Intergenerational Solidarity During Emerging Adulthood: Associations with Psychological Distress and Satisfaction with Life in Southern Europe

ORIGINAL RESEARCH Intergenerational Solidarity During Emerging Adulthood: Associations with Psychological Distress and Satisfaction with Life in Southern Europe María del Carmen García-Mendoza 1 , Susana Coimbra 2 , Inmaculada Sánchez-Queija 1 , Águeda Parra 1 1 Department of Developmental and Educational Psychology, Universidad de Sevilla, Seville, Spain; 2 Department of Psychology, Faculdade de Psicologia e de Ciências da Educação da Universidade do Porto, Porto, Portugal Correspondence: Águeda Parra; Inmaculada Sánchez-Queija, Department of Developmental and Educational Psychology, Universidad de Sevilla, Calle Pirotecnia s/n, Sevilla, 41013, Spain, Tel +34955420527; +34955420528, Email [email protected]; [email protected] Background: Intergenerational solidarity between parents and emerging adult offspring requires more substantial attention at the present time. Changing demographic structures and transformations in family dynamics over recent decades have increased both opportunities and the need for parent-child interactions and exchanges of support and affection during emerging adulthood. Purpose: The study had two aims: first, to explore patterns in intergenerational solidarity in accordance with different sociodemographic characteristics of emerging adults; and second, to analyse associations between intergenerational solidarity and emerging adults’ psychological distress and satisfaction with life. Methods: Participants were 644 emerging adult university students from Southern Europe (Spain and Portugal), aged between 18 and 29 years, who completed a self-report questionnaire designed to assess variables linked to sociodemographic aspects (gender, country of residence, sexual orientation, living status, family income), intergenerational solidarity, psychological distress and satisfaction with life. Results: The results indicated some differences in intergenerational solidarity patterns in accordance with a range of sociodemographic characteristics. They also revealed significant associations between intergenerational solidarity dimensions and emerging adults’ satisfaction with life and psychological distress. Moreover, affective solidarity was found to fully mediate the relationship between associational, functional and normative solidarity and emerging adults’ adjustment. In the case of conflictual solidarity, affective solidarity was found to partially mediate the relationship between this dimension of intergenerational solidarity and emerging adults’ distress and to fully mediate the relationship between this same dimension and emerging adults’ satisfaction with life. Conclusion: The results indicate that it is important to take sociodemographic diversity into account when exploring relationships between emerging adults and their parents. They also suggest that affective solidarity acts as a protective factor in promoting emerging adults’ adjustment. Keywords: intergenerational solidarity, psychological distress, satisfaction with life, emerging adults, cross-cultural study Introduction Interest in intergenerational relationships, in particular intergenerational family solidarity between parents and their adult children, is increasing. 1,2 This is largely due to the significant changes in economic, cultural and demographic trends that have occurred in Western post-industrial societies over recent years. These changes have a considerable impact, amongst others, on young people’s lives, the dynamics of their relationships with their parents and the interactions that take place between them. In general, these changes have increased the level and duration of young people’s dependency on their parents, particularly in countries such as Spain and Portugal. 3 One major consequence of the aforementioned changes is a delay in young people’s transition to typical adult roles, a circumstance that has given rise to a new developmental stage known as emerging adulthood (18 to 29 years). Psychology Research and Behavior Management 2024:17 2449–2463 2449 © 2024 García-Mendoza et al. This work is published and licensed by Dove Medical Press Limited. The full terms of this license are available at https://www.dovepress. com/terms.php and incorporate the Creative Commons Attribution – Non Commercial (unported, v3.0) License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/3.0/). By accessing the work you hereby accept the Terms. Non-commercial uses of the work are permitted without any further permission from Dove Medical Press Limited, provided the work is properly attributed. For permission for commercial use of this work, please see paragraphs 4.2 and 5 of our Terms (https://www.dovepress.com/terms.php). Psychology Research and Behavior Management Dovepress open access to scientific and medical research Open Access Full Text Article Received: 27 November 2023 Accepted: 21 March 2024 Published: 19 June 2024 Psychology Research and Behavior Management downloaded from https://www.dovepress.com/ For personal use only. Emerging adulthood is a period defined by many characteristics of the sociocultural context, but, in general, is associated with identity exploration, instability in love, work and place of residence, and a wide range of choices and possibilities about the future. 4 During this new period, emerging adults try to invest in gaining educational qualifications in order to find a job and establish themselves in an increasingly competitive and highly-skilled labour market, often characterised by high unemployment rates among this age group. In Spain, university students represent 32.3% of all young people aged between 18 and 24 years. 5 In Portugal, in 2022, 47.5% of young people aged between 24 and 30 held a university degree. 6 Despite a sustained increase in academic qualifications in both countries, however, the unemployment rate in 2021 for those aged between 20 and 24 years was around 32% and 22% in Spain and Portugal, respectively. 7 Consequently, most emerging adults do not have enough stability to afford independent housing, and postpone leaving the parental home or live in a state of semi-autonomy, an intermediate living arrangement half way between co-residence with parents and full residential independence. According to the latest data from 2021, the mean age at which young people left the parental home was 28.9 and 33.6 years in Spain and Portugal, respectively. 8 Moving out of the parental home later means that at least two generations of adults often live under the same roof for a more prolonged period than in previous generations. It also means that marriage and parenthood are also delayed, with the mean age at first marriage being 37.2 and 34 years in Spain and Portugal, respectively, in 2021, 9 and the mean age for women at the birth of their first child being 32.6 and 31.8 years, in Spain and Portugal respectively, in that same year. 10 As a result of these changing demographic structures and family dynamics, both parents and their emerging adult offspring have more opportunities and an increased need for interaction, exchanges of support and affection, and mutual influence. The theoretical model of intergenerational solidarity 11 has been widely used in research to describe social cohesion and interactions between adult relatives from different generations. Within this framework, which was initially conceived for elderly people and their adult children, intergenerational solidarity is conceptualised as a multidimensional construct comprising behavioural and emotional dimensions of interaction, cohesion, affection and support between parents and adult children in the course of long-term relationships. The construct initially comprised six dimensions: affectual solidarity, referring to having positive feelings about family members; associational solidarity, referring to the type and frequency of contact between intergenerational family members; consensual solidarity, referring to agreement in opinions, values, and attitudes between generations; functional solidarity, referring to help and resources exchanged across generations; normative solidarity, or commitment regarding the performance of family roles and obligations; and finally, structural solidarity, or geographical proximity between family members. 11,12 Because intergenerational solidarity is a construct open to revision, the model was later re-theorised to include conflictual solidarity as a new dimension reflecting a normal facet of family relationships, which differs from the absence of affection and does not usually jeopardise willingness to engage in the exchange of intergenerational support. 13 Research into intergenerational solidarity during emerging adulthood is still scarce. Very few studies have focused on emerging adults or have included this age range in their samples, and fewer still have striven to include sociodemographically diverse samples. Nonetheless, several sociodemographic aspects (eg, gender and socioeconomic status) seem to have an impact on intergenerational exchanges within the family system. 14 For example, it seems that women provide their parents with more help -functional solidarity- 15,16 and emotional support - affective solidaritythan men. 15 Moreover, as expected, co-residing with parents is positively associated with face-to face and non-face-to face contact - associational solidarity-, support (financial or instrumental) -functional solidarity- and affective solidarity. 17 Regarding socioeconomic status (SES), the results are, in general, contradictory. 14 However, Timonen et al 18 found that, in general, intergenerational solidarity towards parents is particularly strong among young people from low and middle SES groups. Other studies focusing on diversity in terms of sexual orientation found that lesbian, gay and bisexual (LGB) emerging adults perceived lower levels of affective and normative solidarity and higher levels of conflictual solidarity than their heterosexual counterparts. 19 As the type of ties present in parent-child relationships differ across sociocultural contexts, this aspect is also relevant for understanding intergenerational solidarity within the family. Southern European countries are characterised by strong family ties, a persistence of close parent-child relationships, and offspring remaining in the parental home until later in life, usually until they have a stable job or long-term romantic relationship. Northern European countries and the United States of America, on the other hand, are characterised by weaker family ties and offspring leaving the parental home and https://doi.org/10.2147/PRBM.S451905 DovePress Psychology Research and Behavior Management 2024:17 2450 García-Mendoza et al Dovepress Powered by TCPDF (www.tcpdf.org) gaining economic independence at a younger age. 20 Given this, it is hardly surprising that intergenerational care (by adult children of their parents) is higher in Southern than in Northern European countries, with people in Southern Europe perceiving and responding more to their family members’ need for support 21 and reporting more frequent contact between family members. 22 Research also suggests that intergenerational solidarity (eg, parent-child closeness or family support) between family members contributes to children’s positive development throughout adolescence and adulthood. 23–25 However, here again, research has paid far less attention to the influence of intergenerational solidarity on the psychological development of emerging adult offspring. Some researchers have suggested that emerging adults who feel closer to and get along better with their parents have a better sense of mutual understanding with them, and perceptions of greater support from family (eg, emotional support, advice, help with decision making) have been associated with low levels of psychological distress (eg, depressive symptoms or loneliness). 26 Other authors found that high levels of family values and a strong sense of family obligation were associated with high levels of well-being among offspring. 27 Likewise, high levels of received, given and anticipated functional and normative solidarity have been linked to high levels of life satisfaction among that same group. 28 In a similar vein, another study found that affective, functional and associational solidarity were also related to life satisfaction during emerging adulthood. 17 Consequently, despite possible constraints regarding autonomy, intergenerational solidarity between parents and emerging adult children seems, in general, to have a positive impact on the healthy development of offspring during this life stage. It should be noted that affection has traditionally been considered a key variable for understanding the relationships established between parents and adult children 29 and, specifically, affective solidarity has been repeatedly analysed alongside other family dimensions. In this sense, previous studies report that affective solidarity is associated with greater associational, functional and normative solidarity, 26 as well as with fewer situations of conflict among family members. 30 Likewise, some empirical studies have found that affective solidarity is associated with greater well-being 17 and mediates the association between other intergenerational solidarity dimensions (eg, normative solidarity) and maladjustment. 26 It therefore seems that affective solidarity has positive implications in parent-child relationships and helps foster healthy psychological development among offspring. The Present Study The present study aimed to explore patterns in intergenerational solidarity in accordance with different sociodemographic characteristics among emerging adults from Southern Europe. Based on the results of previous research, we expected to find some differences in intergenerational solidarity in accordance with sociodemographic variables. However, no hypotheses were formulated regarding the nature of these differences due to the scarcity of studies carried out with sociodemographically diverse samples. The second aim of the study was to analyse associations between intergenerational solidarity and emerging adults’ psychological distress and satisfaction with life. We expected intergenerational solidarity to be negatively associated with psychological distress and positively associated with satisfaction with life. We also expected affective solidarity to mediate the relationship between the other intergenerational solidarity dimensions assessed (conflictual, associational, functional and normative solidarity) and emerging adults’ psychological distress and satisfaction with life. The present study seeks, firstly, to contribute to the existing body of knowledge regarding intergenerational solidarity during emerging adulthood, since although this construct has been widely studied among older adults, very little research to date has focused on earlier stages of development. Emerging adulthood is a distinct developmental period with singular characteristics in which young people, who are mature in many aspects, continue to depend on their families and live in the parental home. 3 This new family situation necessitates a more in-depth examination of the processes that take place in it, one of which is intergenerational solidarity. The study also aims to help advance research into family relationships during emerging adulthood in Southern Europe. To date, most research focusing on the family environment during this life stage has been conducted in Northern European and North America, and since the nature of parent-child ties differs across sociocultural contexts, 20 there is a need to address the dynamics of interactions, cohesion and support within the family beyond the borders of these geographical regions. The present study therefore seeks to fill a gap in the extant literature by focusing on emerging adulthood in two Southern European countries, namely Spain and Portugal. Psychology Research and Behavior Management 2024:17 https://doi.org/10.2147/PRBM.S451905 DovePress 2451 Dovepress García-Mendoza et al Powered by TCPDF (www.tcpdf.org)Powered by TCPDF (www.tcpdf.org) Materials and Methods Participants The total sample comprised 644 emerging adults (81.8% women) recruited from two universities in Spain (Universidad de Sevilla) and Portugal (Universidade do Porto). The Spanish sample comprised 318 emerging adults (77.7% women) and the Portuguese sample contained 326 (85.9% women). All Participants were recruited within the project Relações familiares em Portugal e ajustamento psicológico: investigação intercultural entre Espanha e Portugal (Family relations in Portugal and psychological adjustment: intercultural research between Spain and Portugal). The age range of the total sample was 18 to 30 years (M age = 20.37, SD = 2.50). Table 1 presents the distribution of the sample in accordance with participants’ sociodemographic characteristics. Data Collection A formal request to explain the aims of the study and ask students for their permission to gather information was sent by Email to faculty members. After they had agreed, participants anonymously and voluntarily completed the self-report Measures in the form of an online survey that took roughly 20 minutes. Measures were completed in participants’ classrooms in the presence of a member of the research team. Data were collected between the autumn of 2022 and the spring of 2023 and participants’ consent was obtained on the first page of the online survey. The study was approved by the Ethics Committee of the Faculdade de Psicologia e de Ciencias da Educação da Universidade do Porto in Portugal (Refª 2017/10-2c) and complies with the Declaration of Helsinki. Table 1 Sample Characteristics Total Sample Sociodemographic variables n (%) Country Spain 321 (48.9) Portugal 336 (51.1) Gender Female 527 (81.8) Male 117 (18.2) Sexual orientation Heterosexual 478 (74.2) LGB (gay, lesbian or bisexual) 140 (21.7) Residence status Co-resident with parents 400 (62.1) Non co-resident with parents 244 (37.9) Socioeconomic status (SES) Low 70 (10.9) Intermediate 495 (77.2) High 76 (11.9) https://doi.org/10.2147/PRBM.S451905 DovePress Psychology Research and Behavior Management 2024:17 2452 García-Mendoza et al Dovepress Powered by TCPDF (www.tcpdf.org)Powered by TCPDF (www.tcpdf.org) Measures Sociodemographic Variables Sociodemographic variables included country (0 = Portugal, 1 = Spain), gender (0 = female, 1 = male), sexual orientation (0 = heterosexual, 1 = LGB-gay, lesbian or bisexual) and residence status (0 = co-resident with parents, 1 = non coresident with parents). Moreover, socioeconomic status (SES) was measured using an ad hoc scale developed by the research team, on which participants were asked to rate the income level of their family unit on a 3-point scale ranging from 1 (low-perception of serious economic difficulties) to 3 (high-perception of having a high enough income to live comfortably). Intergenerational Solidarity To assess intergenerational solidarity, all participants completed five subscales (affective, conflictual, associational, functional and normative solidarity) of the Intergenerational Solidarity Index. 12 All subscales on this instrument are rated on Likert-type response scales, but with different ranges and meanings. The affective solidarity subscale comprises 5 items ranging from 1 (Not at all close or Not at all good) to 6 (Extremely close or Extremely Good or Extremely well) and assesses respondents’ level of emotional closeness to their parents (eg, “Overall, how well do you and your parents get along together at this point in your life?”). The conflictual solidarity subscale comprises 3 items ranging from 1 (None at all) to 6 (A great deal) and assesses the frequency of conflict between parents and children (eg, “How much do your parents argue with you?”). The associational solidarity subscale comprises 5 items ranging from 1 (Daily) to 8 (Not at all) and assesses the frequency of in-person, telephone, letter, Email or social media contact with parents by asking participants: “During the past year, how often were you in contact with your parents?”. The functional solidarity subscale comprises 8 items ranging from 1 (Daily) to 8 (Not at all), and assesses the instrumental (eg, household chores, transportation/shopping) and emotional support (eg, information and advice, discussing important life decisions) provided by children to parents by asking participants, “For each type of help and support listed below, put a check in the box beneath each person to whom you provide that kind of assistance or support”. The normative solidarity subscale comprises 6 items ranging from 1 (Strongly agree) to 4 (Strongly disagree) and assesses respondents’ expectations about their obligations and the importance of family values (eg, “Family members should give more weight to each other”s opinions than to the opinions of outsiders’). Mean scores are calculated for all subscales except the associational solidarity subscale, for which maximum frequency of contact is calculated. Higher scores indicate higher levels of intergenerational solidarity. Adequate levels of internal reliability were found in this study (α Portugal = 0.92, α Spain = 0.90, α Total = 0.91 for affective solidarity; α Portugal = 0.85, α Spain = 0.80, α Total = 0.83 for conflictual solidarity; α Portugal = 0.81, α Spain = 0.82, α Total = 0.82 for functional solidarity; and α Portugal = 0.72, α Spain = 0.78, α Total = 0.75 for normative solidarity). Psychological Distress To assess psychological distress, all participants completed the Depression Anxiety Stress Scales (DASS-21). 31 This instrument includes 21-items rated on a Likert-type scale ranging from 0 (did not apply to me at all) to 3 (applied to me very much, or most of the time), which measure three subscales: depression, anxiety and stress, grouped into a secondorder factor labelled psychological distress (eg, “I felt sad and depressed”). Response scores are summed to generate a mean score for the data analyses. Higher scores indicate higher levels of psychological distress (α Portugal = 0.92, α Spain = 0.89, α Total = 0.91). Satisfaction with Life To assess satisfaction with life, all participants completed the Satisfaction with Life Scale. 32 This scale comprises 5 items (eg, “The conditions of my life are excellent”) rated on a Likert-type scale ranging from 1 (totally disagree) to 5 (totally agree). Response scores are summed to generate a mean score for the data analyses. Higher scores indicate higher levels of satisfaction with life (α Portugal = 0.80, α Spain = 0.86, α Total = 0.83). Data Analysis Analyses were conducted using the IBM SPSS Statistics 26.0 and MedGraph programs. 33 First, descriptive statistics were obtained, including a summary of participants’ sociodemographic data, as well as means and standard deviations (SDs) of Psychology Research and Behavior Management 2024:17 https://doi.org/10.2147/PRBM.S451905 DovePress 2453 Dovepress García-Mendoza et al Powered by TCPDF (www.tcpdf.org)Powered by TCPDF (www.tcpdf.org) each intergenerational solidarity dimension. Second, independent sample t-tests, one-way analyses of variance (ANOVAs) and Bonferroni post hoc tests were conducted to test the significance of means differences in intergenerational solidarity in accordance with sociodemographic variables (country, gender, sexual orientation, co-residence status, age and SES). Third, to explore associations between intergenerational solidarity and psychological distress and satisfaction with life, inter-correlations between the study variables were calculated using the Pearson correlation. Moreover, mediation analyses were conducted to determine whether affective solidarity mediated the relationship between the remaining intergenerational solidarity dimensions (conflictual, associational, functional and normative solidarity) and psychological distress and satisfaction with life. These analyses were conducted for psychological distress and satisfaction with life separately. Furthermore, country, gender, co-residence/non co-residence with parents, sexual orientation and SES were included as control variables in the analyses. Thus, in each mediation analysis, two linear regression models were considered, one for the relationship between the independent (conflictual, associational, functional or normative solidarity) and the mediating variable, and another for the relationship between the mediating variable and each of the dependent variables (psychological distress and satisfaction with life). The online MedGraph program 33 was used to graph the results, calculate the Sobel z-value and test the significance of the mediating effect of affective solidarity on the association between the rest of the intergenerational solidarity dimensions (conflictual, associational, functional and normative solidarity) and psychological distress and satisfaction with life. The models generated 95% bias-corrected and adjusted confidence intervals for the indirect effect. Sobel’s method 34,35 was used as a widelyemployed test of the simple mediation effect (indirect effect) in large samples, which allows researchers to determine whether the strength of the relationship between the independent variable (in our case, conflictual, associational, functional or normative solidarity) and the dependent variable (in our case, psychological distress or satisfaction with life) is significantly reduced (partial mediation) or annulled (full mediation) following the addition of a mediating variable (in our case, affective solidarity). Results Differences in Accordance with Sociodemographic Characteristics The Results of the t-tests for independent samples revealed significant differences for some dimensions of intergenerational solidarity in accordance with country, gender, residence status (whether or not participants lived with their parents) and sexual orientation (see Table 2). Specifically, Portuguese emerging adults perceived higher levels of conflictual solidarity than their Spanish counterparts, whereas Spanish emerging adults perceived higher levels of associational, functional and normative solidarity than their Portuguese peers. Moreover, emerging adult men perceived higher levels of normative solidarity than their female counterparts, and emerging adults who did not co-reside with their parents perceived higher levels of affective solidarity than those who did. In contrast, emerging adults who lived under the same roof as their parents perceived higher levels of conflictual, associational and functional solidarity than their independent-living counterparts. Finally, heterosexual participants perceived higher levels of affective, functional and normative solidarity than gay, lesbian or bisexual emerging adults, who in turn perceived higher levels of conflictual solidarity than their heterosexual counterparts (see Table 2). One-way ANOVAs revealed that the three SES groups analysed differed in terms of affective solidarity, F(2, 633) = 5.44, p = 0.005, conflictual solidarity, F(2, 631) = 3.35, p = 0.036 and associational solidarity F(2, 633) = 3.27, p = 0.039. With regard to affective solidarity, the Bonferroni post hoc test revealed differences between the low SES and high SES groups (Mean Difference = −0.53; p = 0.003), with a medium effect size (Cohen’s d = −0.55), with emerging adults from the high SES group scoring higher in this dimension. With regard to conflictual solidarity, the post hoc test revealed differences between the low SES and medium SES groups (Mean Difference = 0.30; p = 0.032), with a small effect size (Cohen’s d = 0.33), with emerging adults from the low SES group scoring higher. Finally, regarding associational solidarity, the post hoc test also revealed differences between the low SES and medium SES groups (Mean Difference = −0.12; p = 0.045), with a small effect size (Cohen’s d = −0.34). In this case, emerging adults from the medium SES group scored higher for associational solidarity. https://doi.org/10.2147/PRBM.S451905 DovePress Psychology Research and Behavior Management 2024:17 2454 García-Mendoza et al Dovepress Powered by TCPDF (www.tcpdf.org)Powered by TCPDF (www.tcpdf.org) Inter-Correlations Between Study Variables Table 3 shows the inter-correlations between the different intergenerational solidarity dimensions, satisfaction with life and psychological distress. The results indicated that only conflictual solidarity was negatively and significantly associated with satisfaction with life. In contrast, the remaining intergenerational solidarity dimensions (affective, associational, functional and normative solidarity) were positively and significantly associated with satisfaction with life. In terms of psychological Table 2 Independent Sample t-Tests for Intergenerational Solidarity IS Dimensions Sociodemographic Variable Country M (SD) t(df) pCohen’s d Conflictual Spain 2.10 (0.71) Portugal 2.54 (1.04) 6.22(577.19) < 0.001 −0.53 Associational Spain 5.94 (0.34) Portugal 5.86 (0.40) −2.73(627.44) 0.006 0.22 Functional Spain 5.78 (1.28) Portugal 5.27 (1.36) −4.76(600) < 0.001 0.16 Normative Spain 2.57 (0.59) Portugal 2.35 (0.49) −5.10(588.35) < 0.001 0.42 Gender M (SD) t(df) pCohen’s d Normative Female 2.42 (0.53) Male 2.60 (0.64) −2.82(146.56) 0.006 −0.31 Residence status M (SD) t(df) pCohen’s d Affective Co-resident with parents 4.23 (1.03) Non co-resident with parents 4.56 (0.92) −4.11(635) < 0.001 −0.34 Conflictual Co-resident with parents 2.55 (1.00) Non co-resident with parents 2.19 (0.83) 4.62(436.42) < 0.001 0.39 Associational Co-resident with parents 5.98 (0.16) Non co-resident with parents 5.85 (0.45) 5.02(529.55) < 0.001 0.39 Functional Co-resident with parents 5.70 (1.31) Non co-resident with parents 5.39 (1.36) 2.75(600) 0.006 0.15 Sexual orientation M (SD) t(df) pCohen’s d Affective Heterosexual 4.54 (0.92) LGB 4.12 (1.08) 4.28(222.78) < 0.001 0.42 Conflictual Heterosexual 2.25 (0.87) LGB 2.51 (1.03) −2.73(216.30) 0.007 −0.26 Functional Heterosexual 5.66 (1.32) LGB 5.05 (1.37) 4.78(586) < 0.001 0.45 Normative Heterosexual 2.56 (0.55) LGB 2.14 (0.45) 8.47(608) < 0.001 0.84 Note: IS, Intergenerational solidarity; only significant differences are shown. Psychology Research and Behavior Management 2024:17 https://doi.org/10.2147/PRBM.S451905 DovePress 2455 Dovepress García-Mendoza et al Powered by TCPDF (www.tcpdf.org)Powered by TCPDF (www.tcpdf.org) distress, conflictual solidarity was the only dimension that was positively and significantly associated with this variable. In contrast, the affective, associational, and normative dimensions were negatively and significantly associated with psychological distress. Functional solidarity was not significantly associated with this variable. The Mediating Role of Affective Solidarity in the Relationship Between Solidarity Dimensions and Psychological Distress and Satisfaction with Life Table 4, Figures 1 and 2 summarise the results pertaining to the mediating role of affective solidarity. Affective solidarity was found to partially mediate the relationship between conflictual solidarity and psychological distress, as the direct effect of the former on the latter variable decreased when the mediating role of affective solidarity was analysed. Specifically, emotional closeness to parents helped mitigate the positive association between conflictual solidarity and psychological distress. Furthermore, affective solidarity was found to fully mediate the relationship between associational and normative solidarity and psychological distress. High frequency of contact with parents (associational solidarity), strong family values and a strong sense of family obligation (normative solidarity) were found to lead to more emotional closeness to parents, which in turn mitigated the psychological distress suffered by emerging adult offspring. In relation to functional solidarity, affective solidarity was not found to mediate the relationship between this dimension of intergenerational solidarity and psychological distress. With regard to satisfaction with life, affective solidarity was found to fully mediate the impact of conflictual, associational, functional and normative solidarity on this adjustment variable. The results indicated that emotional closeness to parents helped mitigate the (in this case negative) association between conflictual solidarity and satisfaction with life. Furthermore, frequent contact with parents (associational solidarity), the provision of instrumental and emotional support (functional solidarity), having a strong sense of family obligation and attaching greater weight to Table 3 Inter-Correlations Between Study Variables 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 1. Affective solidarity – 2. Conflictual solidarity −0.60** – 3. Associational solidarity 0.24** −0.05 – 4. Functional solidarity 0.40** −0.19** 0.31** – 5. Normative solidarity 0.31** −0.23** 0.14** 0.38** – 6. Satisfaction with life 0.44** −0.30** 0.10* 0.23** 0.17** – 7. Psychological distress −0.32** 0.36** −0.12* −0.04 −0.13* −0.40** – Notes: *p < 0.05; **p < 0.001. Table 4 Mediating Effect of Affective Solidarity Between Conflictual, Associational, Functional and Normative Solidarity and Psychological Distress and Satisfaction with Life Psychological Distress Satisfaction with Life IS Dimensions Mediator B S.E. I.E. 95% Sobel Z B S.E. I.E. 95% Sobel Z Conflictual Affective Solidarity 0.14*** 0.04 0.11 [0.03, 0.13] 3.21** −0.04 0.04 −0.22 [0.15, 0.25] 7.49*** Associational −0.07 0.08 −0.07 [−.25, −0.03] −2.45* −0.07 0.09 0.10 [0.16, 0.32] 5.87*** Functional 0.08** 0.02 −0.14 [−.10, −0.06] −6.64*** 0.03 0.03* 0.15 [0.07, 0.13] 6.32*** Normative −0.05 0.06 −0.10 [−.15, −0.07] −5.17*** −0.01 0.06 0.13 [0.12, 0.28] 6.13*** Notes: ***p < 0.001, **p < 0.01, *p < 0.05; IE, Indirect effect. https://doi.org/10.2147/PRBM.S451905 DovePress Psychology Research and Behavior Management 2024:17 2456 García-Mendoza et al Dovepress Powered by TCPDF (www.tcpdf.org)Powered by TCPDF (www.tcpdf.org) family values (normative solidarity) were found to contribute to greater emotional closeness to parents, which in turn enhanced satisfaction with life. Discussion The present study aimed to explore patterns in intergenerational solidarity among emerging adults and their parents in two Southern European countries. Firstly, differences in accordance with country and other sociodemographic characteristics were explored. Next, associations between the different dimensions of intergenerational solidarity and emerging adults’ psychological adjustment were analysed, exploring the mediating effect of affective solidarity. Our results suggest some differences in intergenerational solidarity patterns in accordance with country. Specifically, Spanish emerging adults perceived higher levels of associational, functional and normative solidarity than their Portuguese counterparts, who in turn perceived higher levels of conflictual solidarity. As noted previously, as Southern European countries, Spain and Portugal have very similar parent-child relationship patterns within the family system, which is characterised by strong, close family ties and offspring remaining in the parental home for longer. 20 However, previous research has already found differences between these two Southern European countries in other family variables, with Spanish emerging adults, for example, reporting higher levels of parental involvement than their .38*** Mediating Variable Affective Solidarity Independent Variable Conflictual Solidarity Dependent Variable Psychological Distress -.33*** -.60*** (.19***) .25*** Mediating Variable Affective Solidarity Independent Variable Associational Solidarity Dependent Variable Psychological Distress -.33*** -.12** (-.04) -.15*** .33*** Mediating Variable Affective Solidarity Independent Variable Normative Solidarity Dependent Variable Psychological Distress -.33*** (.04) Figure 1 MedGraph showing the mediating effect of affective solidarity in the association between conflictual, associational and normative solidarity and psychological distress. Notes: ***p < 0.001, **p < 0.01; the indirect effects from the model are included in the figure in parentheses. Psychology Research and Behavior Management 2024:17 https://doi.org/10.2147/PRBM.S451905 DovePress 2457 Dovepress García-Mendoza et al Powered by TCPDF (www.tcpdf.org)Powered by TCPDF (www.tcpdf.org)