Metacognitive awareness and personal characteristics of students: A case of Estonia

Me acogni i e Awa eness and Pe sonal Cha ac e is ics o S uden s: A Case o Es onia Hannes Ling, Inna Lii , Ma in Toding, U e Venesaa Tallinn School o Economics and Business Adminis a ion, Tallinn Uni e si y o Technology Co esponding au ho : Hannes Ling, email: [email p o ec ed] Abs ac En ep eneu ship educa ion has acqui ed a g ea impo ance in highe educa ion o he de elopmen o en ep eneu ial hinking, acqui ing knowledge and skills o he de elopmen o en ep eneu ial ini ia i e among s uden s. Howe e , he e is a need o s udy mo e p o oundly he inpu as well as ou come o en ep eneu ship aining cou ses, especially conce ning he assessmen and imp o emen o aining cou ses o making hem mo e e ec i e. The pu pose o his a icle is o in es iga e how he cou ses on en ep eneu ship a e in luencing s uden s‟ me acogni i e awa eness and whe he di e en pe sonal cha ac e is ics o s uden s a e connec ed wi h and in luencing he de elopmen o hei me acogni i e abili ies. The a icle is based on he su ey ca ied ou by using s uden s‟ psychological p o ile ques ionnai e and addi ional me acogni i e awa eness ques ionnai e. The esul s o s udy ha e been analysed by he ools o linea s a is ical analysis and clus e ing me hodologies. The esul s indica e ha en ep eneu ial mindse and me acogni i e awa eness a e mos de eloped among s uden s p esen ing highe le el o sel -con idence, aspi a ion owa ds independence and and isk- aking p opensi y, i.e. en ep ising s uden s. On he basis o he esul s o su ey i is possible o make a conclusion ha in o de o inc ease s uden s‟ me acogni i e awa eness he con en o cou ses and eaching me hods a e impo an aspec s o conside o s uden s wi h di e en pe sonal cha ac e is ics. In oduc ion En ep eneu ship has been conside ed as a sou ce o g ow h and compe i i eness. Fos e ing en ep eneu ship among s uden s has become an impo an opic o uni e si ies and go e nmen s. As a esea ch subjec he en ep eneu ial mindse is a complex cons uc which connec s o a a ie y o di e en ields like educa ion, business adminis a ion and cogni i e psychology. The ield o cogni i e psychology and me acogni i e awa eness is ge ing apidly inc easing a en ion in he scien i ic discussions in he con ex o en ep eneu ship. Me acogni ion has been de ined o be “ he abili y o e lec upon, unde s and, and con ol one‟s lea ning”(Sch aw, 1998). In hei s udy Mi chell e al p opose ha me acogni i e hinking can be delibe a ely p ac iced in an en ep eneu ial con ex . Fu he , hey sugges such me acogni i e hinking will lead o c ea ion o en ep eneu ial expe ise by acili a ing he sel - e lec ion, unde s anding and con ol o one‟s own en ep eneu ial cogni ions. (Mi chell, e al. 2005). In addi ion i can be said ha me acogni ion plays a ole in how people adap o hei de eloping and changing ci cums ances which a e p esen in any en ep eneu ial p ocesses (Haynie, G ego ie & Shephe d 2004, 2; Haynie & Shephe d, 2007). Mo eo e , indings o he s udies by Haynie and Shephe d sugges ha cogni i e adap abili y is impo an in an en ep eneu ial con ex , and ha me acogni ion does p omo e cogni i e adap abili y and hus imp o e pe o mance on an en ep eneu ial ask. In he con ex o en ep eneu ial aining o s uden s i would be app op ia e o ask also whe he he de elopmen o me acogni ion could be p omo ed by lea ning and aqui ing o new knowledge in he se ings o educa ional ins i u ion. Pe sonal ai s play an impo an ole in he ame o de eloping he me acogni i e abili ies which in luence signi ican ly he lea ning ou comes. Findings o Ve me en, Lodewijks & Ve mun sugges ha deep (me acogni i e) lea ning is associa ed wi h a endency o sel - egula e (Ve me en, Lodewijks & Ve mun 2001). Me acogni i e lea ning is conside ed o in ol e he abili y o cons an ly ask you sel ques ions du ing he lea ning p ocess abou he goals and op ional ways o achie ing he a ge and he p og ess made. This is in co ela ion also wi h indings sugges ing ha pe sonal in e es is an impo an mo i a ional componen o sel - egula ed lea ning and me acogni i e abili ies (McWhaw & Ab ami 2001). The lowe he le el o pe sonal in e es o an indi idual is owa d he lea ning ou come, he mo e di icul i is o make a deepe impac o a pe sons knowledgebase. The ela ions be ween pe sonali y ai s and me acogni i e abili ies a e e en u he exposed by s udies o Klei man & S anko (2007) who es ablished he s ong co ela ion be ween pe sons sel -con idence and me acogni i e abili ies. Howe e , he e is a sho age o empi ical e idence o jus i y his claim. The pu pose o his esea ch is o explo e Es onian s uden s‟ me acogni i e awa eness in he ame o en ep eneu ial p o ile (i.e. dempg aphic cha ac e is ics; pe sonal i s). The a icle is based on he su ey ca ied ou in he Tallinn Uni e si y o Technology which included bo h s uden s psychological p o ile ques ionnai e and addi ional me acogni i e awa eness ques ionnai e. The la e ques ionnai e co e s 5 domains o me acogni i e awa eness as goal o ien a ion, me acogni i e knowledge, me acogni i e expe ience, me acogni i e choice and moni o ing. This p o ides a ich da ase s o analysis o he changes in s uden s me acogni i e awa eness in he ame o hei en ep eneu ial p o ile. The cu en pape seeks o in es iga e whe he sel -con idence, aspi a ion owa ds independence and eadiness o ake isks a e connec ed wi h and in luencing he de elopmen o me acogni i e abili ies o s uden s. As a esul o he analysis i will be use ul o ind ou abou how o each en ep eneu ship wi h he pu poses o inc easing s uden s‟ me acogni i e awa eness. The esul s o s udy ha e been analysed by he ools o linea s a is ical analysis and clus e ing me hodologies. The main esea ch ques ions a e: 1) Wha is he in luence o en ep eneu ship educa ion aining cou ses o he me acogni i e awa eness o s uden s? 2) Whe he and how he me acogni i e awa eness is connec ed wi h s uden s‟ pe sonali y ai s? In he s uc u e o he a icle nex he heo e ical amewo k is included on he issues o me acogni i e awa eness and sel - egula ion as well as on en ep eneu ial pe sonali y ai s and hei connec ion wi h me acogni ion ased on p e ious s udies in he ield. A e ha da a and me hods o analysis a e co e ed. Following his, he esul s o he s udy a e p esen ed. And inally, he a icle ends wi h sho conclusion. 1. Theo e ical F amewo k 1.1. Me acogni i e awa eness and sel - egula ion Se e al s udies ha e ied o ill in he gaps in en ep eneu ship esea ch by ocusing on he ole o me acogni ion in aining, sel - egula ed lea ning and sel - egula o y skills (Haynie, G ego ie & Shephe d; 2004; Haynie & Shephe d, 2007; B yan , 2006; Ramocki 2007). I has been s a ed ha almos anyone capable o pe o m a skill is also capable o me acogni ion, ie hinking abou how hey pe o m ha skill (Sch aw, 1998) o „ hinking abou hinking‟(Jos , K uglanski, & Nelson, 1998). I has been also widely acknowledged ha me acogni ion plays a signi ican ole in success o ailu e and in how people adap o hei changing ci cums ances in an uns able en ep eneu ial en i onmen The unde lying assump ion o he esea ch ela ed o me acogni i e abili ies is ha some indi iduals a e mo e likely o s a a business, no ma e wha di icul ies hey migh encoun e . Success a ge ing in o business would no ake place only due o he amoun o ime and e o de o ed o en ep eneu ial ac i i ies – bo h success ul and unsuccess ul po en ial en ep eneu s a e likely o be able o ex ac hese esou ces equally. Fu he mo e, he indings indica e ha indi iduals who a e engaging in me acogni i e ac i i ies in a la ge ex en han o he s do no necessa ily wo k mo e o longe , bu spend he gi en ime mo e e ec i ely (Schmid & Fo d, 2003). In pa allel i has been ound ha me acogni i e aining has a posi i e impac on decision-making skills which on i s behal a e one o he c i ical ones o e e y en ep eneu (Ba ha & Ca oll, 2007). Mo eo e , indings sugges ha me acogni i e abili ies can be imp o ed by lea ning, hus enhancing he adap abili y and imp o ing he en ep eneu ial pe o mance (Haynie, G ego ie & Shephe d 2004; Haynie & Shephe d, 2007). This is suppo ed also by he esea ch o Mi chell e al (2005) sugges ing ha me acogni i e hinking will lead o c ea ion o addi ional en ep eneu ial expe ise. Ne e heless, me acogni ion is no a uni ied cons uc . P e ious esea ch has shown ha mos heo ies o me acogni ion (Nelson & Na ens, 1994; Sch aw & Dennison, 1994; Sch aw & Moshman, 1995) dis inguish be ween knowledge o cogni ion (i.e., knowledge abou one's own cogni i e p ocesses o capabili ies, as well as knowledge abou how, when, and why o use s a egies and alloca e cogni i e esou ces), and egula ion o cogni ion (i.e., he con ol aspec o lea ning). In his con ex he e a e h ee p ocesses o me acogni i e egula ion ypically posi ed (Sch aw & Moshman, 1995; Sch aw e al., 1995): (1) Planning, which e e s o he selec ion o app op ia e s a egies and alloca ion o cogni i e esou ces be o e he ask; (2) Moni o ing, which e e s o he awa eness o unde s anding and pe o mance du ing he ask; and (3) E alua ion, which e e s o he app aisal o pe o mance a e ask. This di ision o me acogni i e p ocesses co esponds wi h indings o Haynie (in His ich, Pe e s & Shephe d, 2007) who makes a dis inc ion be ween i e aspec s as goal o ien a ion, me acogni i e knowledge, me acogni i e expe ience, me acogni i e choice and moni o ing. Sch aw has a gued ha p omo ing me acogni ion begins wi h building an awa eness ha me acogni ion exis s and inc eases he success (Sch aw, 1998). Fu he mo e, i has been ound ha when bo h en ep eneu s and pe sons wi h high ask-mas e y skills p esen highe le el o me acogni i e awa eness i is suppo ing he desi ed o op imal ou comes o hei espec i e ac ions (V ug & Oo , 2008; Haynie e al., 2010). This is suppo ed by indings o Bowman, Ma kham, & Robe s (2001) who indica e ha me acogni ion e e s o one's awa eness o one's own cogni i e p ocesses. They a gue ha me acogni ion is an assessmen o one's own abili y, knowledge, and unde s anding o ask- ele an ac o s and has wide implica ions o bo h educa ional and indus ial/o ganiza ional se ings. Pin ich (2002) on i s behal a gues ha me acogni i e knowledge in ol es knowledge abou cogni ion in gene al, as well as awa eness o and knowledge abou one‟s own cogni ion. This allows a pe son o moni o he de elopmen and o make app op ia e and imely co ec ions in he p ocesses in own mind. Mo eo e , s uden s who a e unawa e ha hey lack ce ain abili ies o ac ual o p ocedu al knowledge a e unlikely o make su ficien e o o acqui e o cons uc new knowledge (Ibabe, 2010). This would allow o sugges ha o he s uden s who p esen lowe me acogni i e abili ies (ie he ones no awa e o hei own easoning pa e ns) han o he s a e he aining cou se i migh be a some le el ela ed wi h inabili y o educa ional p og am o ully co espond wi h hei needs. Al hough he ou comes o ainings depend also on he amoun o alue he pa icipan s pe sonally pu in o i , he e could exis a good possibili y o make a las ing impac wi h cul i a ing he posi i e mindse owa ds en ep eneu ship. Will o ac unde he p o ided ci cums ances, o assess hem, make decisions, plan he ollowing s eps and o ealize hem o pu suing owa ds he goals a e all dependen on goal- se ing skills. I could be e en said ha i is one o he co e skills o an en ep eneu . Fo una o&Goldbla (2006) a gue ha he e exis s a dimension as lea ning goal o ien a ion. Based on his he indi iduals who a e ac i ely in ol ed in me acogni i e exe cises sco e high on achie emen o ien a ion, gene alized sel -e icacy, mo i a ion o lea n, posi i e emo ionali y, and posi i e sel -pe cep ions. Bu esea ch indica es also he connec ion be ween goal-o ien a ion and me acogni ion in he ame o mas e y goals and sel - epo ed use o me acogni i e s a egies o e ime. Fo example indings o Pin ich (2000) es ablish ha highe mas e y in goal o ien a ion co ela es wi h highe sel - egula ion o cogni ion. Fu he mo e, Vandewalle (2001) a gues ha he indi iduals wi h a s ong lea ning goal o ien a ion a e mo e in e es ed in de eloping hei skills and abili ies, belie e ha such de elopmen is possible, and app oach si ua ions wi h a sense o high sel -e ficacy. Based on his i could be p oposed ha inc eased le els o skills, abili ies, belie in o onesel and si ua ional awa eness a e a some le el he p edic o s o p esense o highe le els o me acogni i e awa eness. By ag eeing wi h his one could also ag ee ha cogni i e adap abili y (a ec ed by he lea ning p ocess) suppo s he willingness o s e ch onesel o mee he challenging goals and o seek oppo uni ies ha os e pe sonal g ow h. Resea ch o Godshalk&Sosik (2003) adds o his discussion by a guing ha pe sons ha ing high le els o lea ning goal o ien a ion a e associa ed wi h he highes le els o psychosocial suppo and epo highe le els o ca ee de elopmen , manage ial aspi a ions and ca ee sa is ac ion when compa ed o he ones wi h low le els o lea ning goal o ien a ion. 1.2. En ep eneu ial pe sonali y ai s and hei connec ion wi h me acogni i e awa eness The li e a u e on en ep eneu ial cha ac e is ics has included a numbe o a iables ha add ess psychological a ibu es, pe sonali y, a i udes, and beha io . Many au ho s explain he en ep eneu ial p o ile o he pe son h ough c ea i i y, locus o con ol, sel -e icacy, sel -con idence, sel -independence and isk- aking. His ich and Pe e s (1989) ocus on h ee pe sonal cha ac e is ics, namely sel -con idence, aspi a ion owa ds independence and eadiness o ake isks. This a icle ocuses on hese h ee pe sonal ai s and hei ela ionship wi h en e p ising and me acogni i e awa eness. Knigh and Bandu a (1994) discussed he concep o sel -con idence. A p esen , he e is conside able in o ma ion abou he ela ionship be ween sel -con idence and cogni i e abili ies (S anko , 1998; 1999; S anko & C aw o d, 1996, 1997; S ano ich, 1999). Some hing is also known abou i s ela ionship o pe sonali y (Pallie e al., 2002). Sel - con idence is some imes ea ed as a pe sonali y ai , ei he on i s own o as an unde lying ace o b oade ai s (see Blais, Thompson, & Ba anski, 2005, o a e iew). Mo eo e , Blais e al. (2005) ha e demons a ed ha a b oad ange o cogni i e s yles, including need o cogni ion and desi e o s uc u e, had no e ec on con idence (Klei man, S anko 2007). Impo an ly, he e idence o he meaning ul ela ionship be ween sel -con idence and some concep ually ela ed cons uc s is sca ce. In heo y, con idence judgemen s e lec an impo an aspec o me acogni i e p ocesses (S anko , 1999, ci ed in Klei man, S anko 2007). By K onenbe g's esea ch en ep eneu ‟s sel -independence is ela ed wi h he alues o en ep eneu ship such as: eedom, eedom o decision, indi iduaal esponsibili y, esponsibili y and wo king independen ly. Wo k Independen ly is linked o F eedom o Decisions and desc ibes he ad an age o a sel -employmen in e ms o no being dependen om o he s. (K onenbe g 2011). Howe e , Segal, Bo gia & Schoen eld (2005) a e belie ing ha people may be mo i a ed o become en ep eneu s i hey belie e sel -employmen is mo e likely han wo king o o he s o lead o alued ou comes. People wi h a sense o en ep eneu ial sel -e icacy may be d awn o sel -employmen ‟s desi able oppo uni ies and bene i s, compa ed o he a ailabili y o hese bene i s ob ained h ough wo king o o he s (Segal, e al 2005). By op ion o Me aal people wi h a s ong need o au onomy insis on no being domina ed by o he pe sons, a oid in luence om o he s, and show impulsi e, obnoxious, and i esponsible beha io (Me aal, 1992, ci ed in Gelde en, Jansen and Jonges 2003). Bo h economic heo y and e e y-day obse a ion sugges ha isk- aking o isk-p opensi y a e impo an aspec s o unning a business. Mill (1848/1984) desc ibed he en ep eneu as a isk ake and cap ain o en e p ise, and emphasized isk- aking as a ea u e di e en ia ing an en ep eneu om a manage . Simila ly, isk is a business ac o ha is widely assumed in economic heo y o be a sou ce o en ep eneu ial p o i (Tyszka a al 2011). Macko and Tyszka (2009), in hei esea ch on en ep eneu ial isk- aking, ound ha in well-de ined (labo a o y) isky si ua ions en ep eneu s we e no mo e isk-p one han non-en ep eneu s. Howe e , in na u alis ic-business isky si ua ions hey ound mo e isky choices among en ep eneu s han among non-en ep eneu s. They concluded his s udy wi h he asse ion ha pe haps, like mos humans, en ep eneu s y o a oid isks. Fu he mo e, en ep eneu s ha e o deal wi h isky si ua ions ( hey simply ace hem), so hey canno a oid unde aking isky ac i i ies in business (e.g., in es ing, aking ou c edi , e c.). In addi ion, acco ding o he p e ious esea ch he Es onia people a e a he isk-e asi e when planning he business and in es men (Es onian Ins i u e o Economic Resea ch, 2004). The same esul was ound in he su ey among s uden s (Venesaa e al, 2006). 2. Da a and me hod The empi ical s udy was ca ied ou among he bachelo and mas e s udy s uden s o echnical speciali ies o Tallinn Uni e si y o Technology, who we e asked o gi e sel - alua ion o pe sonal ai s connec ed wi h en ep eneu ship and o me acogni i e awa eness. In h ee academic yea s (2008-2010) he s uden s who had aken he subjec o en ep eneu ship and business planning, we e asked o e alua e hei pe sonal ai s and on he i s o second lec u e acco ding o he ques ions o he es s gi en, and o assess hei me acogni i e awa eness. The pu pose o he cou se was o in oduce pa icipan s wi h he concep o an en ep eneu ial mindse and widen he ho izon o he espec i e knowledge among s uden s. The con en o he cou se in en ep eneu ship and business planning included lec u es and exe cises, sol ing eaching cases and w i ing business plans. I las ed h oughou he whole semes e (i.e. o al 16 weeks and 48 hou s). 280 s uden s o di e en speciali ies we e pa icipa ed in he s udy, mainly on he speciali ies o logis ics, na u al sciences and echnical sciences. Assemblage o he sample o he h ee yea s allows making gene aliza ions o he esul s o he analysis wi h a highe p obabili y. In o de o collec he necessa y da a samples, pa icipan s we e asked o ill ou a ques ionnai e abou cogni i e adap abili y. I was o iginally de eloped by Haynie (in His ich, Pe e s & Shephe d, 2007) as a "gene alized measu e o adap i e cogni ion". The ques ionnai e included 35 di e en s a emen s and i was asked o be illed ou bo h a he beginning and immedia ely a he end o he aining cou ses. The s a emen s co e ed i e dis inc i e a eas; such as goal o ien a ion, me acogni i e knowledge, me acogni i e expe ience, me acogni i e choice and moni o ing. This o iginal ques ionnai e was ansla ed in o Es onian in o de o a oid he possibili y o ge alse eadings due o possible misunde s anding o he ex . Fo measu ing he espec i e a ings a 10-s ep Like Scale was in oduced. Responden s we e asked o answe he s a emen s by a ing each o hem on he p o ided scale o 1 o 10, based on hei own judgmen whe e: 1 being equal o "No e y much like me" and 10 being equal o "Ve y much like me" To e alua e s uden s‟ pe sonal ai s, he so-called en ep eneu ‟s psychological po ai es was used (au ho s His ich and Pe e s, 1993), in which he ques ions we e di ec ed o making ce ain beha iou al choices and whe e i was possible o gi e „yes” and „no” answe s. The esul s o he analysis b ough ou in he a icle a e mainly based on he me hodology o he es ‟s au ho s. The ques ions ha e been di ided in o wo pa s – „yes”-answe o one g oup o he ques ions con i ming hose pe sonal ai s (sel -con idence, aspi a ion owa ds independence, eadiness o ake isks), can gi e he e alua ion ha he pe son has good p e equisi es o becoming an en ep eneu ; a ce ain numbe o „yes”-answe s o he ques ions o he second g oup cha ac e izing he opposi e pe sonal ai s (dependence on ex e nal in luences, non-aspi a ion owa ds independence and isk-e asi eness) indica es he case ha he esponden should e y ca e ully obse e himsel and plan an ac ion p og amme o de elop en ep eneu al pe sonal ai s. The au ho s o he cu en a icle p esumed ha in he i s case an e alua ion o he pe son ha ing good p e equisi es o becoming an en ep eneu can be gi en and in he second case, hey p esume ha he pe son has poo p e equisi es o becoming an en ep eneu . Then, he ques ions o he psychological es ha e been g ouped o exp ess he pe sonal ai s o an en ep eneu (sel -con idence, aspi a ion owa ds independence, eadiness o ake isks). The au ho s o he a icle di ided all he en ep eneu ‟s psychological po ai es ‟s ques ions in o six g oups acco ding o ision o he au ho s o he es . The da abase ea lie consis ing o 22 ques ions ( ai s) became a da abase o 6 g oups ( ai s) wi h iles o he es as ho izon al lines and he abo emen ioned 6 g oups ( ai s) as columns. In case o each g oup he au ho s o he a icle coun ed he „yes”-answe s. The ques ions-answe s o he i s g oup (R1) show i he esponden is dependen on ex e nal in luences which can in e e e wi h becoming an independen en ep eneu . The o ien a ion o he ques ions o he second g oup (R2) is o de e mine i he esponden ‟s inne will o achie e success and ic o y is mo e powe ul han he aspi a ion o subo dina e o a s ange will. The „yes”-answe s o he ques ions o he hi d g oup (R3) gi e e idence o he esponden no pa icula ly aspi ing owa ds independence; he „yes”-answe s o he ques ions o ou h g oup (R4) gi e e idence o he con a y. The pu pose o he ques ions o he i h g oup (R5) is o examine he esponden ‟s eadiness o ake isks, he „yes”-answe s o he ques ions o he six h g oup (R6) gi e e idence o he opposi e. Resea ch design has been cen e ed on a ques ionnai e de eloped o measu e me acogni i e awa eness. In o de o ind e idence a equency analysis has been u ilized o e alua e he answe s gi en o he espec i e s a emen s. This p o ides he s a is ical p ope ies (speci ically mean and s anda d de ia ion, S De ) o each s a emen asked, as a as he dis ibu ion o he da apoin s on he Like scale is conce ned. Addi ionally, analyzing hese esul s gi es an oppo uni y o assess whe he hey could be domina ed by ce ain alues o no . As a second s ep in he analysis o s a is ical p ope ies i was designed o look a he di e ence o means be o e and a e he cou se. This would allow ex ac ing an indica ion abou he impac o a aining cou se. The basis o analysis is me acogni i e awa eness o s uden s be o e he cou se. On he basis o clus e s o med he changes in me acogni i e awa eness we e assessed also a e he cou se. And also, he p o ile o s uden s we e analysed acco ding o he cluse e s o med. In o de o analyse he esul s o he ques ionnai e o cogni i e adap abili y clus e analysis has been used, he idea o which is ha objec s a e columned in o clus e s (g oups) in a way ha one clus e consis s o objec s as simila as possible and hey would clea ly dis inguish om he objec s in o he clus e s. In o de o ge he i s insigh s om he da a, he agglome i i e comple e-linkage hie a chical clus e ing p ocedu e (Hall e al., 2009) was used o isualize all he esponden s using a dend og am. The clus e analysis was ca ied ou also using K-means me hod (MacQueen, 1967), in case o which he numbe o clus e s k has o be de ined i s – acco ding o he in o ma ion gained om he heo e ical backg ound, he esul s o hie achical clus e ing and conside ing he wi hin clus e sum o squa ed e o s, he objec s we e di ided in o i e g oups. K-means is a combina o ial da a analysis pa i ional clus e ing me hod, whe e he objec i e unc ion is o maximize he in a-clus e simila i y and minimize he in e -clus e simila i y. Simila i y unc ion o his esea ch was chosen o be Eucledian dis ance, which was compa ible wi h Like scale. As a esul o clus e analysis, each esponden was assigned o a g oup o simila s uden s. The in o ma ion abou ha clus e was added as a new a ibu e o e e y pe son in a da abase, allowing o pe o m a ollow-up analysis o e e y such an objec o clus e . 3. Resul s 3.1. Me acogni i e awa eness o s uden s In he cu en s udy he le el o me acogni i e awa eness o s uden s has been iden i ied based on he Haynie's cogni i e adap abili y ques ionnai e (Annex1). In o de o p esen he e idences he linea s a is ical analysis has been u ilised in he ame o mean alues and s anda d de ia ions o each 5 me acogni i e ca ego ies (Table1). The o al mean alues (column2) e ie ed be o e he aining cou se indica es ha he pa icipan s a ed he le el o all hei me ocogni i e abili ies qui e high (mo e han 6 poin s on 10-s ep scale). This allows o d aw an assump ion ha on a e age he s uden s we e (based on hei own judgemen s) al eady be o e he aining cou se signi ican ly awa e o hei hinking and easoning pa e ns. Howe e , when looking a his mo e closely i is e iden ha skills ela ed o goal o ien a ion and me acogni i e knowledge ecei ed highe a ings han o he s. A he same ime he skills ela ed o he abili ies o choosing be ween mul iply op ions ( he ca ego y "me acogni i e choice") ecei ed he lowes anking on a e age. Fu he mo e, when looking a he esul s a e he aining (column2) i is e iden ha he a ings ha e inc eased in all me acogni i e ca ego ies (ie all he a ings a e abo e 7 poin s). The ac ha me acogni i e abili ies ha e inc eased a e he aining, suppo s he indings o Haynie e al (2004; 2007) which posi ed ha lea ning has signi ican impac o me acogni i e abili ies and i enhances he pe o mance. Table 1. A e age sco es o s uden s a ings be o e and a e he aining cou se on en ep eneu ship educa ion To al Logis ics Na u al Sciences Technical Sciences Mean S De Mean S De Mean S De Mean S De 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Be o e he aining Goal O ien a ion 7.6 1.342 7.7 1.293 7.5 1.511 7.6 1.221 Me acogni i e knowledge 7.5 .960 7.6 .808 7.5 .960 7.4 1.113 Me acogni i e expe ience 7.3 1.121 7.5 .927 7.1 1.180 7.2 1.255 Me acogni i e choice 6.8 1.400 6.9 1.198 6.6 1.491 6.9 1.510 Moni o ing 7.1 1.212 6.9 1.118 7.0 1.182 7.2 1.335 A e he aining Goal O ien a ion 7.9 1.100 8.0 1.008 7.7 1.267 8.0 1.026 Me acogni i e knowledge 7.8 .907 7.9 .888 7.7 .943 7.7 .890 Me acogni i e expe ience 7.6 1.036 7.8 .878 7.5 1.150 7.5 1.081 Me acogni i e choice 7.1 1.454 7.1 1.393 7.1 1.528 7.1 1.443 Moni o ing 7.5 1.219 7.6 1.127 7.3 1.191 7.4 1.340 No e: The scale o 1-10 is used, whe e 1 being equal o "No e y much like me" and 10 being equal o "Ve y much like me". Sou ce: au ho s’ compila ion By compa ing he a e age a ings in he ame o he s udy-disciplines i can be seen ha s uden s s uding logis ics domina e wi h high sco es in almos e e y me acogni i e ca ego y bo h be o e and a e he aining (column4). Technical sciences s uden s indica e he compa able sco es be o e he aining only in ca ego y "me acogni i e choice" (column8, 6.9 poin s) and a e he aining in "goal o ien a ion" (8.0 poin s). I is ema kable also ha a iance o a ings o logis ics-s uden s (column5) emain on a e age lowe compa ed o s uden s s uding na u al (column7) o echnical sciences (column9). This indica es ha logis ics-s uden s a e bo h mo e awa e o hei easoning pa e ns and hey do no ha e on a e age so much di e en opinions han s uden s o o he disciplines. The esul s o clus e ing using K-means me hod p o ided us he g oups wi h a leas 40 s uden s in each o hem (Table2). Looking a he g oups close e eals ha based on he mean alues calcula ed o each o he i e me acogni i e cons uc s bo h be o e and a e he aining he highes alues we e indica ed by s uden s belonging o clus e 2 (columns 4&5). Membe s o his g oup exp essed he highes sco es in all he ca ego ies (ie goal o ien a ion, me acogni i e knowledge, me acogni i e expe ience, me acogni i e choice and moni o ing). A he same ime he lowes alues be o e he aining we e gi en mos ly by s uden s in he clus e 3 (excep in he domain o me acogni i e knowledge whe e lowes esul s a e indica ed by clus e 4). Howe e , in o de o desc ibe he me acogni i e abili ies and awa eness o s uden s i is necessa y o ake a look mo e a he indi idual s a emen s as i allows o p esen se e al in e es ing aspec s cha ac e ising s uden s. Table 2. 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When pe o ming a ask, I equen ly assess my p og ess agains may objec i es 6. I hink o se e al ways o sol e a p oblem and choose he bes one 7. I challenge my own assump ions abou a ask be o e I begin 8. I hink abou how o he s may eac o my ac ions 9. I ind mysel au oma ically employing s a egies ha ha e wo ked in he pas 10. I pe o m bes when I al eady ha e knowledge o he ask 11. I c ea e my own examples o make in o ma ion mo e meaning ul 12. I y o use s a egies ha ha e wo ked in he pas 13. I ask mysel ques ions abou he ask be o e I begin 14. I y o ansla e new in o ma ion in o my own wo ds 15. I y o b eak p oblems down in o smalle componen s 16. I ocus on he meaning and signi icance o new in o ma ion 17. I hink abou wha I eally need o accomplish be o e I begin a ask 18. I use di e en di e en s a egies depending on he si ua ion 19. I o ganise my ime o bes accomplish my goals 20. I am good a o ganising in o ma ion 21. I know wha kind o in o ma ion is mos impo an o conside when aced wi h a p oblem 22. I consciously ocus my a en ion on impo an in o ma ion 23. My "gu " ells me when a gi en s a egy I use will be mos e ec i e 24. I depend on my in ui ion o help me o mula e s a egies 25. I ask mysel i I ha e conside ed all he op ions when sol ing a p oblem 26. I ask mysel i he e was an easie way o do hings a e I inish a ask 27. I ask mysel i I ha e conside ed all he op ions a e I sol e a p oblem 28. I e-e alua e my assump ions when I ge con used 29. I ask mysel i I ha e lea ned as much as I could ha e a e I inish he ask 30. I pe iodically e iew o help me unde s and impo an ela ionships 31. I s op and go back o e in o ma ion ha is no clea 32. I am awa e o wha s a egies I use when engaged in agi en ask 33. I ind mysel analysing he use ulness o a gi en s a egy while engaged in a gi en ask 34. I ind mysel pausing egula ly o check my comp ehension o he p oblem I si ua ed a hand 35. I ask mysel ques ions abou how well I am doing while I am pe o ming a no el ask. I s op and e- ead when I ge con used Sou ce: adop ed om His ich, R.D., Pe e s, M.P., & Shephe d, D.A. (2007)