Trade union practices and working conditions of chambermaids

• 211 • Anduli Revista Andaluza de Ciencias Sociales ISSN: 1696-0270 • e-ISSN: 2340-4973 TRADE UNION PRACTICES AND WORKING CONDITIONS OF CHAMBERMAIDS PRÁCTICAS SINDICALES Y CONDICIONES DE TRABAJO ENTRE LAS CAMARERAS DE PISO J. David Moral-Martín [email protected] Universidad de Zaragoza https://orcid.org/ 0000-0003-4174-2855 Eleni Ferri-Fuentevilla [email protected] Universidad de Huelva https://orcid.org/ 0000-0001-6820-3611 Francisco Estepa-Maestre [email protected] Universidad Pablo Olavide, Sevilla https://orcid.org/ 0000-0002-7130-041X Abstract Historically, women’s domestic work in households has been the subject of academic study that dates back to the 18th and 19th centuries. But the specifi c work of chambermaids in hotels only began to be studied in the early 2000s. The aim of this study is to test the above hypothesis and to identify research that has been done on labour organization, working conditions and health of housekeepers. The methodology consists of systematically reviewing the contributions on this issue registered in indexed publications between 2000 and 2021. It is confi rmed that the fi rst publication is from 2003. Among the results, the tendency of housekeepers to selforganize, such as “Las Kellys” association in Spain, stands out. The international comparison indicates intersectionality of discriminating factors increasing their vulnerability. For example, forms of piecerate payment are linked to higher accident rates, subcontracting increases and future automation could have a negative impact on labour negotiation. On the positive side, it is hoped that sustainable tourism labels will encourage decent working conditions for hotel housekeepers. Key words: chambermaids, intersectionality, Las Kellys, organisation, systematised review, working conditions Resumen Históricamente, el trabajo doméstico de las mujeres en hogares ha sido objeto de estudio académico que se remonta a los siglos XVIII y XIX. Sin embargo el trabajo específi co de las camareras de piso en hoteles se estudia solo desde los primeros años 2000. El objetivo de este estudio es comprobar la citada hipótesis e identifi car lo investigado sobre organización laboral, condiciones de trabajo y salud de las camareras de piso. La metodología consiste en revisar sistemáticamente las contribuciones sobre la cuestión registradas en publicaciones indexadas entre 2000 y 2021. Se confi rma que la primera publicación es de 2003. Entre los resultados destaca la tendencia de las camareras de piso a auto-organizarse, como la asociación “Las Kellys” en España. La comparativa internacional indica interseccionalidad de factores discriminantes incrementando su vulnerabilidad. Por ejemplo las formas de pago a la pieza se vinculan con mayor accidentalidad., la subcontratación aumenta y la automatización futura pudiera repercutir negativamente en la negociación laboral. En positive, se confía que los sellos de turismo sostenible incentiven condiciones de trabajo dignas para las camareras de piso. Palabras clave: camareras de piso, interseccionalidad, Las Kellys, organización, revisión sistematizada, condiciones de trabajo. Cómo citar este artí culo / Citation: Moral-Martin, J.David; Ferri-Fuentevilla, Eleni; Estepa-Maestre, Francisco (2024). Trade union practices and working conditions of chambermaids. ANDULI 26 (2024) pp. 211-228. https:// doi.org/10.12795/anduli.2024.i26.10 Recibido: 14.12.2023 Revisado: 29.03.2024 Aceptado: 28.05.2024 Anduli • Revista Andaluza de Ciencias Sociales Nº 26 - 2024 • 212 • 1. INTRODUCTION Academic research on women’s domestic work has traditionally paid attention to work in households, which, as noted below, has been interested in their working conditions in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. But a specific group such as hotel housekeepers began to be studied in the early 2000s. In the literature on domestic work, different terms can be found to refer to these women workers, such as: “chambermaids”, “hotel housekeeper”, “hotel maids”, “hotel cleaners”, “room attendants” and in Spain they were coined as “Las Kellys” (las que limpian / those who clean) especially since 2015 that their association was created. On historical studies, there are several examples at the European level, including Wikander’s (1998) research on the debate around female wage labor between the French Revolution and the mid-19th century, and that of her pupil, Zucca (2013), who studied Italian domestic work between the 18th and 19th centuries. For the same period it is worth mentioning, in the Spanish context, the study by Bartolomé and Díaz (2017) on the artillery female of the Royal Factories of Liérganas and La Clavada between the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. In Andalusia, Martínez and Martínez (2017) also replicate and extend these investigations by adding in domestic settings. These latter studies are indebted to the pioneering work of Borderías (1993) on contemporary women workers in the Spanish telecommunications company: Telefónica. In the case of chambermaids, many best-known available references are contemporary, dating from the 21st century, showing a worldwide professional collective with apparently similar working conditions, described as “pitiful” by Patricia Mantovano, director of the Union of Tourism, Hotel, and Food Service Workers of Argentina, (Cañada, 2015:15). This is something that Esbenshade et al. (2006) have contextualized by showing the way globalization has contributed to increasing employment and profit in the tourism industry. For example, in Spain, the 1970s were a milestone for the increase of chambermaids as it was a period of touristic boom with strong demand for labour in the hotel and catering sector resulting in emigration from inland to the coast areas. Around year 2006, more than three decades later, there came an economic boom during which earlier efforts to analyse these workplaces can be found (Castellanos and Pedreño, 2006). Barely five years later, a 2010 survey by the Comisiones Obreras trade union investigated both women’s and men’s perceptions of employment and working conditions in the hotel sector, with particular focus on the gender inequalities that were created and perpetuated (Cañada, 2019). By way of background, Cañada (2019:69) had undertaken a review of the scientific literature in countries of the Global North, excluding Spain, focusing exclusively on working conditions and health, as his search equations. To some extent, academia has in the last years increased interest to research on this group to make it more visible (Fernández and Torné, 2020; López and Medina, 2020). Some research put focus on job insecurity issues (Cañada, 2019; Puech, 2007) and its repercussions, especially in terms of occupational and mental health (Rosemberg and Li, 2018) or concerning the gender-based experience of workplace accidents (Ferri et al, 2020). The invisibility of domestic workers in the political, social, and economic sphere has also been a source of academic concern. This led many researchers at the beginning of the 21st century to take an interest in this issue, raising the dilemma of how to • 213 • Artículos • J. David Moral-Martín, Eleni Ferri Fuentevilla, Francisco Estepa Maestre study a group that is invisible to society (Hatton, 2017). The answer led to several studies, such as Hunter and Watson (2006) who investigated housekeepers’ work globally, arguing that the precariousness of their working conditions was hidden from the public eye. Media has given visibility to chambermaids. There is general agreement that this working women’s group was globally acknowledged in the wake of the sombre incident involving the arrest of Strauss-Kahn, former managing director of the International Monetary Fund, on charges of sexually harassing a chambermaid in a New York hotel in May 2011. This sudden appearance in the media was picked up by Regt (2011), whose study focused on collectives working in intimate professional contexts. Further research later called for greater visibility of the group by magnifying the impact of their working conditions and their influence on occupational health (Chela-Alvarez et al., 2022). A look at the question of occupational impact can be found in Oxenbridge and Moensted (2011), who examined how the pay structure for housekeepers in Australian hotels had a direct impact on physical injuries. It was shown that piece-rate pay, or remuneration based on the number of rooms cleaned, meant that housekeepers worked harder to earn a living wage at the expense of safe and healthy working methods. Other perspectives have been applied to this issue of occupational impact like intersectionality: understood as the way in which different types of discrimination are connected to and affect each other (Marx, 2018), (= unfair treatment because of a person’s sex, race, etc.) along with its relation with insecure work (Cañada, 2023; Albarracín and Castellanos, 2013; Bernadete, 2003; Brunet & Moral-Martín, 2020). The resulting compendium has concluded that discrimination in the form of ‘intersecting inequality’ - i.e. discrimination based on a person’s age, country of origin, disability, level of education, or sexual orientation - is a key determinant of exposure to and experience of insecure work, with hotel maids being a clear example of this, as reported in the article by Hsieh et al. (2017). Studies on the impact of the global 2019 COVID indicate worsening health and working conditions of chambermaids because of the need for improved hygiene and cleanliness in hotel establishments without increasing the time available per room (Rosemberg, 2020). In the case of Spain, the government designed a “protective shield” to mitigate the effects of the pandemic but it did not cover many chambermaids as the nature of their temporary contracts meant that many of them were not actually working and with a payroll when the state of emergency was declared (Moral-Martín, 2020). 1.1. The case of Spain The case of Spain has attracted the interest of researchers especially since in 2015 the group of chambermaids, colloquially known as “Las Kellys” (las que limpian/ those who clean) organized itself under an associative form that, without assuming the formula of a trade union, became one of the best known social agents for the sociolabour defense of their working, wage and social conditions (Moreno, 2016). “Las Kellys” organisational birth arose from a stubborn criticism of the responsibility of the most representative trade union confederations in establishing its working conditions and salaries. On their website they state that: “All, without exception, are responsible for their neglect in the collective agreements that have been signed over the years in the different communities” (kellys.es). Anduli • Revista Andaluza de Ciencias Sociales Nº 26 - 2024 • 214 • “Las Kellys” adopted “cyber unionism” which meant leveraging technology for collective action beyond company control. Additionally, their effective use of storytelling and social media, as highlighted by Fernández and Tomé (2020), underscores the power of personal narratives to communicate demands for better employment rights. “Las Kellys” brought chambermaids’ issues to the forefront of the Spanish digital media agenda. Their engagement with employers’ associations, government, and unions showcases their role as a social actor challenging the outsourcing of room attendants and advocating for improved working conditions. In Spain, there have been also similar changes. For example, the so-called “Kelly Law” was enacted, establishing a register of hotels in which employment practices would be safeguarded through the creation of a quality and fair work standard. Furthermore, several work-related contingencies have been recognized as occupational illnesses by occupational accident mutual insurance societies, such as bursitis and carpal tunnel syndrome; both inflammatory conditions that can become chronic and incapacitating (Moral-Martín, 2020). The overview of the problems of the chambermaids’ work group in the previous pages provides an indicative overview of the interest and topicality of the research question. Our objectives are to test the hypothesis that research on chambermaids’ domestic work took off at the beginning of the 20th century and to identify worldwide advances in knowledge about their work organization, working conditions and impact on health. 2. METHODOLOGY AND MATERIALS The methodology applied to achieve the objectives outlined above consists of a literature review from 2000 to 2021 in indexed journals and using systematized and qualitative criteria (Hart, 2008). The selection criteria, as outlined in table 1 are studies on organizational practices and working conditions, job insecurity and impact on health of chambermaids. The methodology used was typical of systematised journals in the Social Sciences, using the SALSA Framework and its four stages as a reference: Search, Appraisal, Synthesis, and Analysis (Grant and Booth, 2009). For the purposes of this study, a Microsoft Excel database was designed to synthesise and systematise the information (See Annex 1). The first and second stages, search and appraisal, provide the evidence base and include the principles of systematisation (Codina, 2018). During the third (analysis) and fourth (synthesis) stages, methodological approaches based on grounded theory (Sandelowski and Barroso, 2007) are used, with a set of inductive strategies to analyse the data. The latter stages are described in the research results section. Stage 1 or search was conducted inside four nationally and internationally recognised academic databases, namely, WOS, Scopus, Proquest, and Dialnet, by designing search equations corresponding to the research objectives. Each database has its own way of expressing the search equations, so the keywords and Boolean operators were customised while maintaining a common base fixed according to the subject matter under investigation (see Figure 1). For the Proquest database, a Social Science research area or domain was specified to refine the search results. In Dialnet’s case, the search equation was performed without the help of Boolean operators and using only the word “camareras de piso” in Spanish, as this was the expression that yielded the best results in both quantitative and qualitative terms. • 215 • Artículos • J. David Moral-Martín, Eleni Ferri Fuentevilla, Francisco Estepa Maestre Figure 1. Data on Search and appraisal of Systematized review Source: own elaboration. Regarding stage 2 or Appraisal, as Figure 1 shows, work began with a document bank (Yin, 2010) of 279 publications, which was reduced to 72 after applying the fi rst inclusion and exclusion criteria fi lter agreed by the team of researchers (see Table 1). At this stage, certain studies were excluded because they were not thematically relevant to our object of study. It should be noted that some 21 studies appeared in multiple bibliographic databases but were counted only once in the selected sample (51 publications). The process of searching for and selecting research based on the variables outlined above yielded 28 high impact publications (see Annex I) indexed in 4 databases between 2000-2021: Web of Science (WOS), Scopus, ProQuest and Dialnet. In this regard, it should be noted that the fi rst article cited is published in 2003. A second fi lter was then applied (see table 1) based on the articles’ qualitative criteria, obtaining a fi nal selection of 28 publications for the third (analysis) and fourth (synthesis) phases of the systematised review (see table 1). The resulting articles were analysed based on their title and abstract. Where a decision could not be made using the title and abstract alone, the entire paper was read. Table 1. Inclusion and exclusion criteria applied to selected articles Filter Inclusion Criteria Exclusion criteria FIRST FILTER Studies on the socio-labour situation of chambermaids. No specifi c criteria have been defi ned. (Exclusion of those that do not meet the inclusion criteria) Studies focusing on the organisational practices and Working conditions, job insecurity, and impact on health of chambermaids. Timeframe: 2000-2021. SECOND FILTER Articles indexed in impact journals (Q1-Q4). Books or book chapters indexed in the Scholarly Publishers Indicators (SPI) (Q1 national and Q1-Q2 international). Source: own elaboration. Anduli • Revista Andaluza de Ciencias Sociales Nº 26 - 2024 • 216 • 3. RESULTS The first result of the study is the confirmation of the hypothesis that systematic studies on chambermaids located in indexed journals have been published in the 21st century. Twenty-eight articles have been selected and the first one is from 2003. The results of the various analyses and syntheses carried out are presented below. First, the annual evolution of publications on chambermaids, the research techniques applied in the studies and the topics addressed are analyzed. Secondly, the most outstanding results of the selected research on chambermaids’ labour organizations and mobilizations are synthesized. Thirdly, the most outstanding results of selected research on working conditions and their impact on job satisfaction, job insecurity or vulnerability and health are summarized. 3.1. Analysis of publications: evolution, techniques and themes Although the search for studies on chambermaids was carried out from 2000 to 2021, the first publication found that met the selection conditions was from 2003, so the range of selected publications goes from 2003 to 2021. Graph 1 shows in absolute terms the number of publications organized by impact factor, subject matter, year of publication, type of research, and the methodology used to obtain the results. Graph 1. Frequency typology systematised review. Absolute terms. N=28 Source: own elaboration. From the data obtained, it is possible to extract a profile of publications on chambermaids that has evolved considerably over time, with greater prevalence in recent years probably related to insecure working conditions following services outsourcing and the chambermaids’ capacity to organise and channel their demands in a more structured way (Ferreira, Rivas, and Viana, 2017). • 217 • Artículos • J. David Moral-Martín, Eleni Ferri Fuentevilla, Francisco Estepa Maestre Methodologically speaking, most of the publications use qualitative research techniques in nature, mostly interview and focus group techniques. The aim is to explore and gain understanding of, or interpret the meanings, narratives, and conditions of production of the chambermaids’ socio-labour situation, based on their own experiences and perceptions. However, quantitative approaches using the questionnaire technique also are used by some researchers, although these tend to be oriented towards occupational health (Daba, Dessie and Haile 2019; Rosemberg et al. 2019) and job performance (Rosemberg and Li, 2018). Graph 2. Frequency of topics per year. Absolute terms (n=28). Source: own elaboration On the other hand, focusing on the themes (Graph 2), the most frequently published studies selected concern employment conditions and job insecurity (n= 16/28), and since 2018 studies covering the organisation and unionisation of the collective have taken centre stage. In fact, the most recent studies show an overlap between the two central themes of trade union organisation and working conditions (Moral-Martín y Brunet, 2021). Issues such as gender, health, and Covid-19 are also areas that, like trade union organisation, have become more prominent since 2018, especially Covid-19 which has become more pressing since 2020. 3.2. Labor organizing among chambermaids For the academic world, the unexpected appearance of a chambermaids’ organisation called “Las Kellys” (acronym for the Those who Clean), made up of female workers, typifi ed in Spain as unorganised and low-skilled, in the middle of the second decade of the 21st century (Cañada, 2015), has been, as an object of study, one of the great contributions to and insights into the study of social organisations and, more specifi cally, the area of trade union self-organisation (Alcalde-González, Gálvez, and Valenzuela, 2021; Brunet and Moral-Martín, 2020) and working conditions (Otegui, 2023; Hsieh et al., 2016; Kensbock et al., 2016). This section focuses exclusively on the aspect of organizing among hotel housekeepers worldwide with special emphasis on the quasi-union organizing among ‘Las Kellys’ as a relevant case of self-organization. We will delve into selected studies that address the union practices of this collective, providing a clear insight into the strategies and dynamics of self-organization within the labor context of the so named ‘Las Kellys” in Spain and similar groups in other countries. In this vein, Puech’s (2007) work focused on studying the differences between parttime and full-time French hotel maids and highlighted how temporary work exacerbated and reinforced the differences between these groups because of subcontracting. At Anduli • Revista Andaluza de Ciencias Sociales Nº 26 - 2024 • 218 • the same time, this situation aggravated internal inequalities between workers, which triggered a series of collective conflicts and led to the call for several strikes. For her part, Trige (2021) added a feminist and historical perspective, looking at the working conditions of Filipina chambermaids in Copenhagen hotels (Holland) in the 1970s and 1990s. Her interest focused on highlighting the different trade union practices that took place in this environment, both by the Danish hotel workers’ union and the aforementioned chambermaids who instigated a period of self-organization. As a result, this group of migrant women played a key role in mobilising labour disputes and (re)inventing trade union strategies at the time. Similarly, it is worth mentioning the study by López and Medina (2020), which analyzes the role played in Spain by “Las Kellys” as an association demanding their labor rights due to the historical invisibility of this predominantly female occupation. Against the device that renders them invisible, “Las Kellys” association has built a social actor that repositions the room attendant, at least symbolically, as the structural foundation of the hotels. Based on this assertion and on visibility as a critical function of hotels, “Las Kellys” has established dialogues with the employer’s association, the government, and the unions to halt the outsourcing of room attendants and reposition them as direct employees of the hotels. Thus, the “Las Kellys” movement emerges as a social actor through which to dispute their working conditions in the political arena (López and Medina, 2020; Cañada, 2018). In Spain, although “las Kellys” is an association, they act very much as a trade union organization. They have broadened the definition of a trade union to include emotional mutual support practices (Moral-Martín, 2020). Along similar lines there are the studies carried out by Moral-Martín (2020) and Brunet and Moral-Martín (2020), who applied the concept of new trade union movements to their research on chambermaids, the main aspects of which have been extensively studied from the perspective of trade union renewal. The above studies highlight the difficulty of integrating “Las Kellys” into most representative trade unions, while at the same time highlighting the key reasons why they became a self-organized trade union movement. Of particular interest here is that certain historical considerations made it difficult to predict their association, such as, for example, being part of a feminized and low-skilled profession, together with a highly dispersed workforce and little support historically from the sector’s most representative trade unions (Moral-Martín, 2020). More recently, Fernández and Tomé’s (2020) study on the repercussions of the last economic crisis and “Las Kellys”’ use of social media should also be noted. Specifically, they analyzed how storytelling was used to successfully communicate to society their demands for better employment rights. In summary, “Las Kellys” have stood out as the primary social force that has brought the issue of chambermaids to the Spanish digital media agenda, surpassing unions and other social actors. Their communication strategy revolves around the predominant use of the first person, as “Las Kellys” consider it essential to share their personal stories in their communication. These narratives are valued by journalists and yield significant results on social media, underscoring the importance of this communicative approach. “Las Kellys” employ a close and colloquial language, utilizing a straightforward and appealing communication style filled with authentic personal stories (Fernández and Tomé, 2020). The issue has not only become visible academically but has also had a major media impact in recent years (Liladrie, 2010). We refer to the women’s numerous interviews in various media and their manifestos to understand why they have emerged (Fernández and Tomé, 2020). • 219 • Artículos • J. David Moral-Martín, Eleni Ferri Fuentevilla, Francisco Estepa Maestre 3.3. Research on working conditions, job insecurity, and impact on health. The following is an analysis of the contributions identified on chambermaids’ working conditions in studies conducted in different countries. Among the issues that have most interested researchers are those presented below, namely: factors affecting job satisfaction with the job, followed by factors of vulnerability and abuse in working conditions, and finally, trends in the impact on physical and psychological health. 3.3.1. Aspects: degree of satisfaction To talk about the working conditions of hotel maids is to highlight a situation very similar to that endured by the so-called “precariat” described by Standing (2011). Although this concept is more prevalent in research about young people than on women, it is not exclusive to young people, as Eriksson (2009) shows in his study on the constraints between the market and ‘flexicurity’ in housekeeping in Danish hotels. It is worth noting the fact that wages of Danish hotel maids are higher than in most other countries, especially for unskilled workers who represent a considerable segment of hotel sector employment. This has led to greater job satisfaction, despite this being seen as demanding work with the same high workload as elsewhere. From a cultural gender perspective, Balbuena and López (2021), through their research on the employment status of chambermaids in hotels in Cancun (Mexico), highlight how limited formal education, low economic standing, and immigration status mean that they endure working conditions that, despite being arduous, are positively regarded given the difficulties faced in entering the regional labor market. Looking through the lens of collaboration, Brody’s (2016) book shows how involving housekeepers in workplace design can help improve their working conditions and therefore have a positive impact on their relationship with management. A similar finding was reported by Kensbock et al. (2016), who interviewed 46 room attendants working in a five-star hotel in South East Queensland, Australia. Their study highlights the need for greater recognition for room attendants, for them to be seen as a valuable community with practical knowledge that could be used to improve day-to- day operations, enhancing guest interactions and tourism service experiences. 3.3.2. Factor: vulnerability and abuse One of the elements connected to vulnerability and abuse in labor relation of chambermaids is intersectionality. Using qualitative methodology, Hsieh et al. (2017) studied Latina housekeepers, mainly from Mexico, El Salvador, Honduras and Guatemala, in hotels in the southeastern United States, through 27 in-depth interviews. Their findings refer to the additional discrimination of intersecting structural aspects such as social class, gender, ethnicity, nationality, and immigration status. In the United States those led to a higher degree of vulnerability and, consequently, higher levels of workplace abuse. Similar publications present housekeepers as a vulnerable, low-skilled and undervalued group, often coming from abroad, and that, paradoxically, the more insecure the job, the higher the level of job loyalty. In fact, the publications analyzed illustrate how they are caught in a spiral of flexibility, low pay and plural and intertwined insecurity, reinforced by the dependency practices of the hotel sector (Guégnard and Mériot, 2010). 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