74% of the total). Biomass currently provides approximately 4% of the total EU energy supply. However, and despite the fact that in 2019 it represented 44.67% of renewable production, participation has been decreasing slightly over time [ 11 ]. The production of biomass in the EU is mainly used for residential heat (83%) and, to a lesser extent, for combined generation (CHP) of heat and electricity (17%) [16]. Sustainability 2021, 13, 11318 8 of 32 Figure 2. Evolution of the production of solid biomass and the set of renewable energies in Europe during the period 1997–2019 (units: in ktoe). Source: Own elaboration from Eurostat. The olive grove has favorably contributed to this situation. The oil mills generated 9.6 million tons of biomass per year (mainly, olive pomace, olive leaves and olive stones). For its part, olive grove pruning generated 11.8 million tons of biomass, of which only 30% were used [38]. In this way, in Europe, this crop reached an approximate volume of 13.1 million tons of biomass per year. The olive grove biomass is most often used for electricity generation (47%) and for thermal generation (33%). Regarding the use of thermal energy, the main consumer is the olive oil industry (oil mills) and extraction, followed by the agro-processing sector that does not relate to olive oil, and the domestic sector [38]. Olive cultivation also plays a fundamental role in the advancement of this type of energy, which is due to the fact that its main by-products represent an important way to generate electrical and thermal energy, especially in Mediterranean countries [39]. 3.2. Measures for the Promotion of Olive Grove Biomass in Spain Spain has considerable agricultural wealth, which, among other advantages, provides an important opportunity to generate renewable energy. This country ranks second among the countries with the greatest agricultural area utilized in the EU (with 13.3%, and behind France which has 15.9%) [40], where the olive groves occupy 2.75 million hectares [14]. Most of this crop (60%) is concentrated in the Guadalquivir valley (Andalusia), mainly in the provinces of Jaen (22%) and Cordoba (13%) [41]. 3.2.1. Renewable Energy Plans In Spain, the production and use of olive grove biomass have been influenced by the different energy plans related to renewable energies that have the purpose of promoting their production and use and, consequently, meeting the objectives set by Europe. The main objectives of each of these plans are shown in Table 2. This shows that it was not until 1999, when a specific renewable energy plan was approved, because the 1991 plan, although it included the planning of all energy sources, only introduced a specific chapter dedicated to the promotion of renewable energies. Since 1999, the three plans approved have adhered to the guidelines set by Europe, with increasing demands for renewable energy. The purposes and objectives set for biomass are contained in each of these plans, where the olive plays a fundamental role. 0 50000 100000 150000 200000 250000 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 Solid biomass Total renewable energy 250,000 200,000 150,000 100,000 50,000 Figure 2. Evolution of the production of solid biomass and the set of renewable energies in Europe during the period 1997–2019 (units: in ktoe). Source: Own elaboration from Eurostat. Sustainability 2021,13, 11318 8 of 33 The olive grove has favorably contributed to this situation. The oil mills generated 9.6 million tons of biomass per year (mainly, olive pomace, olive leaves and olive stones). For its part, olive grove pruning generated 11.8 million tons of biomass, of which only 30% were used [ 38 ]. In this way, in Europe, this crop reached an approximate volume of 13.1 million tons of biomass per year. The olive grove biomass is most often used for electricity generation (47%) and for thermal generation (33%). Regarding the use of thermal energy, the main consumer is the olive oil industry (oil mills) and extraction, followed by the agro-processing sector that does not relate to olive oil, and the domestic sector [ 38 ]. Olive cultivation also plays a fundamental role in the advancement of this type of energy, which is due to the fact that its main by-products represent an important way to generate electrical and thermal energy, especially in Mediterranean countries [39]. 3.2. Measures for the Promotion of Olive Grove Biomass in Spain Spain has considerable agricultural wealth, which, among other advantages, provides an important opportunity to generate renewable energy. This country ranks second among the countries with the greatest agricultural area utilized in the EU (with 13.3%, and behind France which has 15.9%) [ 40 ], where the olive groves occupy 2.75 million hectares [ 14 ]. Most of this crop (60%) is concentrated in the Guadalquivir valley (Andalusia), mainly in the provinces of Jaen (22%) and Cordoba (13%) [41]. 3.2.1. Renewable Energy Plans In Spain, the production and use of olive grove biomass have been influenced by the different energy plans related to renewable energies that have the purpose of promoting their production and use and, consequently, meeting the objectives set by Europe. The main objectives of each of these plans are shown in Table 2. This shows that it was not until 1999, when a specific renewable energy plan was approved, because the 1991 plan, although it included the planning of all energy sources, only introduced a specific chapter dedicated to the promotion of renewable energies. Since 1999, the three plans approved have adhered to the guidelines set by Europe, with increasing demands for renewable energy. The purposes and objectives set for biomass are contained in each of these plans, where the olive plays a fundamental role. The National Energy Plan—PEN 1991–2000 basically intended to paralyze the nuclear programs, approved in previous Plans, and to promote the expansion of natural gas and renewable energies [ 42 ]. On the other hand, the Plan for the Promotion of Renewable Energy—PFER 2000–2010 began to forge an energy structure that was increasingly beneficial for renewables. From this moment on, the first targets for biomass were highlighted . Sustainability 2021,13, 11318 9 of 33 Table 2. Main renewable energy plans in Spain. Approval Date. Energy Plans General Objectives Specific Objectives for Biomass 1991 National Energy Plan (PEN) 1991–2000 - Minimization of costs. - Energy diversification. - Self-supply. - Environmental Protection. In this way, it plans to subsidize the actions aimed at promoting and improving energy efficiency, committing to renewable energy. The use of biomass for energy use is encouraged, replacing fossil fuels. 1999 Plan for the Promotion of Renewable Energy (PFER) 2000–2010 - Natural gas becomes the source with the greatest growth, up to 22.50% of the total in 2010. - The electricity generation structure consists of: 33% natural gas, 28.4% renewable energy, 19.4% nuclear, 15% coal and 4.1% petroleum products. It is planned to increase its production for 2010 by 6 million ktoe. Of the total, 0.9 would correspond to thermal uses in the final consumption sectors and 5.1 would be destined to the generation of electricity. In this way, the contribution established, up to the year 2000, is multiplied by 30. For this, it is intended to encourage different economic sectors and households. 2005 Renewable Energy Plan (PER) 2005–2010 - To cover at least 12% of the total energy consumption in 2010 with renewable sources. - To achieve a minimum of electricity generation with renewable (29.4%) on the gross national consumption of electricity. - To achieve a minimum of biofuels (5.75%) in relation to gasoline and diesel consumption in transport, in accordance with Directive 2003/30/EC. The targets for biomass in 2010 are set at 1695 MW of installed power for electrical uses. In this way, production would be 11,822.6 GWh plus a production of 582,514 toe/year in thermal biomass. 2011 Renewable Energy Plan (PER) 2011–2020 - To achieve a 20% share of energy from renewable sources in gross final consumption by 2020. - To achieve a 10% share of energy from renewable sources in energy consumption in the transport sector by 2020. For the solid biomass, an objective of 1187 MW is established for 2020, and an increase of 383 MW of power is expected for thermal uses in 10 years. Source: Own elaboration from BOE, IDAE [42–45]. Subsequently, during the validity of the Renewable Energy Plan—PER 2005–2010, an ambitious target for biomass was established. This was set at 1695 MW of installed power for electrical uses, aimed at generating 11,822.6 GWh/year. However, only 32% of the target for solid biomass was reached. In this way, the development of solid biomass for electric power generation was small, despite the important advantages that the main by-products of olive groves could contribute to the energy market. In 2010, the primary biomass energy over the total represented 4.8%, mainly due to its use for thermal applications. In general, the renewables percentage, as primary energy over the total, was 11.3%, so the target of 12% set in the PER 2005–2010 was almost reached [ 46 ]. The renewable energies experiencing the greatest growth were wind, solar photovoltaic and solar thermoelectric. Later, with the Renewable Energy Plan—PER 2011–2020, the requirements of the objectives continued to be increased. Its purpose was to adapt to the new European objectives, established in Directive 2009/28/EC. In the case of biomass, it continued to show a deficit in its development, reaching installed power targets below those highlighted in the previous Plan. Thus, the incipient attempts to encourage its use for energy use and the granting of subsidies (BIOMCASA, GIT, PAREER-CRECE) to promote its projects, had not been enough of an incentive for the development of the sector. In parallel, and in order to fulfill the commitments with Europe in the field of renewable energies, different Action Plans have been launched from Spain. These were Sustainability 2021,13, 11318 16 of 33 necessary for the use of buildings, and ensuring that part of this consumption came from renewable sources. Likewise, with the approval in that same year of Royal Decree-Law 7/2006, urgent measures were adopted in the energy sector, and the transaction costs of competition (CTC’s) were repealed. In this way, the variation of the special regime premiums were disconnected from the average electrical, or reference, tariff [67]. 3.2.3. The Olive Grove in the Biomass Evolution in Spain Figure 3shows the evolution of total installed renewable power, as well as the power in biomass, for both thermal and electrical uses, from the period 1998–2004 to the period 2013–2020. The periods mark the time that each of the main Royal Decrees, related to the production of renewable energies, had been in force (RD 2818/1998, RD 436/2004, RD 661/2007 and RD 413/2014). It can be observed that the installed biomass power, like the other renewable energies, had greater growth during the validity of PER 2005–2010, with increases of more than 70% with respect to the period 2004–2007, when the PFER 2000–2010 was in force. In addition, it should be noted that although the data in Figure 3only refer to the periods of validity of each of the Royal Decrees, in all years the power of biomass has been increasing, reaching the values of 2020 (677 MW). Sustainability 2021, 13, 11318 16 of 32 Figure 3. Evolution of the electrical and thermal power of biomass installed in Spain during the period 1998–2020 (units: in MW). Source: Own elaboration from IDAE. The high potential of biomass in Spain is due, in part, to the cultivation of the olive and the waste generated by the agro-food olive oil industries. As can be seen in Figure 4, the territory has 2.75 million hectares occupied by this crop. These are mainly concentrated in Andalusia (60.43%), although they are also present in Castile-La Mancha (16.12%) and Extremadura (10.45%) [14]. Thus, Spain has large areas of olive cultivation where around 282.70 million olive groves are concentrated. This generates large amounts of biomass per year, as a result of the different olive grove pruning processes (mainly, thin branches and firewood) [68]. Firewood produced from pruning is often used for domestic heating in rural areas. The thinner pruned wood is used less frequently due to high collection costs, resulting in it being burned in the open field. Figure 4. Distribution of the cultivated area of olive groves in Spain (units: number of hectares). Source: Own elaboration from ESYRCE. Furthermore, Spain has a large number of agro-food industries, of which 1756 correspond to olive mills (where olive oil is obtained), 487 to the table olive industry (consumable olives) and 63 to olive pomace extractors (extraction of residual oil by chemical processes, producing olive-pomace oil) [23]. These industries are responsible for 0 2,000 4,000 6,000 8,000 10,000 1998-2004 2004-2007 2007-2013 2013-2020 Installed power of biomass for the electrical uses (MW) Installed power of biomass for the thermal uses (MW) 10,000 8000 6000 4000 2000 1998–2004 2004–2007 2007–2013 2013–2020 Figure 3. Evolution of the electrical and thermal power of biomass installed in Spain during the period 1998–2020 (units: in MW). Source: Own elaboration from IDAE. However, and despite this growth of biomass, the effects of the measures to promote it for electrical use could be considered insufficient, at least when compared with other technologies. Currently, the installed power of renewable energies in Spain stands at 50,356 MW, with the system generating 104,607 GWh, representing 38.1% of total gross electricity production. Wind, with 22,990 MW (45.66% of the total installed capacity), and hydraulics, with 18,963 MW (37.66% of the total installed power), are those that generate the most energy in Spain, with 47% and 35%, respectively. Meanwhile, biomass, with 677 MW of installed capacity (1.34% of the total nationally) only generated 5%. The high potential of biomass in Spain is due, in part, to the cultivation of the olive and the waste generated by the agro-food olive oil industries. As can be seen in Figure 4, the territory has 2.75 million hectares occupied by this crop. These are mainly concentrated in Andalusia (60.43%), although they are also present in Castile-La Mancha (16.12%) and Extremadura (10.45%) [ 14 ]. Thus, Spain has large areas of olive cultivation where around 282.70 million olive groves are concentrated. This generates large amounts of biomass per year, as a result of the different olive grove pruning processes (mainly, thin branches and firewood) [ 68 ]. Firewood produced from pruning is often used for domestic heating in rural areas. The thinner pruned wood is used less frequently due to high collection costs, resulting in it being burned in the open field. Sustainability 2021,13, 11318 17 of 33 Sustainability 2021, 13, 11318 16 of 32 Figure 3. Evolution of the electrical and thermal power of biomass installed in Spain during the period 1998–2020 (units: in MW). Source: Own elaboration from IDAE. The high potential of biomass in Spain is due, in part, to the cultivation of the olive and the waste generated by the agro-food olive oil industries. As can be seen in Figure 4, the territory has 2.75 million hectares occupied by this crop. These are mainly concentrated in Andalusia (60.43%), although they are also present in Castile-La Mancha (16.12%) and Extremadura (10.45%) [14]. Thus, Spain has large areas of olive cultivation where around 282.70 million olive groves are concentrated. This generates large amounts of biomass per year, as a result of the different olive grove pruning processes (mainly, thin branches and firewood) [68]. Firewood produced from pruning is often used for domestic heating in rural areas. The thinner pruned wood is used less frequently due to high collection costs, resulting in it being burned in the open field. Figure 4. Distribution of the cultivated area of olive groves in Spain (units: number of hectares). Source: Own elaboration from ESYRCE. Furthermore, Spain has a large number of agro-food industries, of which 1756 correspond to olive mills (where olive oil is obtained), 487 to the table olive industry (consumable olives) and 63 to olive pomace extractors (extraction of residual oil by chemical processes, producing olive-pomace oil) [23]. These industries are responsible for 0 2,000 4,000 6,000 8,000 10,000 1998-2004 2004-2007 2007-2013 2013-2020 Installed power of biomass for the electrical uses (MW) Installed power of biomass for the thermal uses (MW) 10,000 8000 6000 4000 2000 1998–2004 2004–2007 2007–2013 2013–2020 Figure 4. Distribution of the cultivated area of olive groves in Spain (units: number of hectares). Source: Own elaboration from ESYRCE. Furthermore, Spain has a large number of agro-food industries, of which 1756 correspond to olive mills (where olive oil is obtained), 487 to the table olive industry (consumable olives) and 63 to olive pomace extractors (extraction of residual oil by chemical processes, producing olive-pomace oil) [ 23 ]. These industries are responsible for producing the various products derived from olives, such as table olives, olive oil or olive-pomace oil. These production processes produce different by-products: olive pomace, extracted olive pomace, olive stones and the remains of leaves and branches which are used to generate electrical and thermal energy, often used for self-consumption by the industry [18]. The importance of the olive sector in biomass production in Spain can be demonstrated in different mathematical applications offered and published by various studies. Thus, the outline of the article "Report on the availability of Biomass Sources in Spain: vineyards and olive groves" shows that, in Spain, olive grove pruning generates approximately 7 million tons per year [ 69 ]. The largest contribution is made by Andalusia (57%), followed by Castile La-Mancha (17%), Extremadura (11%) and Catalonia (5%). These four regions produce 90% of the total biomass generated by olive grove pruning in Spain [ 70 ]. For its part, the olive oil industry generates 4.75 million metric tons of olive pomace (50% is destined to the manufacture of pomace olive oil), 1.45 million metric tons of olive stones and 0.78 million metric tons of extracted olive pomace. The table olive industry produces 0.06 million metric tons of olive stones per year [69]. Despite its high potential, the lower growth rate of biomass, compared to other technologies, may be due to the lower incentives received by the sector (when compared to those for other renewable sources such as wind, solar photovoltaic and solar thermoelectric), and the greater complexity of the treatment this resource requires. Table 5shows the results of compensation payments (feed-in tariffs) during the 2014–2020 period. It can be observed that the most prioritized technologies are those of cogeneration, solar photovoltaic, solar thermoelectric and wind, which are precisely those that have advanced most during this period. Biomass, for its part, follows these energy sources, but with a major difference. In relation to the remuneration of generated electricity it can be observed that biomass has higher remuneration than wind, consistent with the increased degree of technological maturity of the latter technology. However, the rewards are much higher in the case of photovoltaic technology, in spite of major technological developments in wind technology and its worldwide expansion. This, together with insufficient incentives to the agricultural sector for the use of waste, has contributed to the Sustainability 2021,13, 11318 18 of 33 reduced development of olive biomass. Basically, the remuneration does not cover the costs of collection and transport and does not offer an acceptable return for the investor [29]. Table 5. Result of the annual compensation payments for production installations of renewable energies, cogeneration and waste during the 2014–2020 period. Technology Year Feed-in Tariff (M EUR) Feed-in Tariff (EUR/MWh) Cogeneration 2020 2019 2018 2017 2016 2015 2014 917.86 1312.89 1233.65 1147.40 871.04 1173.20 1702.00 39.80 49.72 46.89 44.80 36.82 50.53 64.30 Solar PV 2020 2019 2018 2017 2016 2015 2014 2354.15 2407.83 2441.97 2493.40 2439.30 2441.60 2822.00 182.73 282.64 326.51 323.52 321.26 315.37 374.67 Solar TE 2020 2019 2018 2017 2016 2015 2014 1244.46 1285.73 1297.12 1313.40 1263.00 1262.50 1441.00 279.03 263.96 297.23 260.60 257.86 261.12 244.82 Wind power 2020 2019 2018 2017 2016 2015 2014 1208.63 1413.89 1475.33 1450.80 1256.90 1253.10 1823.00 23.45 26.71 30.47 30.74 26.60 26.87 36.68 Hydraulics 2020 2019 2018 2017 2016 2015 2014 64.93 76.77 94.91 81.60 75.10 67.70 164.00 14.73 18.95 15.16 28.52 16.43 16.08 36.55 Biomass 2020 2019 2018 2017 2016 2015 2014 330.52 311.98 315.16 306.80 274.30 258.30 283.00 76.33 89.09 90.98 88.49 82.87 76.15 66.11 Waste 2020 2019 2018 2017 2016 2015 2014 86.30 109.12 118.34 119.40 104.90 102.50 81.00 32.58 36.05 36.71 35.34 31.29 28.95 27.75 Sustainability 2021,13, 11318 19 of 33 Table 5. Cont. Technology Year Feed-in Tariff (M EUR) Feed-in Tariff (EUR/MWh) Waste treatment 2020 2019 2018 2017 2016 2015 2014 250.46 223.59 171.98 152.80 86.10 120.50 416.00 68.39 74.36 66.61 63.19 52.73 78.66 97.40 Other technologies 2020 2019 2018 2017 2016 2015 2014 1.17 1.10 0.19 0.19 0.16 0.56 - 68.40 57.89 - - 1454.55 140.00 - Source: Own elaboration from National Markets and Competition Commission (CNMC). 3.3. Measures for the Promotion of Olive Grove Biomass in Andalusia (Spain) The cultivated area of olive groves in Andalusia occupies 1.66 million hectares (34.04% of the agricultural surface), which is equivalent to 60% of the Spanish olive oil producing area and 30% of that of the EU [ 14 , 29 ]. Likewise, the industrial sector that surrounds this crop, at a national level, is predominantly concentrated in this region where 48% of the oil mills (844), 71% of the olive pomace extractors (45) and 45% of the table olive industry are located (219) [ 41 ]. In these industries, products such as olive oil, olive-pomace oil (representing 76% of national production and 42% of the Community’s production) and table olives (representing 67% of the national production and 45.9% of the Community’s production) are sold. The favorable characteristics of this sector have, over the years, forged a solid market, both nationally and internationally [ 29 ]. In turn, the olive grove presents other advantages to the Andalusian region, since the different by-products that are obtained from it, and from its agro-processing sector, have a high renewable energy value. This forms an alternative energy to fossil fuels. This advantage offers the possibility of reducing greenhouse gas emissions to the atmosphere and contributes to the improvement of climate change. In addition, in 1999, the primacy of its by-products boosted the start-up of the first biomass power generation plant in Spain, in Palenciana (Cordoba, Andalusia). Currently, this power generation plant (El Tejar Autogeneración) uses extracted olive pomace (a by-product obtained from the olive-pomace oil manufacturing process) as fuel to generate energy [18]. 3.3.1. Effects of the Different Energy Plans for Olive Grove Biomass in Andalusia In Andalusian regional planning, olive grove biomass has received special attention, as this energy source has developed more in this territory than in Spain’s other Autonomous Communities. This is due to the abundant presence of this crop and the high energy richness of its by-products. Since 1995, Andalusia has launched four plans in the field of energy planning: Energy Plan of Andalusia—PLEAN 1995–2000; Energy Plan of Andalusia—PLEAN 2003–2006; Andalusian Plan for Energy Sustainability—PASENER 2007–2013; and the Andalusian Energy Strategy 2020. The four plans shared the commitment to improve energy efficiency and increase the use of renewable energy, over and above national and community objectives. Specifically, the PLEAN 2003–2006, was intended to cover at least 15% of the total demand for primary energy in the region by 2010, three percentage points more than those highlighted by Europe for that year (12%). In each of the energy plans, biomass and olive growing in particular played an important role. Table 6shows the most relevant aspects. Sustainability 2021,13, 11318 20 of 33 Table 6. Plans to promote the use of renewable energies in Andalusia. Approval Plans General Objectives Relevant Aspects to Biomass Prepared in 1994 by the Society for Energy Development of Andalusia, for the Ministry of Economy and Finance. Energy Plan of Andalusia (PLEAN) 1995–2000 Its objective was that, by 2000, renewable energies would contribute 7.6% of the total primary energy. It aimed to increase biomass by 202 ktoe/ear and develop cogeneration and electricity and gas infrastructure in the region. Decree 86/2003, of April 1 Energy Plan of Andalusia (PLEAN) 2003–2006 Its purpose was to ensure that, by 2010, 15% of energy demand corresponded to renewable energies, a significant proportion of this objective being obtained in 2006. In the case of biomass for electrical uses, the objective was to achieve an installed capacity of 250 MW (the figure of 164 MW was reached in 2006) by 2010. Furthermore, due to expected high growth of biomass for thermal uses, the Programme to Promote the Use of Biomass—Probiomass was launched to encourage facilities. Decree 279/2007, of November 13 Andalusian Plan for Energy Sustainability (PASENER) 2007–2013 Its objective was, in 2013, that 18.3% of primary energy consumption would correspond to renewable energy and 32.2% to gross production of electricity with renewable energy. With regard to biomass, it was intended to achieve 256.0 MW and 649.0 ktoe, for electrical and thermal uses, respectively. This represented 21.13% of the total renewable energy. Agreement of October 27, 2015, of the Government Council Energy Strategy of Andalusia 2020 Five objectives were proposed for 2020: to reduce the trend of primary energy consumption by 25%; to provide 25% of the final gross energy consumption from renewable energies; to decarbonize energy consumption by 30% with respect to 2007 values, to consume 5% of the electricity generated from renewable sources; and improve the quality of the energy supply by 15%. Two Action Plans were agreed to carry out this Strategy. They included specific measures for the development of a biomass value chain, its energy use and the development of bio-refineries. Source: Own elaboration from Consejería de Innovación, Ciencia y Empresa [71–74]. Sustainability 2021,13, 11318 21 of 33 All these plans have incentivized change in the region’s energy model. In this way, the consumption of clean energies has been increasing. Currently, energies such as solar, wind and biomass account for 38.8% of installed electrical power [ 75 ]. This is equivalent to 40.4% of the electricity consumed by Andalusians. Together with these plans, other strategies have also been addressed in parallel that have served as supports for the fulfilment of these objectives. Among them are the "Autonomic strategy in the face of climate change” approved in 2002 and the "Andalusian Strategy for Sustainable Development: Agenda 21 of Andalusia" approved in 2004. These were created with the purpose of reducing greenhouse gas emissions. They promoted renewable energies, the reduction of energy dependence, energy saving, the establishment of instruments for energy improvement and the construction of energy efficient homes. Similarly, in 2007 the "Andalusian Climate Action Plan 2007–2012-Mitigation Program" was approved, and in 2010, the "Andalusian Program for Adaptation to Climate Change" was also approved. These established priority actions to adapt to climate change in energy, the promotion of renewable energy and the promotion of savings and energy efficiency. In addition, in September 2018, The Andalusian Strategy of Circular Bioeconomy was approved, which aimed to contribute to the growth and sustainable development of Andalusia. In order to do so, it sought to promote actions aimed at promoting the production of resources and renewable biological processes, such as olive grove biomass. In this way, this Strategy constituted an economic model, based on the production and use of renewable biomass resources, and their sustainable and efficient transformation into by-products, bioenergy and services for society [76]. Finally, given the relevance of olive cultivation in Andalusia, the agricultural sector has also favored the biomass of olive groves. Proof of this is The Strategic Plan of the Andalusian Agroindustry 2020, which includes nine strategic lines of action in the field of climate change. In this way, it is intended to promote operations aimed at increasing productivity and obtaining better results by consuming less resources, such as water, energy, raw materials, etc., which would be replaced by others with less contaminating impacts (waste, discharges, emissions) [77]. 3.3.2. Legislation Regulating Olive Biomass in Andalusia The main regulations that affect olive grove biomass in Andalusia can be classified according to the sector of activity that they regulate (see Table 7). In the legislative field, it should be noted that, in Andalusia, there are no express standards that regulate olive grove biomass. This is regulated, regarding energy matters, by Law 2/2007, which aimed to establish the primacy of the use of renewable energy over other energy sources [ 78 ]. This Law includes a set of promotion and exploitation measures for each of the renewable energies. Regarding measures to promote and exploit biomass, Article 17 of this Law establishes the commitment of the Government of Andalusia to regulate the use of energy biomass, develop promotional measures and the valorization process of biomass resources, and to carry out programs to promote energy crops. Sustainability 2021,13, 11318 22 of 33 Table 7. Main regulations of the energy and agricultural sector of Andalusia. Activity Sector Year Current Regulations Energy Sector 2007 Law 2/2007, To promote renewable energies, energy savings and efficiency. 2011 Decree 169/2011, Regulation of the Promotion of Renewable Energies, Energy Saving and Efficiency approved in Andalusia. 2018 Law 8/2018 Measures against climate change and for the transition to a new energy model in Andalusia. Agricultural and Forest Sector 1985 Law 2/1985, On Civil Protection. 1999 Law 5/1999, Prevention and fighting forest fires. 2001 Law 5/2011, On the olive groves of Andalusia. 2015 Decree 103/2015, The Olive Grove Master Plan is approved. Source: Own elaboration from BOJA (Official Gazette of the Junta de Andalusia). Subsequently, Decree 169/2011 developed Law 2/2007. From that moment, the Andalusian Energy Certificate was regulated in a document certifying compliance with energy requirements for buildings and industries. Likewise, a series of obligations were established, such as: the adoption of short-term profitable efficiency and energy saving measures; reliance on renewable energies for the demand of thermal energy; and the establishment of an Energy Management System for large consumers [79]. Given the relevance of the Andalusian olive groves, the autonomous government approved a specific Law for them. Although it went beyond the energy field, it was very favorable for its development. Thus, in 2011, Law 5/2011, relating to the olive groves of Andalusia, came into force. The purpose of this Law was to establish a regulatory framework for the maintenance and improvement of olive growing in Andalusia, the sustainable development of their territories and the promotion of quality and promotion of their products. For this purpose, it was proposed to strengthen the biomass sector, which was also regulated in the said Law [ 80 ]. Likewise, following the specifications contained in this Law, in 2015, the Decree 103/2015 (Olive grove Master Plan) was approved. This plan established the specific strategies for olive grove biomass [81]: • Promote actions aimed at achieving improvements in energy savings and efficiency in olive grove industries. •Reduce the volume of emissions and effluents in the olive industry. • Incorporate new technologies for the purification of waste from industries derived from olive groves. • Value the by-products obtained from olive grove industries and encourage measures for their reuse and/or commercialization. • Increase the use of renewable energies in the olive grove industries, as well as the energy self-sufficiency of the industries themselves. As a result, the Olive Grove Master Plan was an opportunity to boost biomass energy in the olive groves, contributing to the 2020 Strategy and the 2014–2020 Rural Development Program. Law 5/1999, of June 29, on prevention and fighting forest fires and Law 2/1985, of January 21, on Civil Protection, caused olive waste pruning to be destined for production of biomass energy. Law 8/2018 also established a series of measures aimed at reducing greenhouse gas emissions into the atmosphere. For this, the transition towards an energy Sustainability 2021,13, 11318 23 of 33 model, based on renewable energies, was proposed. This Law sought to promote citizen participation and encourage education, research, development and innovation [82]. Furthermore, at the local level, the different towns and cities of Andalusia joined the Covenant of Mayors. This has promoted the use of renewable energies and, especially, use of olive grove biomass in Andalusia, where 548 participating municipalities (representing more than 40% of the Spanish municipalities taking part) have committed to reducing their CO 2 emissions at the municipal level. The intention was to comply with the objectives set by Europe [ 83 ]. The signatories of the Covenant of Mayors Pact committed themselves to present an Action Plan for Climate and Sustainable Energy (PACES). This plan detailed the key actions that were intended to be undertaken. Furthermore, within the group of renewable energies, the importance of biomass in the region was highlighted given its huge potential [ 84 ]. In short, the olive grove is seen as an important energy alternative to undertake the various projects that are established in renewable energy. 3.3.3. Main Promotional Measures for Olive Biomass in Andalusia The instruments used by the government of Andalusia to promote the use of renewable energies, and, in particular, olive grove biomass, are subsidies for investments in equipment and facilities that use this energy. Since 2003, the Andalusian Energy Agency has been responsible for managing grants. In the case of biomass, it should be noted that in 2006 the Andalusian Society for the Valorization of Biomass was created. Its aims were to develop technologies that would promote the use of energy, as an element of wealth creation in the agricultural and forestry sector. This mixed public–private partnership was the first organization of its kind to be launched in Europe [85]. The most outstanding measures in Andalusia for the promotion of renewable energies, and in particular of olive grove biomass, are shown in Table 8. In it, the most recent measures are listed, although there had previously been other forms of incentives for the promotion of renewable energy and energy efficiency in different economic sectors and households. Table 8. Most recent economic incentives. Measures Approval Denomination Description Promotional measures 2009–2016 (not valid) Order of 4 February, 2009 Incentive Program for the Sustainable Energy Development in Andalusia 2009 “Andalusia A +” Commitment to the promotion of energy saving and use of renewable energies in all areas of Andalusian society. Decree-Law 1/2014 of 18 March Program to Promote Sustainable Construction in Andalusia Integrating several forms of action with incentives aimed at promoting energy saving, improvement of energy efficiency and the use of renewable energy in buildings located in Andalusia. All this was carried out via rehabilitation works, reforms, adaptation to use and efficient installations. Attempted to subsidize operations for obtaining and treating biomass. Promotional measures 2017–2020 (To date) Order of 23 December, 2016 Program of Incentives for the Sustainable Energy Development of Andalusia 2020. “Andalusia is more” The objective of this Program is to continue fostering energy efficiency and the application of renewable resources in the field of building and processes. The intention is to advance energy assessment and management, in sustainable mobility and in implementation of smart networks in the energy field, in line with the Energy Strategy of Andalusia 2020. This continues to subsidize investments aimed at favoring the obtaining and treatment of biomass. Source: Own elaboration from Andalusian Energy Agency [86–88]. Sustainability 2021,13, 11318 24 of 33 During the period of validity of the first promotional measures, 2009–2016, 22,949 biomass actions were implemented. These received incentives worth EUR 61 million and, of these, 20,039 corresponded to the Order of Incentives for the Sustainable Energy Development of Andalusia. This aid amounted to EUR 46 million and involved an investment of EUR 118 million. Most of the projects (19,979) were for thermal biomass, followed by logistics and biomass treatment. In addition, since the Sustainable Construction Program in Andalusia came into force in April 2014, and until 31 May, 2016, 2910 thermal biomass actions were supported (stoves, wood fireplaces and boilers) with an incentive of more than EUR 15 million. This led to an associated investment of EUR 23 million [89]. As a result of these actions, there has been a remarkable growth in thermal biomass installations in residential and service sectors. Thus, according to the data provided by the Andalusian Energy Agency, in 2015, biomass consumption in the residential sector was, for the first time, higher than in the industrial sector, with 39.62% compared to 25.84%, represented by the latter [ 90 ]. Olive grove by-products played a very important role in this growth. Subsequently, in order to continue promoting the use of renewable energies in the region, a second program of measures was launched (2017–2020), with the approval of the Order of 23 December, 2016. Thus, through its programs, which were focused on three main points (construction, SMEs and Smart Grids), the intention was to continue promoting the use of renewables, including olive grove biomass. In this way, the different lines of action focused on biomass logistic improvement systems, and energy use in economic sectors and in households. 3.3.4. The Olive Grove in the Evolution of Biomass in Andalusia The consumption of renewable energies in Andalusia is equivalent to 19.48% of primary energy consumption in 2020 (5.2 percentage points above Spain). This contributed to a 43% reduction in carbon dioxide emissions in recent years [ 75 ]. However, there is a long way to go to promote the development of renewable energy in the region with a total installed power of 8103.4 MW, compared to 9459.2 MW of fossils. Most of the renewable electric power installed in Andalusia comes from wind energy (3472.0 MW), followed by biomass (274.0 MW), solar thermal (997.4 MW), solar photovoltaic (2672.1 MW) and hydroelectric (650.0 MW). The biomass sector in Andalusia had 2066.2 MW of installed thermal power, which reached 1792.2 MW, as well as electricity, which stood at 274.0 MW [ 18 , 75 ]. This represented 38% of the total installed power for electrical uses, and 21% for thermal uses in Spain. Figure 5shows the evolution of installed biomass power for electrical uses in Andalusia, during the period 2000–2020. It can be seen that, since 2000, biomass for electrical uses had not stopped increasing. Since 2005, this had increased by 54.84%. From this moment, there was a greater growth of this energy source. In this sense, it is worth mentioning that the region managed to meet the targets set by PASENER 2007–2013 for biomass for electrical uses, which was set at 256 MW of total installed capacity [ 73 ]. Thus, in 2013, biomass for electrical uses stood at 257.5 MW of total installed power, as seen in Figure 5. However, there was a stagnation in the development of this sector from 2012, which was due to national regulatory changes to correct the tariff deficit. In 2019, it was in fifth place with 4.20% of the total renewables installed, generating 1569.2 GWh per year. Sustainability 2021,13, 11318 25 of 33 Figure 5. Evolution of the electric power of biomass installed in Andalusia during the period 2000–2020 (units: in MW). Source: Own elaboration from Andalusian Energy Agency. Figure 6shows the evolution of the installed capacity of biomass for thermal uses during the period 2005–2020. A pronounced increase can be observed starting in 2011, coinciding with the validity of the incentive programs launched during the 2009–2015 period. Thus, since 2010, the installed capacity increased 77.54%. This favored the fulfilment of the objectives set by PASENER 2007–2013 for biomass for thermal uses, which was set at 506.67 MW of total installed power [ 73 ]. Thus, in 2013, biomass for thermal uses stood at 1509.2 MW, as can be seen in Figure 6. In 2020 the total power for biomass for thermal uses stood at 1792.2 MW. Figure 6. Evolution of the thermal power of biomass installed in Andalusia during the period 2005–2020 (units: in MW). Source: Own elaboration from Andalusian Energy Agency. 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