Bajo un sol desconocido: László Hudec, Antonin Raymond y la construcción de la arquitectura moderna en Asia Oriental

UNKNOWN SUNS: LÁSZLÓ HUDEC, ANTONÍN RAYMOND AND THE MAKING OF MODERN ARCHITECTURE IN EASTERN ASIA DOCTORAL THESIS Phd. Candidate Anamaria Andreea Anghel Thesis Director/Tutor Dr. Pilar García Fernández UNIVERSIDAD DE SEVILLA FACULTAD DE BELLAS ARTES PROGRAMA DE DOCTORADO ARTE Y PATRIMONIO LÍNEA DE INVESTIGACIÓN: TEORÍA, ANÁLISIS, CONCEPTOS, CRÍTICA Y DIFUSIÓN EN LA CREACIÓN ARTÍSTICA Y DEL PATRIMONIO CULTURAL SEVILLA 2015 UNKNOWN SUNS: LÁSZLÓ HUDEC, ANTONÍN RAYMOND AND THE MAKING OF MODERN ARCHITECTURE IN EASTERN ASIA DOCTORAL THESIS Phd. Candidate Anamaria Andreea Anghel Thesis Director/Tutor Dr. Pilar García Fernández UNIVERSIDAD DE SEVILLA FACULTAD DE BELLAS ARTES PROGRAMA DE DOCTORADO ARTE Y PATRIMONIO Línea de Investigación: Teoría, análisis, conceptos, crítica y difusión en la creación artística y del Patrimonio Cultural SEVILLA 2015 UNKNOWN SUNS: LÁSZLÓ HUDEC, ANTONÍN RAYMOND AND THE MAKING OF MODERN ARCHITECTURE IN EASTERN ASIA i ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I would like to dedicate this book to my beloved professor and friend, Dr. architect José María Cabeza Lainez, for believing in me. He was the one who opened my eyes towards the Oriental world. Without his guidance and support, none of this work would exist. I would like to express my gratitude to my Tutor and Thesis Director, Dr. Pilar García Fernández, for the guidance and ideas. I would like to express my sincere respect to my professor, Dr. architect Cristian Dumitrescu, for his long time teaching and persuasion. I would like to thank Jesús Alberto Pulido Arcas and Carlos Rubio Bellido for their good English and the corrections they provided to the thesis. I hereby want to thank my husband, architect Eduard Man, for his understanding and backing, taken over our office when he desperately needed my help and to my whole family for their moral support. I would also like to thank Isopescu Laurentiu for providing me an important book from Seville’s Library, to Alexandra Diaconu for having so many friends all over the world, to which I could rely for some information and to Jose Alberto Cuenca Moruno and Anca Fratila for providing me important information regarding necessary documents for the matriculation. Last but not least, I would like to thank Yukari Okano, a wonderful Japanese teacher I had for two months. I took some Japanese classes two years ago, just to get to know a little bit of the marvellous Japanese culture through this wonderful person and teacher. ii UNKNOWN SUNS: LÁSZLÓ HUDEC, ANTONÍN RAYMOND AND THE MAKING OF MODERN ARCHITECTURE IN EASTERN ASIA iii TABLE OF CONTENTS TABLE OF CONTENTS ................................................................................................................................. iii LIST OF FIGURES ......................................................................................................................................... v LIST OF TABLES ......................................................................................................................................... xix CHAPTER 1 GENERAL INTRODUCTION AND OUTLINE OF THE THESIS ........................................................ 2 1.1 PROLOGUE ............................................................................................................................................ 2 1.2 INTRODUCTION ..................................................................................................................................... 4 1.3 MOTIVATION AND OBJECTIVES ............................................................................................................. 6 1.4 METHODOLOGY .................................................................................................................................. 10 CHAPTER 2 RESEARCH AND HISTORY ...................................................................................................... 14 2.1 MODERNIZATION AND EASTER ASIA................................................................................................... 14 2.2 CHINA AND JAPAN, SHORT HISTORY AND RELATIONS IN THE 20TH CENTURY .................................... 17 2.3 SHANGHAI, HISTORY AND URBANISM ................................................................................................ 20 2.4 TOKYO, HISTORY AND URBANISM ...................................................................................................... 27 2.5 MODERN ARCHITECTURE, THE BEGINNINGS ...................................................................................... 32 2.6 EASTERN ASIA, SHANGHAI AND TOKYO AND THE MAKING OF MODERN ARCHITECTURE: ................ 35 CHAPTER 3 THE PATH OF LIFE, FROM EUROPE TO ASIA ............................................................................ 44 3.1 FOREIGN ARCHITECTS IN SHANGHAI BEFORE THE ARRIVAL OF LÁSZLÓ HUDEC ................................ 44 3.2 LÁSZLÓ HUDEC, THE RISING OF AN UNKNOWN ARCHITECT ............................................................... 52 3.3 FOREIGN ARCHITECTS IN TOKIO BEFORE THE ARRIVAL OF ANTONÍN RAYMOND .............................. 58 3.4 ANTONÍN RAYMOND, EARLY EXPERIENCE BEFORE HIS ARRIVAL IN TOKYO ....................................... 62 3.5 ANTONIN RAYMOND AND LASZLO HUDEC, SHORT COMPARISON BETWEEN THEIR TRAJECTORIES FROM EUROPE TO EASTERN ASIA ............................................................................................................... 75 CHAPTER 4 NEW BEGGININGS IN CHINA AND JAPAN, ACCOMODATION ................................................ 78 4.1 ARCHITECTS IN ASIA, LÁSZLÓ HUDEC AND ANTONIN RAYMOND’S FIRST COMMISIONS, WORK AND FORMATTION UNDER DIFFERENT GUIDANCE AND ASSOCIATIONS............................................................ 78 4.2 ANTONIN RAYMOND AND FRANK LLOYD WRIGHT’S IMPERIAL HOTEL, TOKYO (31.12.1919 – 1921) 80 4.3 LÁSZLÓ HUDEC AND ROWLAND CURRY, SHANGHAY (1919 - 1925) ................................................... 86 CHAPTER 5 INDEPENDENCE AND RECOGNITION ................................................................................... 100 5.1 ANTONIN RAYMOND EARLY PRACTICE IN TOKYO AND THE BEGININGS OF THE INDIVIDUAL OFFICE, STILL UNDER WRIGHT’S INFLUENCE OF THINKING (1921 – 1923) ............................................................ 100 5.2 LÁSZLÓ HUDEC, THE BEGINNING OF HIS INDIVIDUAL OFFICE IN SHANGHAI, STILL UNDER CLASSICISM AND ECLECTICISM INFLUENCE (1924 – 1930) ........................................................................................... 108 UNKNOWN SUNS: LÁSZLÓ HUDEC, ANTONÍN RAYMOND AND THE MAKING OF MODERN ARCHITECTURE IN EASTERN ASIA iv 5.3 LÁSZLÓ HUDEC, TRANSITION PERIOD – BETWEEN OLD AND NEW STYLES (1930-1933) .................. 139 CHAPTER 6 APPROACH TO MODERN ARCHITECTURE ........................................................................... 148 6.1 ANTONÍN RAYMOND’S MODERN APROACH FOR TOKYO’s RECONSTRUCTION AFTER THE GREAT KANTO EARTHQUAKE OF 1923 (1923-1937) .................................................................................... 148 6.2 LÁSZLÓ HUDEC ‘S ART DECO AND MODERN ARCHITECTURE (the 1930’s) ....................................... 218 6.3 ANTONÍN RAYMOND AND LÁSZLÓ HUDEC, SHORT CONCLUSIONS AND COMPARISON BETWEEN THEM AND THEIR WORK BETWEEN THE WARS ........................................................................................ 266 CHAPTER 7 LIFE AND WORK DURING AND AFTER WORLD WAR II ........................................................ 276 7.1 HUDEC’S LIFE AND PRACTICE IN SHANGHAI DURING THE WAR ....................................................... 276 7.2 RAYMOND’S LIFE AND PRACTICE DURING THE WAR ........................................................................ 280 7.3 RESIGNATION - LASZLO HUDEC’S LIFE AND CAREER AFTER THE FAR EAST EXPERIENCE .................. 293 7.4 RAYMOND’S PICK OF CAREER IN TOKYO, AFTER THE II WORLD WAR .............................................. 296 CHAPTER 8 CONCLUSIONS .................................................................................................................... 312 8.1 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS ........................................................................................................ 312 8.2 HUDEC AND RAYMOND’S CONTRIBUTION TO THE MAKING OF MODERN ARCHITECTURE IN EASTERN ASIA ........................................................................................................................................................... 315 CHAPTER 9 BIBLIOGRAPHY ................................................................................................................... 318 9.1 BOOKS AND ARTICLES ....................................................................................................................... 318 9.2 INTERNET SOURCES (STYLE, CHRONOLOGICAL DATA, EVENTS, PHOTOS) ........................................ 321 9.3 WIKIPEDIA FILES ................................................................................................................................ 323 9.4 DOCUMENTARIES AND FILMS ........................................................................................................... 324 CHAPTER 10 APPENDIX ......................................................................................................................... 326 10.1 ANNEX 1 – LÁSZLÓ HUDEC, AUTOBIOGRAPHY ............................................................................... 326 10.2 ANNEX 2 – LÁSZLÓ HUDEC, LIST OF BUILDINGS .............................................................................. 337 10.3 ANNEX 3– LÁSZLÓ HUDEC, MAP SHOWING AN AERIAL IMAGE OF 2015 SHANGHAI WITH THE LOCATION OF MAIN PROJECTS DONE BY HUDEC ..................................................................................... 345 10.4 ANNEX 4 – ANTONÍN RAYMOND, LIST OF BUILDINGS .................................................................... 346 v LIST OF FIGURES FIG. 1 MODERN AGE TIMELINE - DATES ARE APPROXIMATE RANGE (BASED UPON INFLUENCE), CONSULT PARTICULAR ARTICLE FOR DETAILS - IMAGE SOURCE: HTTP://EN.WIKIPEDIA.ORG/WIKI/MODERN_HISTORY ............................................................................ 14 FIG. 2. CHINA AND JAPAN CONFRONT THE WEST - IMAGE SOURCE: HTTP://JMCENTARFER.TRIPOD.COM/CH28_2.PDF ................................................................................. 16 FIG. 3. MAP OF THE WORLD, CHINA VERSUS JAPAN - MAP SOURCE: HTTP://UPLOAD.WIKIMEDIA.ORG/WIKIPEDIA/COMMONS/D/D6/CHINA_JAPAN_LOCATOR.PNG, EDITED BY THE AUTHOR ...................................................................................................................................... 17 FIG. 4. CHINA AND JAPAN SHOWING THEIR POSITION AND CAPITALS - IMAGE SOURCE: INTERNET, EDITED BY THE AUTHOR ........................................................................................................................................... 19 FIG. 5. MAP OF THE OLD CITY OF SHANGHAI WITH THE DAJING GE PAVILLON (RED CIRCLE) –MAP SOURCE: WIKIPEDIA: HTTP://EN.WIKIPEDIA.ORG/WIKI/DAJING_GE_PAVILION .................................................... 20 FIG. 6. MAP OF SHANGHAI FROM 1884 WITH FOREIGN CONCESSIONS –MAP SOURCE: WIKIPEDIA: HTTP://EN.WIKIPEDIA.ORG/WIKI/SHANGHAI_INTERNATIONAL_SETTLEMENT#MEDIAVIEWER/FILE:SHAN GHAI_1884.JPG ....................................................................................................................................... 21 FIG. 7. MAP OF SHANGHAI SHOWING FOREIGN CONCESSIONS – MAP SOURCE: HTTP://WWW.MEDICOGRAPHIA.COM/WP-CONTENT/UPLOADS/2010/02/PHOTO_3.JPG .................... 22 FIG. 8.THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE FRENCH AND INTERNATIONAL SETTLEMENTS - MAP SOURCE: XU GONGSU AND QIU JINZHANG, EDS., SHANGHAI GONG-GONG ZUJIE SHIGAO (SHANGHAI, 1980) ......................... 23 FIG. 9. DENSITY OF POPULATION IN THE WORLD FOR THE YEAR 1918 – MAP SOURCE: INTERNET HTTP://WWW.EMERSONKENT.COM/MAP_ARCHIVE/WORLD_MAP_POPULATION_1918.HTM ............ 24 FIG. 10. MAJOR PROVINCES OF CHINA SUPPLYING IMMIGRANTS TO SHANGHAI – MAP SOURCE, EDITED BY THE AUTHOR ........................................................................................................................................... 25 FIG. 11. FIRST MAP OF EDO CREATED IN 1603 DURING THE EDO PERIOD –MAP SOURCE: INTERNET: HTTP://WWW.GREATKANTOEARTHQUAKE.COM/MAP_ARCHIVE.HTML ............................................... 27 FIG. 12. EDO CASTLE IN 1847 – IMAGE SOURCE: WIKIPEDIA, HTTP://EN.WIKIPEDIA.ORG/WIKI/EDO_CASTLE 27 FIG. 13. EVOLUTION OF THE CITY - MAPS SOURCE : HTTP://WWW.GREATKANTOEARTHQUAKE.COM/MAP_ARCHIVE.HTML ............................................... 29 FIG. 14. GREATER METROPOLITAN TOKYO IN 1920 – MAP SOURCE: HTTP://WWW.GREATKANTOEARTHQUAKE.COM/MAP_ARCHIVE.HTML ............................................... 30 FIG. 15. CITY OF TOKYO, ZONING – MAP SOURCE: HTTP://WWW.GREATKANTOEARTHQUAKE.COM/MAP_ARCHIVE.HTML ............................................... 30 FIG. 16. THE KAICHI ELEMENTARY SCHOOL - IMAGE SOURCE: HTTP://CHNM.GMU.EDU/CYH/PRIMARY-SOURCES/133 ........................................................................ 37 FIG. 17. TOKYO STATION IN 1914 AND AFTER THE RESTORATION IN 2012 - IMAGE SOURCE: HTTP://WWW.JAPANTIMES.CO.JP/NEWS/2012/10/23/REFERENCE/TOKYO-STATIONS-MARUNOUCHI- SIDE-RESTORED-TO-1914-GLORY/#.VSQ6Q_MUD8E .............................................................................. 38 FIG. 18. THE BYOBU FOLDING SCREEN - IMAGE SOURCE: INTERNET: HTTP://WWW.JAPANACHE.COM.AU/CONTENTS/MEDIA/L_AJ011%20-%20JAPANESE%20ART%20- %20LANDSCAPE%20BYOBU%20(SCREEN).JPG ....................................................................................... 39 FIG. 19. THE SHOJI PANELS - IMAGE SOUSE: HTTP://EN.WIKIPEDIA.ORG/WIKI/SHŌJI .................................... 39 FIG. 20. THE FUSUMA SLIDING PANELS - IMAGE SOURCE: HTTP://EN.WIKIPEDIA.ORG/WIKI/FUSUMA .......... 39 FIG. 21. THE ENGAWA - IMAGE SOURCE: HTTP://COMMONS.WIKIMEDIA.ORG/WIKI/FILE:JAPANESE_HOUSE_- _ENGAWA.JPG ........................................................................................................................................ 40 FIG. 22. THE TATAMI MAT MAKERS OF OLD AJAPANIMAGE SOURCE: INTERNET.......................................... 41 UNKNOWN SUNS: LÁSZLÓ HUDEC, ANTONÍN RAYMOND AND THE MAKING OF MODERN ARCHITECTURE IN EASTERN ASIA xii FIG. 141. VISCOUNT HAMAO HOUSE, ENTRY FACADEIMAGE SOURCE: KURT G. F. HELFRICH AND WILLIAM WHITAKER: CRAFTING A MODERN WORLD, THE ARCHITECTURE AND DESIGN OF ANTONIN AND NOEMI RAYMOND, P.114 .................................................................................................................................. 168 FIG. 142. VISCOUNT HAMAO HOUSE, REAR FAÇADE AND BEDROOM - IMAGE SOURCE: KURT G. F. HELFRICH AND WILLIAM WHITAKER: CRAFTING A MODERN WORLD, THE ARCHITECTURE AND DESIGN OF ANTONIN AND NOEMI RAYMOND, P.114 ............................................................................................. 169 FIG. 143. VISCOUNT HAMAO HOUSE, PLAN - IMAGE SOURCE: ANTONIN RAYMOND: AUTOBIOGRAPHY, P.118 .............................................................................................................................................................. 169 FIG. 144. SACRED HEART SCHOOL IN TOKYO, MAIN ENTRANCE OF THE SCIENCE BUILDING, REAR FAÇADE AND PLAN - IMAGE SOURCE: KURT G. F. HELFRICH AND WILLIAM WHITAKER: CRAFTING A MODERN WORLD, THE ARCHITECTURE AND DESIGN OF ANTONIN AND NOEMI RAYMOND, P.105 AND ANTONIN RAYMOND: AUTOBIOGRAPHY, P.109 .................................................................................................... 170 FIG. 145. SACRED HEART SCHOOL IN OKAYAMA, MAIN ENTRANCE AND PLAN - IMAGE SOURCE: ANTONIN RAYMOND: AUTOBIOGRAPHY, P.110 .................................................................................................... 170 FIG. 146. SISTERS OF NOTRE DAMESEIBO GAKUIN SCHOOL IN OSAKA, EXTERIOR VIEW, PLAN, INTERIOR VIEWS OF THE GYMNASIUM AND CAMPUS PLAN - IMAGE SOURCE: KURT G. F. HELFRICH AND WILLIAM WHITAKER: CRAFTING A MODERN WORLD, THE ARCHITECTURE AND DESIGN OF ANTONIN AND NOEMI RAYMOND, P.107-109 AND ANTONIN RAYMOND: AUTOBIOGRAPHY, P.110 ....................................... 171 FIG. 147. ST. LUKE’S HOSPITAL AND CHAPELL ORIGINAL DESIGNS, TOKYO 1928, RENDERINGS AND PLAN - IMAGE SOURCE: ANTONIN RAYMOND: AUTOBIOGRAPHY, P.112 ........................................................ 172 FIG. 148. SOVIET EMBASSY, TOKYO, 1929, FIRST FLOOR PLAN AND VIEWIMAGE SOURCE: ANTONIN RAYMOND: AUTOBIOGRAPHY, P.121 .................................................................................................... 173 FIG. 149. RISING SUN PETROLEUM COMPANY HEADQUARTER IN YOKOHAMA, PERSPECTIVE MAID BY ANTONIN RAYMOND IN 1927, SIDE FAÇADE, MAIN FAÇADE AND ENTRANCE - IMAGE SOURCE: CRAFTING A MODERN WORLD, THE ARCHITECTURE AND DESIGN OF ANTONIN AND NOEMI RAYMOND, P.119-120 AND ANTONIN RAYMOND: AUTOBIOGRAPHY, P.125 .......................................................... 175 FIG. 150. RISING SUN PETROLEUM COMPANY, MANAGERS HOUSE AND MODEL HOUSING IN YOKOHAMA 1929 - IMAGE SOURCE: ANTONIN RAYMOND: AUTOBIOGRAPHY, P.125 ............................................. 176 FIG. 151. SHELL SERVICE STATION IN SUGAMO AND YOHOHAMA 1930, PLAN AND VIEW - IMAGE SOURCE: ANTONIN RAYMOND: AUTOBIOGRAPHY, P.125 ................................................................................... 176 FIG. 152. OTIS ELEVATOR FACTORY IN TOKYO, CURTAIN WALLS, FIRST-FLOOR PLAN AND INTERIOR STEEL STRUCTURE DETAILSIMAGE SOURCES: ANTONIN RAYMOND: AUTOBIOGRAPHY, P.129 .................... 177 FIG. 153. TOKYO GOLF CLUB, SOUTH FACADE, DETAIL OF THE CIRCULAR EXTERIOR STAIRWAY AND ROOF TERRACE - IMAGE SOURCES: ANTONIN RAYMOND: AUTOBIOGRAPHY, P.126-127 AND CRAFTING A MODERN WORLD, THE ARCHITECTURE AND DESIGN OF ANTONIN AND NOEMI RAYMOND, P.129,133 .............................................................................................................................................................. 178 FIG. 154. TOKYO GOLF CLUB, FIRST AND SECOND FLOOR PLAN SHOWING THE MAIN FUNCTIONS AND INTERIOR ORGANISATION - IMAGE SOURCE: ANTONIN RAYMOND: AUTOBIOGRAPHY, P.126-127 ..... 179 FIG. 155. TOKYO GOLF CLUB, STAIR TO 2ND FLOOR FROM LOBBY, PERSPECTIVE OF THE LOUNGE LOOKING SOUTH AND NORTH, LADIES LOUNGEIMAGE SOURCE: CRAFTING A MODERN WORLD, THE ARCHITECTURE AND DESIGN OF ANTONIN AND NOEMI RAYMOND, P.130-132 .................................. 180 FIG. 156. MOUNT ASAMA – IMAGE SOURCE: INTERNET ............................................................................... 181 FIG. 157. KARUIZAWA SUMMER HOUSE, GENERAL VIEW FROM THE POND, SOUTHERN FACADE - IMAGE SOURCE: ANTONIN RAYMOND: AUTOBIOGRAPHY, P.130 .................................................................... 181 FIG. 158.ERRAZURIZ HOUSE, LE CORBUSIERSTUDY- IMAGE SOURCE: INTERNET HTTP://EN.WIKIARQUITECTURA.COM/INDEX.PHP/MAISON_ERR%C3%A1ZURIZ ................................. 183 FIG. 159. ERRAZURIZ HOUSE, LE CORBUSIER, STUDY OF THE ORIGINAL DRAWINGSIMAGE SOURCES: INTERNET HTTP://WWW.FONDATIONLECORBUSIER.FR ....................................................................... 184 UNKNOWN SUNS: LÁSZLÓ HUDEC, ANTONÍN RAYMOND AND THE MAKING OF MODERN ARCHITECTURE IN EASTERN ASIA xiii FIG. 160. PLAN OF THE ENTIRE PLOT, TATAMI AS MODULEIMAGE SOURCE: ANTONIN RAYMOND: AUTOBIOGRAPHY, P.132 ....................................................................................................................... 185 FIG. 161. KARUIZAWA HOUSE, PUBLIC AND PRIVATE AREA AND THE POOL, PLAN AND VIEWS - IMAGE SOURCES: STUDY MADE BY THE AUTHOR, ANTONIN RAYMOND: AUTOBIOGRAPHY, P.131 AND CRAFTING A MODERN WORLD, THE ARCHITECTURE AND DESIGN OF ANTONIN AND NOEMI RAYMOND, P.159 ..................................................................................................................................................... 185 FIG. 162. KARUIZAHA SUMMER HOUSE, SECTION, NATURAL VENTILATION AND WATER CYCLE = ECO FRIENDLY, SUSTAINABLE HOUSESTUDY MADE BY THE AUTHOR ........................................................ 186 FIG. 163. KARUIZAWA SUMMER HOUSE , LIGHTNESS AND TRANSPARENCY - IMAGE SOURCES: CRAFTING A MODERN WORLD, THE ARCHITECTURE AND DESIGN OF ANTONIN AND NOEMI RAYMOND, P.155 .... 186 FIG. 164. KARUIZAWA SUMMER HOUSE, STUDY OF THE TATAMI MODULE OVER THE PLAN – STUDY MADE BY THE AUTHOR ......................................................................................................................................... 187 FIG. 165 KARUIZAWA HOUSE-INTERIOR DETAILS OF THE FIREPLACE, STORAGE AND LINTEL - IMAGE SOURCES: INTERNET AND ANTONIN RAYMOND: AUTOBIOGRAPHY, P.132 ........................................................... 189 FIG. 166. KARUIZAWA HOUSE, RAW WOOD FURNITURE, TRANSPARENCY AND LIVING AREA VIEWS AND OPENINGS TO THE SOUTH - IMAGE SOURCES: ANTONIN RAYMOND: AUTOBIOGRAPHY, P.133 .......... 189 FIG. 167. KARUIZAWA SUMMER HOUSE WITH THE BLINDS DOWNIMAGE SOURCE: ANTONIN RAYMOND: AUTOBIOGRAPHY, P.131 ....................................................................................................................... 190 FIG. 168. KARUIZAWA HOUSETHE “STEP” COMPOSITION AND VARIETY OF VIEWS, PLAN AND VIEW FROM THE DINING ROOM‘S OUTDOOR PORCH TOWARDS THE BEDROOM – IMAGE SOURCE: STUDY BY THE AUTHOR ................................................................................................................................................ 191 FIG. 169. KARUIZAWA SUMMER HOUSE, INTERIOR OF THE PUBLIC AREA WITH A VIEW TOWARDS THE DRAFTING ROOM FROM THE MEZZANINE - IMAGE SOURCE: CRAFTING A MODERN WORLD, THE ARCHITECTURE AND DESIGN OF ANTONIN AND NOEMI RAYMOND, P.156 .......................................... 191 FIG. 170. KARUIZAHA HOUSE, NARROW VERANDA, SMALL EAVES AND FLOATING VOLUME OF THE BEDROOM – IMAGE SOURCES: ANTONIN RAYMOND: AUTOBIOGRAPHY, P.131- STUDY MADE BY THE AUTHOR . 192 FIG. 171. NEW LOCATION OF THE RAYMONDS FORMER SUMMER HOUSE – IMAGE SOURCES: INTERNET, GOOGLE EARTH .................................................................................................................................... 193 FIG. 172. ST. PAUL’S CHURCH, MAIN VIEW OF THE ENTRY FACADE - IMAGE SOURCE: CRAFTING A MODERN WORLD, THE ARCHITECTURE AND DESIGN OF ANTONIN AND NOEMI RAYMOND, P.164 .................... 194 FIG. 173. ST. PAUL’S CHURCH, SECTIONS (WOODEN STRUCTURE) AND PLAN - IMAGE SOURCE: CRAFTING A MODERN WORLD, THE ARCHITECTURE AND DESIGN OF ANTONIN AND NOEMI RAYMOND, P.163 .... 195 FIG. 174 ST. PAUL’S CHURCH, INTERIOR (WOODEN STRUCTURE) AND CIRCULAR STAIR - IMAGE SOURCE: CRAFTING A MODERN WORLD, THE ARCHITECTURE AND DESIGN OF ANTONIN AND NOEMI RAYMOND, P.164-165 ............................................................................................................................................. 195 FIG. 175. ST. PAUL’S CHURCH, ACTUAL IMAGES FROM 2012(FRONT AND BACK EXTERIOR VIEWS, INTERIOR AND DETAIL OF NOEMI’S ST. PAUL CONCRETE SCULPTURE) – IMAGE SOURCES: INTERNET ................ 196 FIG. 176. KISUKE AKABOSHI HOUSE, REAR FACADE STUDY, DOUBLE HEIGH OF THE LIVING-ROOM– IMAGE SOURCES: ANTONIN RAYMOND: AUTOBIOGRAPHY, P.135 ................................................................... 198 FIG. 177. KISUKE AKABOSHI HOUSE, DOUBLE HEIGH OF THE LIVING-ROOM, MADAM’S BEDROOM WITH TATAMI MATS AND SLIDING PANELS SEPARATING THE CHILDREN’S ROOM– IMAGE SOURCES: CRAFTING A MODERN WORLD, THE ARCHITECTURE AND DESIGN OF ANTONIN AND NOEMI RAYMOND, P.135-137 ............................................................................................................................................. 198 FIG. 178. AKABOSHI TETSUMA HOUSE, SOUTH FACADE AND LIVING AREAS – IMAGE SOURCES: CRAFTING A MODERN WORLD, THE ARCHITECTURE AND DESIGN OF ANTONIN AND NOEMI RAYMOND, P.145-147 .............................................................................................................................................................. 199 FIG. 179. AKABOSHI TETSUMA HOUSE, FIRST AND SECOND FLOOR PLAN – IMAGE SOURCES: CRAFTING A MODERN WORLD, THE ARCHITECTURE AND DESIGN OF ANTONIN AND NOEMI RAYMOND, P.144 .... 199 UNKNOWN SUNS: LÁSZLÓ HUDEC, ANTONÍN RAYMOND AND THE MAKING OF MODERN ARCHITECTURE IN EASTERN ASIA xiv FIG. 180. AKABOSHI TETSUMA HOUSE, DETAIL OF MADAM’S AND CHILDREN’S ROOM – IMAGE SOURCES: STUDY MADE BY THE AUTHOR, ANTONIN RAYMOND: AUTOBIOGRAPHY, P.138 AND CRAFTING A MODERN WORLD, THE ARCHITECTURE AND DESIGN OF ANTONIN AND NOEMI RAYMOND, P.149 .... 200 FIG. 181. AKABOSHI TETSUMA HOUSE NOW – IMAGE SOURCES: INTERNETGOOGLE MAPS VIEW 2012 .... 200 FIG. 182. KAWASAKI MORINOSUKE HOUSE (CLOCKWISE) GARDEN FACADE, NORTH VIEW, ROOF GARDEN, ENTRY AND INTERIOR COURTYARD AND PLANS – IMAGE SOURCES: STUDY MADE BY THE AUTHOR, ANTONIN RAYMOND: AUTOBIOGRAPHY, P.136 AND CRAFTING A MODERN WORLD, THE ARCHITECTURE AND DESIGN OF ANTONIN AND NOEMI RAYMOND, P.140-143 .................................. 201 FIG. 183 TOKYO WOMEN’S CHRISTIAN COLLEGE - CHAPELL AND AUDITORIUM 1934-1938 - IMAGE SOURCE: CRAFTING A MODERN WORLD, THE ARCHITECTURE AND DESIGN OF ANTONIN AND NOEMI RAYMOND, P.85 ....................................................................................................................................................... 202 FIG. 184. TOWER OF THE CHAPEL, TOKYO WOMEN’S CHRISTIAN COLLEGE – IMAGE SOURCE: ANTONIN RAYMOND: AUTOBIOGRAPHY, P.141-142 ............................................................................................ 203 FIG. 185. TOKYO WOMEN’S CHRISTIAN COLLEGE - CHAPELL AND AUDITORIUM, ACOUSTICS STUDIES – IMAGE SOURCE: ANTONIN RAYMOND: AUTOBIOGRAPHY, P.141-142, STUDY MADE BY THE AUTOR .............. 204 FIG. 186. NOTRE DAME DU RAINCY AUGUSTE PERRET - IMAGE SOURCES: INTERNET: MODERN ARCHITECTURE HTTP://KINKENZEMI.EXBLOG.JP/PAGE/36/ ................................................................. 205 FIG. 187. MAP SHOWING AN AERIAL IMAGE OF 2015 JAPAN - LOCATION OF MAIN PROJECTS DONE BY ANTONIN RAYMOND AFTER THE 1923 EARTHQUAKE - STUDY MADE BY THE AUTHOR ....................... 205 FIG. 188. MAP SHOWING AN AERIAL IMAGE OF 2015 TOKYO AREA - LOCATION OF MAIN PROJECTS DONE BY ANTONIN RAYMOND AFTER THE 1923 EARTHQUAKE - STUDY MADE BY THE AUTHOR ....................... 206 FIG. 189. ANTONIN RAYMONDARCHITECTURAL DETAILS, 1938: DETAILS OF A PATENT APPLICATION FOR A “WINDOW CONSTRUCTION” THAT ALLOWS “HORIZONTAL-MOVEABLE” SASHES ............................... 214 FIG. 190. ANTONIN RAYMONDARCHITECTURAL DETAILS, 1938: MEASURED DRAWINGS AND PHOTOGRAPHS OF TYPICAL JAPANESE FLOORS ............................................................................................................. 214 FIG. 191. RAYMOND’S OFFICE STAFF 1935– IMAGE SOURCE: ANTONIN RAYMOND: AUTOBIOGRAPHY, P.148 .............................................................................................................................................................. 217 FIG. 192. SIDE ELEVATION OF HUDEC’S JSS BUILDING (PARK HOTEL) COMPARED WITH THE HEIGH OF OTHER BUILDINGS, INCLUDING PALMER & TURNER’S SASSOON HOUSEIMAGES SOURCE: LUCA PONCELLINI – JÚLIA CSEJDY: LÁSZLÓ HUDEC. MASTERS OF ARCHITECTURE, P.93...................................................... 218 FIG. 193. THE RACE COURSE WITH SHANGHAI RACE CLUB AND GRAND THEATRE, VIEW FROM THE PARK HOTEL & VIEW FROM THE RACE COURSE TOWARDS THE GRAND THEATRE AND PARK HOTELIMAGE SOURCE: JÁNOSSY PÉTER SAMUEL– DEKE ERH: LIFE AND WORK OF HUDEC LÁSZLÓTHE REAL HOMO LUDENS, P.109, INTERNET HTTP://WWW.USSESTES.ORG/SHIPINFO/HISTORY_IN_PHOTOS_1945.HTM .............................................................................................................................................................. 219 FIG. 194. MIES VAN DER ROHEGLASS TOWER IN FRIEDRICHSTRASSE, DESIGNED FOR THE 1921 INTERNATIONAL COMPETITION FOR SKYSCRAPERS IN BERLIN, VIEW AND PLANIMAGE SOURCE: INTERNET HTTP://WWW.MOMA.ORG/COLLECTION ............................................................................ 220 FIG. 195. COMPETITION FOR THE CHICAGO TRIBUNE BUILDING, 1922- ‘A’ RAYMOND HOOD, ‘B’ ELIEL SAARINEN, ‘C’ WALTER GROPIUS, ‘D’ ADOLF LOOS AND ‘E’ BRUNO TAUTIMAGE SOURCE: INTERNET HTTP://SKYSCRAPER.ORG/EXHIBITIONS/PAPER_SPIRES/CHITRIB01.PHP .............................................. 221 FIG. 196. JOINT SAVINGS SOCIETY BUILDING (NOW PARK HOTEL) UNDER CONSTRUCTION AND GRAND THEATRE TO THE LEFT, VIEW FROM THE RACE COURSEIMAGE SOURCE: LUCA PONCELLINI – JÚLIA CSEJDY: LÁSZLÓ HUDEC. MASTERS OF ARCHITECTURE, P.95 ............................................................... 222 FIG. 197. STEEL SHEET PILESIMAGE SOURCE: INTERNET ............................................................................ 224 FIG. 198. GROUND PLANS FOR THE JSS BUILDING (PARK HOTEL) AND ELEVATIONIMAGE SOURCE: LUCA PONCELLINI – JÚLIA CSEJDY: LÁSZLÓ HUDEC. MASTERS OF ARCHITECTURE, P.94, INTERNET ............. 225 FIG. 199. LOWER LEVELS OF THE PARK HOTEL AND THE RELATION WITH HUDEC’S EARLY DESIGN FOR THE HONISBERG GARAGE 1928- IMAGE SOURCE: LUCA PONCELLINI – JÚLIA CSEJDY: LÁSZLÓ HUDEC. UNKNOWN SUNS: LÁSZLÓ HUDEC, ANTONÍN RAYMOND AND THE MAKING OF MODERN ARCHITECTURE IN EASTERN ASIA xv MASTERS OF ARCHITECTURE, P.96, INTERNET HTTP://WWW.HEATHERFIELDEDITING.COM/HUDEC/PARKH2.HTML .................................................. 226 FIG. 200. JSS BUILDING (PARK HOTEL), MAIN VIEW, DETAIL OF THE FAÇADE DECORATION FROM THE MIDDLE PART AND DETAIL OF THE UPPER PARTIMAGE SOURCE: LUCA PONCELLINI – JÚLIA CSEJDY: LÁSZLÓ HUDEC. MASTERS OF ARCHITECTURE, P.102, INTERNET ...................................................................... 227 FIG. 201. JSS BUILDING TRIPARTITE SCHEME AND GRADUALLY DEACREASING PLANSTUDY MADE BY THE AUTHOR ................................................................................................................................................ 227 FIG. 202. RAYMOND HOOD’S AMERICAN RADIATOR BUILDING, NEW YORK 1924 AND DAILY NEWS BUILDING, NEW YORK 1929-1930- IMAGE SOURCES: INTERNET HTTP://WWW.NYCARCHITECTURE.COM/MID/MID068.HTM AND HTTP://SKYSCRAPER.ORG/EXHIBITIONS/PAPER_SPIRES/NW16_TABLOIDS.PHP................................... 228 FIG. 203. THEN AND NOW, THE BALLROOM AND ART DECO DETAILS FROM THE VESTIBULEIMAGE SOURCE: LUCA PONCELLINI – JÚLIA CSEJDY: LÁSZLÓ HUDEC. MASTERS OF ARCHITECTURE, P.99, 105 ............. 228 FIG. 204. HUDEC’S SKETCHES, FURNISHINGS OF THE BANK AND THE INTERIOR OF THE HOTEL’S STANDARD ROOMIMAGE SOURCE: LUCA PONCELLINI – JÚLIA CSEJDY: LÁSZLÓ HUDEC. MASTERS OF ARCHITECTURE, P.98 ............................................................................................................................ 229 FIG. 205. PARK HOTEL’S ADVERTISEMENTIMAGE SOURCE: LUCA PONCELLINI – JÚLIA CSEJDY: LÁSZLÓ HUDEC. MASTERS OF ARCHITECTURE, P.91, INTERNET ........................................................................ 230 FIG. 206. AVENUE APARTMENTS, PERSPECTIVE VIEW OF THE THREE BLOCKSIMAGE SOURCE: LUCA PONCELLINI – JÚLIA CSEJDY: LÁSZLÓ HUDEC. MASTERS OF ARCHITECTURE, P.108 ............................. 231 FIG. 207. AVENUE APARTMENTS, PLAN, NORTHERN FAÇADE MAIN COMPOSITION, SOUTH-WEST, NORTH AND WEST VIEWS OF THE COMPLEXIMAGE SOURCE: STUDY MADE BY THE AUTHOR, INTERNET AND LUCA PONCELLINI – JÚLIA CSEJDY: LÁSZLÓ HUDEC. MASTERS OF ARCHITECTURE, P.109 ................... 232 FIG. 208. CHEKIANG CINEMA (NOW ZHEJIANG CINEMA) STREET ELEVATION– IMAGES SOURCE: INTERNET, PHOTOS OF M.TAKEHARA DATED 2011 ................................................................................................ 235 FIG. 209. CHEKIANG CINEMA, MAIN COMPOZITION OF THE FACADE– STUDY MADE BY THE AUTHOR ........ 235 FIG. 210. CHEKIANG CINEMA, INTERIOR DETAILS OF THE STAIRCASE – IMAGES SOURCE: INTERNET, HTTPS://WWW.FLICKR.COM/PHOTOS/ZINKA/4143443700/IN/PHOTOSTREAM/LIGHTBOX/ ............... 236 FIG. 211. GRAND THEATRE, MAIN VIEW FROM THE FORMER RACE COURSEIMAGE SOURCE: JÁNOSSY PÉTER SAMUEL– DEKE ERH: LIFE AND WORK OF HUDEC LÁSZLÓTHE REAL HOMO LUDENS, P.106-107 ....... 237 FIG. 212. GRAND THEATRE, HUDEC’S SKETCH FOR THE DESIGN AND MAIN ENTRANCEIMAGE SOURCE: LUCA PONCELLINI – JÚLIA CSEJDY: LÁSZLÓ HUDEC. MASTERS OF ARCHITECTURE, P.110,113 ...................... 238 FIG. 213. GRAND THEATRE, COMPOSITIONAL STUDY OF THE FAÇADE, ART DECO AND INTERNATIONAL STYLESTUDY MADE BY THE AUTHOR ............................................................................................................. 238 FIG. 214. GRAND THEATRE AND THE IMPORTANCE OF ARTIFICIAL LIGHTING FOR EMPHASIZING ‘NIGHT ARCHITECTURE’, HUDEC’S CODE (THAT APPEARS SEVERAL TIMES IN THE BUILDING) CAN BE SEEN IN THE SECOND PHOTOIMAGE SOURCE: LUCA PONCELLINI – JÚLIA CSEJDY: LÁSZLÓ HUDEC. MASTERS OF ARCHITECTURE, P. 113, 114 & JÁNOSSY PÉTER SAMUEL– DEKE ERH: LIFE AND WORK OF HUDEC LÁSZLÓ- P.99 ......................................................................................................................................... 239 FIG. 215. GRAND THEATRE, LONGITUDINAL SECTION AND PLANSSHAPE, ACOUSTICS, VISIBILITY AND EVACUATION OF THE AUDITORIUMSTUDY MADE BY THE AUTHOR ................................................... 240 FIG. 216. GRAND THEATRE, THE AUDITORIUM FROM THE STAGE AND THE ARCHED GALLERYIMAGE SOURCE: INTERNET HTTP://WWW.IDEALSHANGHAI.COM/FOCUS/117027/ ....................................... 241 FIG. 217. GRAND THEATRE, INTERIOR ART DECO DETAILS OF THE FOYER, COLUMN, STAIRS AND EXIT DOORIMAGE SOURCE: LUCA PONCELLINI – JÚLIA CSEJDY: LÁSZLÓ HUDEC. MASTERS OF ARCHITECTURE, P. 114-115, JÁNOSSY PÉTER SAMUEL– DEKE ERH: LIFE AND WORK OF HUDEC LÁSZLÓ- P.104 AND INTERNET .............................................................................................................................................. 242 FIG. 218. MOSCOW THEATRE DESIGNED BY THE VESNIN BROTHERS AND THE FAMOUS LONDON ZOO PAVILION OF LUBETSKIN AND TECTONIMAGES SOURCES: INTERNET UNKNOWN SUNS: LÁSZLÓ HUDEC, ANTONÍN RAYMOND AND THE MAKING OF MODERN ARCHITECTURE IN EASTERN ASIA xvi HTTP://THECHARNELHOUSE.ORG/TAG/THEATER/ AND HTTP://DESIGN.DESIGNMUSEUM.ORG/DESIGN/BERTHOLD-LUBETKIN ............................................... 243 FIG. 219. GRAND THEATRE, BEFORE AND AFTER THE 2009 RESTORATIONIMAGE SOURCE: “THE BEFORE” PHOTO IS DATED 2005 BY JOSE MARIA CABEZA LAINEZ AND “THE AFTER” FIVE PHOTOS FROM INTERNET HTTP://ARCHITECT.HUDECPROJECT.COM/EN/GALLERY/GRAND-THEATRE ......................... 244 FIG. 220. LAFAYETTE CINEMA, PLAN AND STREET VIEWIMAGE SOURCE: JÁNOSSY PÉTER SAMUEL– DEKE ERH: LIFE AND WORK OF HUDEC LÁSZLÓTHE REAL HOMO LUDENS, P.108 ....................................... 245 FIG. 221. ODEON CINEMAS FROM BIRMINGHAM 1935, LONDON 1935-1939, NEW YORK 1935- IMAGES SOURCE: HTTP://WWW.DAILYMAIL.CO.UK/NEWS/ARTICLE-1180949/FROM-BARGAIN-BIN-STORE- BINGO-HALL-SAD-FATE-ODEON-POPCORN-PALACES.HTML ................................................................. 246 FIG. 222. CINEMAS IN ASIA IN THE 1930S, ELITE CINEMA FROM INDIA-CALCUTTA 1935, CATHAY CINEMA FROM SHANGHAI 1932 AND PARAMOUNT BALLROOM FROM SHANGHAI 1933- IMAGE SOURCE: INTERNET .............................................................................................................................................. 246 FIG. 223. UNION BREWERY, PRELIMINARY PERSPECTIVE DRAWING OF THE COMPLEX AND RIVER VIEWIMAGE SOURCE: LUCA PONCELLINI – JÚLIA CSEJDY: LÁSZLÓ HUDEC. MASTERS OF ARCHITECTURE, P. 117 AND INTERNET ............................................................................................................................... 247 FIG. 224. UNION BREWERY, MAIN COMPOSITION OF CUBIC BLOCKS, ARIAL VIEW WITH THE RIVER ON THE BACK AND VARIOUS FENESTRATION FAÇADE COMPOSITIONS (REGULAR COMPOSITION OF VERTICAL AND HORIZONTAL WINDOWS OF THE OFFICE BUILDING VERSUS RANDOM WINDOW ORGANISATION OF THE FACTORY BUILDING) - IMAGES SOURCE: STUDY MADE BY THE AUTHOR AND LUCA PONCELLINI – JÚLIA CSEJDY: LÁSZLÓ HUDEC. MASTERS OF ARCHITECTURE, P. 116-117 ........................................... 248 FIG. 225. UNION BREVERY ADVENTIMAGE SOURCE: LUCA PONCELLINI – JÚLIA CSEJDY: LÁSZLÓ HUDEC. MASTERS OF ARCHITECTURE, P. 117 .................................................................................................... 249 FIG. 226. FORMER UNION BREVERY TODAY, PRESERVATION AND URBAN RECONSTRUCTIONIMAGE SOURCE: LUCA PONCELLINI – JÚLIA CSEJDY: LÁSZLÓ HUDEC. MASTERS OF ARCHITECTURE, P. 117 .................. 251 FIG. 227. FORMER UNION BREVERY TODAY, PRESERVATION AND URBAN RECONSTRUCTIONIMAGE SOURCE: INTERNET HTTP://WWW.SHANGHAIDAILY.COM/FEATURE/ART-AND- CULTURE/PRESERVATION-OF-OLD-BREWERY-MARKS-HISTORIC-CHANGE-IN- ATTITUDES/SHDAILY.SHTML ................................................................................................................. 252 FIG. 228. THE SHANGHAI’S ART DECO/ART MODERN SLAUGHTERHOUSE AND ITS MAXIMUM USE OF EXPOSED REINFORCED CONCRETEIMAGE SOURCE: INTERNET HTTP://WWW.SHANGHAIARTDECO.NET/SHANGHAIS-ART-DECO-ABBATOIR/ AND HTTP://WWW.LACASAPARK.COM/LA/2011/11/THE-LAST-SLAUGHTERHOUSE-ON-EARTH-1933- SHANGHAI/ ........................................................................................................................................... 253 FIG. 229. HUBERTUS COURT “THEN”, NORTH-EAST STREET ELEVATION AND ENTRANCE (FIRST AND SECOND ROW LEFT), INTERIOR DESIGN OF AN APARTMENT AND “NOW”, SOUTH ELEVATION AND MAIN ENTRANCE FROM THE COURTYARD OF THE DA HUA HOTEL (MIDDLE FIRST ROW AND SECOND ROW RIGHT) AND DETAIL OF THE NORTH-WEST STREET ELEVATIONIMAGES SOURCES: THE “THEN” LUCA PONCELLINIJÚLIA CSEJDY: LÁSZLÓ HUDEC. MASTERS OF ARCHITECTURE, P. 119 AND THE “NOW” FROM INTERNET ................................................................................................................................... 254 FIG. 230. UNREALIZED PLANS FOR Y. T. SHEN’S HOUSE AND THE ELEVATION FOR THE MATERNITY WING OF MARGARET WILLIAMSON HOSPITALIMAGE SOURCE: LUCA PONCELLINIJÚLIA CSEJDY: LÁSZLÓ HUDEC. MASTERS OF ARCHITECTURE, P. 131 ....................................................................................... 256 FIG. 231. COLUMBIA COUNTRY CLUB PLAN AND VIEW, GERMAN SCHOOL LABORATORYIMAGE SOURCE: JÁNOSSY PÉTER SAMUEL– DEKE ERH: LIFE AND WORK OF HUDEC LÁSZLÓTHE REAL HOMO LUDENS, P.1115, 116, 122 ................................................................................................................................... 256 FIG. 232. AURORA COLLEGE FOR WOMEN, THE GYMNASIUM – STUDY MADE BY THE AUTHOR .................. 257 FIG. 233. AURORA COLLEGE FOR WOMEN, ENTRANCE FAÇADE, ELEVATION AND PLANSIMAGE SOURCE: LUCA PONCELLINIJÚLIA CSEJDY: LÁSZLÓ HUDEC. MASTERS OF ARCHITECTURE, P. 129 .................... 257 UNKNOWN SUNS: LÁSZLÓ HUDEC, ANTONÍN RAYMOND AND THE MAKING OF MODERN ARCHITECTURE IN EASTERN ASIA xvii FIG. 234. D. V. WOO’S HOUSE, SOUTH GARDEN ELEVATIONIMAGE SOURCE: LUCA PONCELLINIJÚLIA CSEJDY: LÁSZLÓ HUDEC. MASTERS OF ARCHITECTURE, P. 122, 126 .................................................... 258 FIG. 235. D. V. WOO’S HOUSE, COMPOSITIONAL STUDY OF THE SOUTH FAÇADE, INTERNATIONAL STYLESTUDY MADE BY THE AUTHOR ............................................................................................................. 259 FIG. 236. D. V. WOO’S HOUSE, AERIAL VIEW OF SOUTH GARDEN ELEVATION AND GREEN ROOF, ARCHITECTURAL PROMENADEIMAGE SOURCE: INTERNET HTTP://WWW.SHANGHAIDAILY.COM/METRO/ENVIRONMENT/GREEN-HOUSE-AND-SPIES-LANE-OPEN- TO-THE-PUBLIC/SHDAILY.SHTML .......................................................................................................... 260 FIG. 237. D. V. WOO’S HOUSE “GREEN HOUSE”, RECENT VIEWSIMAGE SOURCE: INTERNET ..................... 261 FIG. 238. D. V. WOO’S HOUSE, PLANSIMAGE SOURCE: LUCA PONCELLINIJÚLIA CSEJDY: LÁSZLÓ HUDEC. MASTERS OF ARCHITECTURE, P. 121 .................................................................................................... 262 FIG. 239. D.V. WOO’S HOUSEART MODERN AND ART DECO INTERIORS (SITTING ROOM FACING THE GARDEN, STAIRS AND ELEVATOR) - IMAGES SOURCE: LUCA PONCELLINIJÚLIA CSEJDY: LÁSZLÓ HUDEC. MASTERS OF ARCHITECTURE, P. 124-125, INTERNET AND PHOTO’S DATED 2005 BY JOSE MARIA CABEZA LAINEZ .................................................................................................................................................. 263 FIG. 240. I.M.PEI PORTRET PHOTOGRAPHYIMAGE SOURCE: HTTPS://MEDIUM.COM/POSTCARDS-FROM-CHINA/HUDECS-GREEN-HOUSE-277C50FA525B ............ 264 FIG. 241. MAP SHOWING AN AERIAL IMAGE OF 2015 SHANGHAI - LOCATION OF MAIN PROJECTS DONE BY HUDEC IN THE 1930’S DURING HIS ART DECO AND MODERN PERIOD (STILL EXISTING TODAY)- STUDY MADE BY THE AUTHOR ......................................................................................................................... 265 FIG. 242. TIMELINE 02– HUDEC AND RAYMOND COMPARATIVE DESIGNSSTUDY MADE BY THE AUTHOR 267 FIG. 243. TIMELINE 03– HUDEC AND RAYMOND COMPARATIVE DESIGNSSTUDY MADE BY THE AUTHOR .............................................................................................................................................................. 268 FIG. 244. LASZLO HUDEC IN HIS STUDY, 1942 - IMAGES SOURCE: LUCA PONCELLINIJÚLIA CSEJDY: LÁSZLÓ HUDEC. MASTERS OF ARCHITECTURE, P. 140 ....................................................................................... 278 FIG. 245. GOLCONDE DORMITORY, PERSPECTIVE FROM NORTH ANTONIN RAYMOND’S DRAWING - IMAGE SOURCE: CRAFTING A MODERN WORLD, THE ARCHITECTURE AND DESIGN OF ANTONIN AND NOEMI RAYMOND, P.171 .................................................................................................................................. 281 FIG. 246. GOLCONDE DORMITORY, NORTH-EAST VIEW, UNDER CONSTRUCTION 1940 AND NORTH-WEST VIEW, AFTER COMPLETIONIMAGE SOURCE: INTERNET AND ANTONIN RAYMOND: AUTOBIOGRAPHY, P.165 ..................................................................................................................................................... 283 FIG. 247. GOLCONDE DORMITORY, PLAN OF THE ENTIRE PLOT AND BUILDING, MAIN FUNCTIONS, SURROUNDING AND SELF SUSTAINABILITY – IMAGE SOURCE: ANTONIN RAYMOND: AUTOBIOGRAPHY, P.165, STUDY MADE BY THE AUTHOR................................................................................................... 284 FIG. 248. GOLCONDE DORMITORY, NORTH FACADE ROOF DETAIL, PAST AND PRESENT VIEW - IMAGE SOURCE: CRAFTING A MODERN WORLD, THE ARCHITECTURE AND DESIGN OF ANTONIN AND NOEMI RAYMOND, P.172 AND INTERNET ......................................................................................................... 284 FIG. 249. TYPICAL INTERIOR OF DISCIPLE’S ROOM WITH FURNITURE AND THE BRISE-SOLEIL FROM THE INTERIOR OF THE ROOMS FACING SOUTH– IMAGE SOURCES: ANTONIN RAYMOND: AUTOBIOGRAPHY, P.165 AND JOSE MARIA CABEZA LAINEZ AND JUAN RAMON JIMENEZ VERDEJO: THE JAPANESE EXPERIENCE OF ENVIRONMENTAL ARCHITECTURE THROUGH THE WORKS OF BRUNO TAUT AND ANTONIN RAYMOND ............................................................................................................................ 285 FIG. 250. SOUTH –NORTH SECTION OF THE GOLCONDE DORMITORY AND DETAIL OF THE WOODEN SYSTEM FOR ROTATING THE LOUVERS OF THE FACADE – IMAGE SOURCE: JOSE MARIA CABEZA LAINEZ AND JUAN RAMON JIMENEZ VERDEJO: THE JAPANESE EXPERIENCE OF ENVIRONMENTAL ARCHITECTURE THROUGH THE WORKS OF BRUNO TAUT AND ANTONIN RAYMOND ................................................... 286 FIG. 251. INTERIOR CORRIDORDETAIL OF THE LOUVERS AND SLIDING TEAK DOORS, VIEW OF LOTUS POND AND SOUTH FAÇADE (PHOTOGRAPH BY ASHOK DILWALI)- IMAGE SOURCE: INTERNET AND GOLCONDE: THE INTRODUCTION OF MODERNISM IN INDIA .................................................................................... 287 UNKNOWN SUNS: LÁSZLÓ HUDEC, ANTONÍN RAYMOND AND THE MAKING OF MODERN ARCHITECTURE IN EASTERN ASIA xviii FIG. 252. STAIR AND ENTRANCE WITH FINISHES, RICH TEXTURAL CONTRASTS - IMAGE SOURCE: INTERNET287 FIG. 253. RAYMOND’S EXHIBITION FROM ROCKEFELLER CENTRE, NEW YORK- 1939, VIEWS AND PLAN – IMAGE SOURCE: ANTONIN RAYMOND: AUTOBIOGRAPHY, P.170 ........................................................ 288 FIG. 254. RAYMONDS NEW HOPE FARM, NEW HOPE, PENNSYLVANIA, 1939-1940, VIEWS AND PLANIMAGE SOURCE: ANTONIN RAYMOND: AUTOBIOGRAPHY, P.176 .................................................................... 291 FIG. 255. RAOUL DE CARRERÀ HOUSE, MONTAUK POINT, NEW YORK 1941-1942- IMAGES SOURCE: ANTONIN RAYMOND: AUTOBIOGRAPHY, P.183 .................................................................................................... 292 FIG. 256. GREAT RIVER STATION, NEW YORK, 1945- IMAGES SOURCE: ANTONIN RAYMOND: AUTOBIOGRAPHY, P.190 ....................................................................................................................... 293 FIG. 257. LUTHERAN CHAPEL OF BERKELEY UNIVERSITY (CALIFORNIA) AND SUMMER HOUSE IN SQUAW VALLEY - IMAGES SOURCE: INTERNET HTTP://WWW.HUDECPROJECT.COM AND LUCA PONCELLINIJÚLIA CSEJDY: LÁSZLÓ HUDEC. MASTERS OF ARCHITECTURE, P. 157 ................................................... 295 FIG. 258. READER'S DIGEST BUILDING, SOUTH GARDEN FAÇADE, DETAIL OF THE BALCONY’S LOUVERS, GROUND PLAN AND NIGHT VIEWIMAGES SOURCES: CRAFTING A MODERN WORLD, THE ARCHITECTURE AND DESIGN OF ANTONIN AND NOEMI RAYMOND, P.201-202 AND ANTONIN RAYMOND: AUTOBIOGRAPHY, P.217 .................................................................................................... 299 FIG. 259. THE KÔGAI-CHÔ STUDIO, SOUTH FAÇADE, DRAFTING ROOM AND PLAN - IMAGES SOURCES: CRAFTING A MODERN WORLD, THE ARCHITECTURE AND DESIGN OF ANTONIN AND NOEMI RAYMOND, P.212, 215 AND ANTONIN RAYMOND: AUTOBIOGRAPHY, P.237-238 .................................................. 300 FIG. 260. THE KÔGAI-CHÔ STUDIO, INTERIOR DINING-ROOM, EXTERIOR DINING TABLE UNDER WISTERIA WITH VIEW OF GARDEN AND POOLIMAGES SOURCES: CRAFTING A MODERN WORLD, THE ARCHITECTURE AND DESIGN OF ANTONIN AND NOEMI RAYMOND, P.201-202 AND ANTONIN RAYMOND: AUTOBIOGRAPHY, P.238 .................................................................................................... 301 FIG. 261. ST. ANSELM CHURCH, EXTERIOR VIEW, ALTERNATING RED AND NATURAL CONCRETEIMAGE SOURCE: INTERNET HTTP://TOKYO.CATHOLIC.JP/WP-CONTENT/THEMES/CATHOLICTOKYO/IMG/DIOCESE/CHURCH/MEGURO1S.JPG ................................................................................. 303 FIG. 262. ST. ANSELM CHURCH, EXTERIOR AND INTERIOR VIEWS AND PLANIMAGES SOURCES: CRAFTING A MODERN WORLD, THE ARCHITECTURE AND DESIGN OF ANTONIN AND NOEMI RAYMOND, P.227-229 AND ANTONIN RAYMOND: AUTOBIOGRAPHY, P.260 ........................................................................... 304 FIG. 263. ST. MICHAEL CHURCH, INTERIOR VIEW OF THE WOOD STRUCTUREIMAGE SOURCE: INTERNET 304 FIG. 264. ST. MICHAEL CHURCH, EXTERIOR ENTRANCE VIEW AND DETAIL OF NOEMI’S GLASS PAPER DECORATIONIMAGES SOURCE: INTERNET HTTP://10PLUS1.JP/PHOTOARCHIVES/147/ALBUM.PHP?C=3&I=0 .................................................................................................. 305 FIG. 265. GUNMA MUSIC CENTRE, INTERIOR STAIRIMAGE SOURCE: INTERNET ........................................ 305 FIG. 266. GUNMA MUSIC CENTRE, INTERIOR STAIRIMAGE SOURCE: INTERNET HTTP://D.HATENA.NE.JP/IDA- 10/20091003/P1 AND ANTONIN RAYMOND: AUTOBIOGRAPHY, P.290, 297........................................ 306 FIG. 267. NANZAN UNIVERSITY CAMPUS, AERIAL VIEW AND CLASSROOM BUILDINGIMAGE SOURCE: ANTONIN RAYMOND: AUTOBIOGRAPHY, P.281 AND CRAFTING A MODERN WORLD, THE ARCHITECTURE AND DESIGN OF ANTONIN AND NOEMI RAYMOND, P.74 ..................................................................... 307 FIG. 268. DIVINE WORLD SEMINARY CHAPEL, AERIAL VIEWIMAGE SOURCE: ANTONIN RAYMOND: AUTOBIOGRAPHY, P.267 ....................................................................................................................... 307 UNKNOWN SUNS: LÁSZLÓ HUDEC, ANTONÍN RAYMOND AND THE MAKING OF MODERN ARCHITECTURE IN EASTERN ASIA xix LIST OF TABLES TABLE 1. CHINESE EPOCHS – DATA TOKEN FROM DAVID CURTIS WRIGHT: THE HISTORY OF CHINA .............. 18 TABLE 2. JAPANESE EPOCHS –DATA FROM WIKIPEDIA, HTTP://EN.WIKIPEDIA.ORG/WIKI/HISTORY_OF_JAPAN ................................................................................................................................................................ 19 TABLE 3. TIMELINE OF SHANGHAI IN THE 20TH CENTURY - DATES SOURCE: HTTP://LITSHANGHAI.WIKISPACES.COM/20TH+CENTURY+SHANGHAI .................................................. 26 TABLE 4. TIMELINE OF TOKYO IN THE 20TH CENTURY ...................................................................................... 31 TABLE 5. FOREIGN POPULATION OF SHANGHAI, 1843-1937 – DATA DRAWN FROM ..................................... 47 TABLE 6. POPULATION OF SHANGHAI, 1852-1937 – DATA DRAWN FROM .................................................... 48 UNKNOWN SUNS: LÁSZLÓ HUDEC, ANTONÍN RAYMOND AND THE MAKING OF MODERN ARCHITECTURE IN EASTERN ASIA xx UNKNOWN SUNS: LÁSZLÓ HUDEC, ANTONÍN RAYMOND AND THE MAKING OF MODERN ARCHITECTURE IN EASTERN ASIA 1 1 GENERAL INTRODUCTION AND OUTLINE OF THE THESIS 1.1 PROLOGUE 1.2 INTRODUCTION 1.3 MOTIVATION AND OBJECTIVES 1.4 METHODOLOGY UNKNOWN SUNS: LÁSZLÓ HUDEC, ANTONÍN RAYMOND AND THE MAKING OF MODERN ARCHITECTURE IN EASTERN ASIA 8 "In the later phase of his career Hudec wrote some architectural essays. He was on the opinion that the best results can be achieved by the smallest efforts, by using modernism. He thought that saving is the law of nature. Modernism is about nothing else, but creating the perfect balance. And evidently László Hudec succeeded in this”. 5 It is impressive how Hudec became, in such a short time, a famous architect in Shanghai, from his first employment as an architect in the Office of R.A. Curry, American architect, in 1918, then as an associate architect , and finally until its independence in 1925. We can say something very similar about Raymond, about the great influence that Wright had on him from their collaboration, an influence which Raymond later denied. After the death of his father, Hudec decided to remain in Shanghai in order to help his family which was living in Upper Hungary (now Slovakia), where people had difficulties facing post war problems. Raymond didn’t had difficulties to establish himself firmly in Tokyo, despite the great earthquake of 1923, but the Pacific War forced him to change his plans and even to collaborate with the U.S. Army for the preparation of the invasion of Japan. Hudec and Raymond as characters who were born almost in the same place in Europe kept a good friendship during most of their lives, an aspect which will be later developed in the thesis. In China the clients were the new bourgeoisie, they were giving Hudec the freedom to design their houses in the modern style. Between these houses, stands out the one belonging to the Doctor Wood which had so much influence in the later career of I. M. Pei because his own aunt lived in that house. In Japan, the ones who commissioned projects from Raymond were the industrial families and occasionally noble descendants like the baron Hamao. Although he managed to form a family in Shanghai, Hudec, a passionate Catholic, never denied his nationality and always struggled to return to Europe, this was not Raymond’s case at all, being married to the French artist Noemi Pernessin, he came to adapt oriental beliefs, in particularly the teachings of guru Sri Aurobindo Goose, during his passing through India in 1938. 5 Ibid. 1, p.34 UNKNOWN SUNS: LÁSZLÓ HUDEC, ANTONÍN RAYMOND AND THE MAKING OF MODERN ARCHITECTURE IN EASTERN ASIA 9 In the 1930's Shanghai was considered a paradise for architecture, but not for long, in 1935 Hudec was already noticing the lack of work, because of the Global Crisis and the outbreak of hostilities in Europe that latter lead to the Second World War. During the war, Hudec served as Honorary Consul for Hungary, helping and representing the interests of many Hungarian Jews. Raymond was also Consul of the Czech Republic in Japan but we don't have any evidence about whether he did intervene or not for the Jewish community. Being himself of Jewish origins, this could have been one of the main reasons why he was advised to leave Tokyo and return to America, as soon as the War seemed to become reality. Referring to this fact, we know that his remaining family vanished in Hitler’s death camps. After the war in China, perhaps because of his sympathy for the Guomindang (The Nationalist Party of China), Hudec was considered enemy of the Chairman Mao’s Government (Communist Party of China) and was imprisoned, from where he was able to escape once again with the help of rabbis Jews. Hudec returned to Europe and took part of the team of investigators who were digging for Saint Peter’s Tomb in Rome. Because of his many merits, he was declared a free citizen and immigrated to California, United States where he had his family waiting for him, and remained there until his death in 1958. Instead of Hudec, Raymond returned to Japan with the help of General Douglas MacArthur and remained there designing for more than thirty years until he retired on his farm in New Hope (Pennsylvania). A significant part of the thesis will focus on the way their projects and strong personalities managed to influence other prestigious architects. In this regard we will analyse the work of contemporary architects, who were sometimes collaborators and developed the same styles as Hudec and Raymond. Youth, such as Kunio Maekawa or Kenzo Tange, who during the studies in the University of Tokyo, and in their later work always made references to Hudec and Raymond, to the "Grand Theatre" project, or the case of the architect Ieoh Ming Pei, who, when he saw Hudec’s House for Dr. Woo, as I already mentioned before, the residence of his aunt, he realized that he wanted to become an architect. It is also necessary to discuss about Raymond’s partner Ladislav Leland Rado and the relations both had with Le Corbusier and Walter Gropius. We can define Hudec’s work style as Art Decó in a first stage. The Park Hotel skyscraper (1931) his masterpiece of the geographical centre of Shanghai, is a UNKNOWN SUNS: LÁSZLÓ HUDEC, ANTONÍN RAYMOND AND THE MAKING OF MODERN ARCHITECTURE IN EASTERN ASIA 10 modernist and Art Decó style. “The architect actually created a special Chinese Art Deco style, with the buildings of Park Hotel and the Great Theatre in 1931”. He studied and understood the architecture of American skyscrapers and their innovations such as Otis Elevator and Carrier air conditioning. “Without doubt he learned from the skyscraper architecture, but humanized it, and technically he mainly relied on the European technical results. “ 6 The thesis is going to try to prove the authenticity of László Hudec’s style and will establish links with the similar efforts of Raymond in Japan and in other parts of the world. 1.4 METHODOLOGY To achieve the goals we have set, the first phase of the thesis will consist in the exhaustive analysis of the bibliography related to the life and work of the aforementioned architects. All the available material including their autobiographies and movies about their life, images and models in three dimensions of the buildings, will be studied. I will detail some of the buildings and study thoroughly the technology component, which was a pretty important issue both for Raymond as for Hudec, because they were among the first to adapt modern technology in the design of buildings, which are still functioning today. The evolution of the compositional style and design of the buildings will be a fundamental part of the thesis. After analysing the entire work of the architects, based on the chronology evolution of styles, I will be able to highlight the guiding principles of their mature work. Besides the above-mentioned, a very important study will focus on analysing books dealing with the theory of architecture, styles, projects of thesis, and articles of that period. For the analysis of the influence that Hudec and Raymond developed on other architects, it will be of high relevance the study of the work of some contemporaries or apprentices related with them and also the detail study made of similar buildings that may have certain similarities. 6 Ibid. 4, p 113 UNKNOWN SUNS: LÁSZLÓ HUDEC, ANTONÍN RAYMOND AND THE MAKING OF MODERN ARCHITECTURE IN EASTERN ASIA 11 The urban part of the thesis will be about the expansion of the cities of Shanghai and Tokyo, taking into account the buildings and the lines of territorial development. About the recent Universal Exposition from 2010 it will be important to know the exact role assigned to Hudec in the presentation made by the Hungarian Pavilion which achieved a great success to the public, remembering the architect that contributed in a decisive way to the formation of the architectural image of Shanghai in the twenties and thirties of the last century. About László Hudec there has been relatively little written so far, and most of it is in Hungarian, instead, about Raymond we have found many more references in English and also some important writings in English and Spanish belonging to Doctor José Maria Cabeza Lainez. In the present thesis we will bring together all the existing data in any language so far, but we will also highlight new discoveries related to the main theme, which is to find the architectural path to a perfect fusion of modernity in Europe with the one in Eastern Asia. UNKNOWN SUNS: LÁSZLÓ HUDEC, ANTONÍN RAYMOND AND THE MAKING OF MODERN ARCHITECTURE IN EASTERN ASIA 12 UNKNOWN SUNS: LÁSZLÓ HUDEC, ANTONÍN RAYMOND AND THE MAKING OF MODERN ARCHITECTURE IN EASTERN ASIA 13 2 RESEARCH AND HISTORY 2.1 MODERNIZATION AND EASTERN ASIA 2.2 CHINA AND JAPAN, SHORT HISTORY AND RELATIONS IN THE 20TH CENTURY 2.3 SHANGHAI, HISTORY AND URBANISM 2.4 TOKYO, HISTORY AND URBANISM 2.5 MODERN ARCHITECTURE, THE BEGINNINGS 2.6 EASTERN ASIA, SHANGHAI AND TOKYO AND THE MAKING OF MODERN ARCHITECTURE UNKNOWN SUNS: LÁSZLÓ HUDEC, ANTONÍN RAYMOND AND THE MAKING OF MODERN ARCHITECTURE IN EASTERN ASIA 14 CHAPTER 2 RESEARCH AND HISTORY 2.1 MODERNIZATION AND EASTER ASIA The idea of modernization is relatively new. Its basic principles can be derived from the Idea of Progress, which emerged in the 18th-century. Modernization theory is a theory used to explain the process of modernization within societies. Modernization refers to a model of a progressive transition from a "pre-modern" or "traditional" to a "modern" society. 7 Fig. 1 MODERN AGE TIMELINE - Dates are approximate range (based upon influence), consult particular article for details - Image source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modern_history 7 Wikipedia : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modernization_theory UNKNOWN SUNS: LÁSZLÓ HUDEC, ANTONÍN RAYMOND AND THE MAKING OF MODERN ARCHITECTURE IN EASTERN ASIA 15 Modern history in the West began with the fall of Constantinople in 1453, or the discovery of the continent of America in 1492, and is now more commonly recognized as to “about 1500”. Since the modern era begun, “modernity” has come to be employed in describing those characteristics common to countries that are most advanced in technological, political, economic, and social development, and “modernization” to describe the process by which those countries acquired these characteristics. 8 But for the history of China and Japan, the beginning of the modern era is from 1840. Until 1840, Europe had gained domination over multiple areas from the known world, but without Eastern Asia, which was at that time the main focus for the Europeans. Until then, both China and Japan had not adopted any European ideas, with a few exceptions, technologies. After Japan was forced to open to the west in the 1840’s, the Japanese government started an intense program of modernization which finally led to major changes, becoming one of the “world players”. They started the modernization of their government, economy, industry, education and especially military. The Meiji emperor realized that the best way to counter Western influence was to modernize. He sent diplomats to attend schools in Europe and United States, to learn about everything, picking from every nation the best qualities, and after to return to Japan to pass their knowledge. They used these military and economic new concepts in order to defeat the Chinese in 1894 and then the Russians in 1905, putting the world to know that they were a rising power in the Pacific. They admired Germany’s strong centralized government, they used its constitution as a model, they admired the discipline of the German army and the skills of the British navy, and they adopted the American system of universal public education and required all Japanese children to attend school. Students could go abroad to study and foreign teachers were also welcomed in. China, on the other hand, was trying to maintain their own traditional way of life (the ancient philosophies of Confucius), refusing to modernize and still denying the western ideas (but not for long time). Because of this, China went from being one of the greatest empires in the world to being a resource for the more powerful nations. 8 Black, Cyril Edwin: The Dynamics of Modernization: a Study in Comparative History. New York: Harper & Row, 1967. UNKNOWN SUNS: LÁSZLÓ HUDEC, ANTONÍN RAYMOND AND THE MAKING OF MODERN ARCHITECTURE IN EASTERN ASIA 16 “The turn of the 19th and 20th centuries marks the period of integration of East and West in China and is primarily characterised by the cultural and social transformation of the Chinese ruling class” 9 . Beginning with the 1840’s, the Chinese were forced by the Europeans to accept a series of humiliating treaties. Their loss in the first Opium War forced them to accept a treaty that ceded Hong Kong to England, permanently opened five ports to English trade, Guangzhou, Fuzhou, Xiamen, Ningbo and Shanghai. Their defeat in the Second Opium War opened eleven more ports to the Europeans. Only after they suffered an embarrassing defeat in the hands of the Japanese in 1894, the young Chinese Emperor began a modest program of reform and modernization. But because of the coup lead by his aunt, the Empress Dowager Cixi, chaos was installed and the Chinese government was not able to maintain order during the peasant uprising known as the Boxer Rebellion. When the rebellions attacked the European embassies in Beijing, it gave the European powers the chance to intervene with their militaries. In 1901, the Chinese were forced to sign the Boxer Protocols and were forced to pay an indemnity. Fig. 2. CHINA AND JAPAN CONFRONT THE WEST - Image source: http://jmcentarfer.tripod.com/ch28_2.pdf The modernization policies had divergent effects on China and Japan. The Japanese overcame their resistance to outside ideas and set out on a well-organized course of modernization and within fifty years were seen as a major power. China, once seen as the greatest empire in the world, refused to modernize and fell victim to its more advanced competitors. Convinced that their government had failed them, the Chinese people staged a revolution in 1912 that overthrew the Qing Dynasty and turned China into a republic. China was finally allowed to modernize after the 9 Ibid 1,p.65 UNKNOWN SUNS: LÁSZLÓ HUDEC, ANTONÍN RAYMOND AND THE MAKING OF MODERN ARCHITECTURE IN EASTERN ASIA 17 ultimate victory of the Chinese Communist Party in 1948, and turned China into a dictatorship. In 1921 Japan was the third most powerful naval power in the world. Unfortunately, the Japanese continued to follow the European model, and when they ran out of natural resources, they did what the Europeans always had: conquer another country and take their resources. This led to conflicts with other colonial powers and eventually to Japan’s involvement in World War II. 2.2 CHINA AND JAPAN, SHORT HISTORY AND RELATIONS IN THE 20TH CENTURY Fig. 3. MAP OF THE WORLD, CHINA versus JAPAN - Map source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/China_Japan_Locator.png, edited by the author China and Japan are situated in Eastern Asia and are geographically separated by a relatively narrow stretch of ocean and by the East China Sea. Japan was strongly influenced by China’s writing system, architecture, culture, religion, philosophy, and law. In the mid-19th century, Western countries forced Japan to open trading. Japan moved towards modernization (Meiji Restoration) and started to view China as an antiquated and isolated civilization, unable to defend itself against Western forces in part due to the First and Second Opium Wars along with Anglo-French UNKNOWN SUNS: LÁSZLÓ HUDEC, ANTONÍN RAYMOND AND THE MAKING OF MODERN ARCHITECTURE IN EASTERN ASIA 24 POPULATION AND IMMIGRATION The population of the World is about 1600 millions, the bulk of which is settled in two regions: the Indo-China-Japanese region about 800 million (half the population of the world), and the Central European region about 350 millions. The only other densely populated region is the Eastern side of the United States and Canada with about 90 millions. The densest populations are settled in the industrial areas. Some of the most populous Countries, with their average densities are given in the table at the side. The average of the World is about 30 per square mile. 13 Fig. 9. DENSITY OF POPULATION IN THE WORLD FOR THE YEAR 1918 – Map source: internet http://www.emersonkent.com/map_archive/world_map_population_1918.htm Shanghai (上海) is literally meaning "above sea". It is a world-class metropolis and the largest in China in terms of population. Shanghai is a hybrid place which mixes together people not only from all over China but also from different Countries in the world. The numbers of outsiders surpass those of natives. This major immigration started from the opening of the city to foreign trade in 1843. Immigrant groups from other areas of China dominated 13 http://www.emersonkent.com/map_archive/world_map_population_1918.htm UNKNOWN SUNS: LÁSZLÓ HUDEC, ANTONÍN RAYMOND AND THE MAKING OF MODERN ARCHITECTURE IN EASTERN ASIA 25 Shanghai's rapidly expanding urban population, which more than quadrupled in the nineteenth century. Fig. 10. MAJOR PROVINCES OF CHINA SUPPLYING IMMIGRANTS TO SHANGHAI – Map source 14 , edited by the author Shanghai's population in 1800 was between one-quarter and one-third million. By 1910 it was 1.3 million. It doubled again by 1927, to 2.6 million. Throughout the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, immigrants comprised at least 75 % of the total figure. Some of these immigrants came to Shanghai to explore economic opportunities; others came in waves to flee war and starvation in their native place. 15 In order to adapt, these immigrants combined forces and formed native-place associations, huiguan and tongxianghui. Because of Shanghai’s mixed-up characteristic of people from many regions, the languages are numerous and jumbled. In 1932, the Shanghai writer and astute social observer Mao Dun commented on the lack of a functioning common language among working people in Shanghai. After conducting an investigation among Shanghai workers to see how people from 14 Ibid. 11, p. 3 15 Ibid. 11, p. 2 UNKNOWN SUNS: LÁSZLÓ HUDEC, ANTONÍN RAYMOND AND THE MAKING OF MODERN ARCHITECTURE IN EASTERN ASIA 26 different places communicated with each other, he concluded that after eighty years of immigration into the city, Shanghai had no common language. 16 Shanghai, between 1920 and 30’s was clearly striking into a new, golden area. The city was booming. Demographically, Shanghai by the 1920’s was the “sixth largest city in the world”, only slightly behind the world’s largest metropolises such as New York, London and Paris. 17 Timeline – 20th century Shanghai 1842 After China loses the first Opium War and the Qing Government signs the Treaty of Nanjing, Shanghai becomes one of five treaty ports opened up for trade. 1845 Britain establishes the first concession in the city. 1849 The French Concession is established. 1850's & 60's The Taiping Rebellion in Southern China causes many refugees to flee into Shanghai, seeking protection inside the concessions. 1911 Fall of the Qing dynasty, new Nationalist government under Sun Yat-sen. 1912 Shanghai's Old City Walls are torn down. 1921 The Communist Party of China holds the first National People's Congress in the French Concession of Shanghai. 1927 The Kuomintang captures Shanghai, attacking and eliminating the local Communist organization. 1932 The January 28th Incident. Chinese and Japanese forces fought a short battle resulting in a ceasefire stipulating Shanghai be a demilitarized zone. 1937 On August 13, through a series of bombing raids, Japanese forces attack Shanghai. After three months they had captured control over the Chinese controlled area of the city, and had isolated the International Concession and the French Concession. 1943 End of the foreign concession era. The allied forces sign over their territories in Shanghai to the Kuomintang government. The French Concession is signed over by the Vichy Government to the Japanese occupying Shanghai. 1945 Japan surrenders and Japanese occupation of Shanghai ends. 1949 In May, the People's Liberation Army captures and takes control of Shanghai. 1978 Reform and Opening policies begin. China begins to reform to more market-based policies once again. 1990 The Pudong district is designated as a special economic zone by the Chinese government. Table 3. TIMELINE OF SHANGHAI IN THE 20TH CENTURY - Dates source: http://litshanghai.wikispaces.com/20th+Century+Shanghai 16 Ibid. 11, p 15 17 All About Shanghai: 33 and MacPherson 1990 UNKNOWN SUNS: LÁSZLÓ HUDEC, ANTONÍN RAYMOND AND THE MAKING OF MODERN ARCHITECTURE IN EASTERN ASIA 27 2.4 TOKYO, HISTORY AND URBANISM Tokyo, the capital of Japan, is now the most popular metropolis in the world. Tokyo was originally a small fishing village named Edo. Was fortified in the late 12th century and in 1457 was built the Edo Castle. The flatland Edo castle was the residence of the shogun and also functioned as the military capital during Edo period. The plan of the Edo Castle was very large and elaborate. The area was divided into various citadels. Fig. 11. FIRST MAP OF EDO CREATED IN 1603 DURING THE EDO PERIOD –Map source: internet: http://www.greatkantoearthquake.com/map_archive.html Fig. 12. EDO CASTLE IN 1847 – Image source: Wikipedia, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edo_Castle In 1868, after the Meiji Restoration, it became the Tokyo Imperial Palace and later, the city of Tokyo was established. Various fires over the centuries damaged or destroyed parts of the castle. Edo and the majority of the buildings were constructed out of wood, but some moats, walls and ramparts of the castle still UNKNOWN SUNS: LÁSZLÓ HUDEC, ANTONÍN RAYMOND AND THE MAKING OF MODERN ARCHITECTURE IN EASTERN ASIA 28 survive nowadays. The government declared the area as a historic site and has undertaken steps to restore and preserve the remaining structures of Edo Castle. Tokyo suffered two major catastrophes in the 20th century, but quickly recovered. The first was the 1923 Great Kantō earthquake, which left 140,000 dead or missing, and the second was the World War II. The bombing of Tokyo in 1944 and 1945 killed 75,000 to 200,000 and left half of the city destroyed. In 1943, Tokyo, the city, merged with the “metropolitan Prefecture” of Tokyo. After the war, Tokyo was completely rebuilt and began a rapidly process of developments, increasing its population to about 11 million in the metropolitan area. In 1990 the real estate crisis followed. Tokyo is now slowly recovering. Seismicity: A major problem for Tokyo is its seismicity, an important fact that will be later taken into account while explaining why Antonin’s Raymond way of designing was revolutionary. Tokyo was hit by powerful earthquakes in 1703, 1782, 1812, 1855,1923, and 2011. Climate: The city of Tokyo and the majority of mainland Tokyo lie in the humid subtropical climate zone with hot humid summers and generally mild winters with cool spells. The warmest month is August, which averages 27.5 °C (81.5 °F), and the coolest month is January, averaging 6.0 °C (42.8 °F). Tokyo also often sees typhoons each year. Population: By the year 1593, Edo had a population of 150,000 people. During the Edo Period, Edo grew into one of the largest cities in the world with a population topping one million by the 18th century. In 1889, the Ministry of Home Affairs recorded 1,375,937 people in Tokyo City and a total of 1,694,292 people in Tokyo Prefecture. In the same year, a total of 779 foreign nationals were recorded as residing in Tokyo. The most common nationality was British (209 residents), followed by United States nationals (182) and nationals of the Qing dynasty (137). In 1950, Tokyo reached 7,000,000 people and nowadays it has over 26.6 million. UNKNOWN SUNS: LÁSZLÓ HUDEC, ANTONÍN RAYMOND AND THE MAKING OF MODERN ARCHITECTURE IN EASTERN ASIA 29 Edo 340 years ago, Tenshō Era (1573-1592) Edo 300 years ago, Kanei Era (1624-1643) Edo 280 years ago, Jōō Era (1652-1655) Edo 250 years ago, Enpō Era (1673-1681) Edo 190 years ago, Genbun Era (1736-1741) Edo 100 years ago, Tenpō Era (1830-1844) Fig. 13. EVOLUTION OF THE CITY - maps source : http://www.greatkantoearthquake.com/map_archive.html UNKNOWN SUNS: LÁSZLÓ HUDEC, ANTONÍN RAYMOND AND THE MAKING OF MODERN ARCHITECTURE IN EASTERN ASIA 30 Fig. 14. GREATER METROPOLITAN TOKYO IN 1920 – map source: http://www.greatkantoearthquake.com/map_archive.html Fig. 15. CITY OF TOKYO, ZONING – Map source: http://www.greatkantoearthquake.com/map_archive.html UNKNOWN SUNS: LÁSZLÓ HUDEC, ANTONÍN RAYMOND AND THE MAKING OF MODERN ARCHITECTURE IN EASTERN ASIA 31 Timeline – 20th century Tokyo 1868 Emperor Meiji relocates to Tokyo and makes Edo Castle the Imperial Palace 1872 Tokyo Prefecture expands to include what is now the 23 wards. 1874 Tokyo Metropolitan Police Department is established. 1893 Meiji Tokyo earthquake kills 31, injures 157 people 1903 The first tram lines were opened. 1905 In protest against the Treaty of Portsmouth after the Russo-Japanese War, the Hibiya Incendiary Incident occurs at Hibiya Park. 1921 Prime Minister of Japan, Takashi Hara, is assassinated at Tokyo Station. 1923 The Great Kantō earthquake strikes Tokyo, killing at least 70,000 people; thousands of Koreans living there are killed in retaliation. 1927 Tokyo's first subway (Ginza Line) opens between Asakusa and Ueno. 1931 Tokyo Airport opens at Haneda, in southern Tokyo. 1932 Five districts and 82 towns and villages are annexed to Tokyo city which then expands to 35 wards. 1942 Tokyo is bombed in the Doolittle Raid, the first American air raid against Japan in World War II 1943 Tokyo Prefecture and Tokyo city merge to form Tokyo Metropolis or Tokyo-to. 1945 Tokyo was heavily bombed, and much of the city was burned to the ground by USAAF B-29 and other aircraft. Extensive tracts of land were levelled both by explosions and subsequent fires. 1962 The population of Tokyo exceeds 10,000,000, making it the largest city in the world. 1964 Tōkaidō Shinkansen opens on October 1 in time for the Tokyo Olympic Games starting on October 10. 1967 The first (and thus far, only) left-wing Governor, Ryokichi Minobe was elected, with backing by the Japan Socialist Party and Japanese Communist Party. 1988 Emperor Hirohito (Emperor Showa) dies in the Tokyo Palace. 1990 The bubble economy collapses, triggering a massive fall in Tokyo land prices. 2011 The 2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami that devastated much of the north-eastern coast of Honshu was felt in Tokyo. Because of Tokyo's earthquake-resistant infrastructure, direct damage in the metropolis Tokyo was minor. However the economic life of the city – indeed the entire nation — was seriously disrupted, especially by shortages of electricity. Table 4. TIMELINE OF Tokyo IN THE 20TH CENTURY UNKNOWN SUNS: LÁSZLÓ HUDEC, ANTONÍN RAYMOND AND THE MAKING OF MODERN ARCHITECTURE IN EASTERN ASIA 32 2.5 MODERN ARCHITECTURE, THE BEGINNINGS When we speak about modern architecture it can be quite ambiguous. We can refer to all the buildings from the modern period regardless of their ideological basis, or we can align more specifically to an architecture conscious of its own modernity and in a constant need for change. The modern architecture was an invention of the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. The Industrial Revolution had brought steel, plate glass, and mass-produced components. These enabled a brave new world of bold structural frames, with clean lines and plain or shiny surfaces. In the early stages, a popular motto was "decoration is a crime". Each period in the past had its own authentic style. This changed beginning with the middle of the 18 century, when the Renaissance tradition had faltered and numerous inauthentic adaptation and combinations of past forms have flowed. It was time to rediscover the true path of architecture, to invent a style suited for the need and aspirations of a modern industrialized society. Around mid-nineteenth century, the theorists César Daly, Eugène Viollet-le-Duc and Gottfried Semper were discussing the possibility of a new style, modern style, but they didn’t had any idea yet of its form. A multitude of structural inventions were made in order to search new forms for the new architecture. The first phase was the Art Nouveau 18 and the Chicago Scholl, the property of the advanced industrial nations of Western Europe and United States. The mistake that was made by numerous architects between 1900 and 1930 was that they rejected the past. This was definitely not the case of Hudec and Raymond, who both studied and respected the history, knew very well each architectural style, and more, they implemented the new forms into the needs of the society, together with their traditions and way of thinking. The past was not rejected, but inherited and understood in new ways. Modern architecture eventually created the basis for a new tradition with its own themes, forms and motifs. 18 Art Nouveau in architecture and art is the style popular during 1890-1910, inspired by natural forms and structures (flowers, plantscurved lines) and the willing to harmonize with the natural environment. The style was named differently in other countries: Sezession (Austria), Jugendstil (Germany), Secese (Czech), Secesia (Slovakia). It is considered an important transition style, between the eclectic historic revival of the 19th century and Modernism. UNKNOWN SUNS: LÁSZLÓ HUDEC, ANTONÍN RAYMOND AND THE MAKING OF MODERN ARCHITECTURE IN EASTERN ASIA 33 “We have long come to realize that art is not produced in an empty space, that no artist is independent of predecessors and models, and that he no less than the scientist and the philosopher is part of a specific tradition and works in a structured area of problems.” Ernst Kris, 1952 Modern architecture is a style very different from previous ones. It is almost impossible to be confused. The common themes that define modern architecture are the following: - "form follows function" (the result of design should derive directly from its purpose) - simplicity and clarity of forms and elimination of "unnecessary detail" - visual expression of structure (as opposed to the hiding of structural elements) - "Truth to materials" ( the true nature or natural appearance of a material ought to be seen rather than concealed or altered to represent something else) - use of industrially-produced materials; adoption of the machine aesthetic - a visual emphasis on horizontal and vertical lines (particularly in International Style modernism) The modern movement was kind of a revolution in social purpose and architectural forms. It tried to reconcile industrialism, society and nature. For every country and region, there were adaptation to local climates and cultures, mixing new and old, local and universal. “Suppose that an architect of the twelfth or thirteenth century were to return among us, and that he were to be initiated into our modern ideas, if one put at his disposal the perfections of modern industry, he would not build an edifice of the time of Philip Augustus or St Louis, because this would be to falsify the first law of art, which is to conform to the needs and customs of the times.” (Eugene Viollet-le-Due, 1863) Notable architects, important for the history and development of the modernist movement, include Ludwig Mies van der Rohe, Le Corbusier, Walter Gropius, Erich UNKNOWN SUNS: LÁSZLÓ HUDEC, ANTONÍN RAYMOND AND THE MAKING OF MODERN ARCHITECTURE IN EASTERN ASIA 40 The Japanese had a particular way of dealing with the interior and exterior of the house. Instead of seeing the interior and exterior of the house as two distinctly different environments, they are thought of being continuous elements. For this, they have introduced the veranda (engawa), which has the role of the transition space between inside and outside. Fig. 21. THE ENGAWA - Image source: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Japanese_House_- _Engawa.jpg The traditional house is designed for people who are seated on the floor, not standing. Because of this, the windows and doors are placed, so that the visual relation between the spaces is clear and everyone from a sitting position from the house can see the garden or vice versa. Although modernization has made some big changes in the styles of designing, the traditional Japanese style has not vanished, and it is still living today. For example, even in westernized houses, it is more likely to find a room whose floor is covered over with tatami and it is still a custom for people to take their shoes off when entering the house. A tatami is a type o mattress (traditionally made of rice straw) used to cover the floors of traditional Japanese rooms, very suitable for the Japanese climate because they provide air circulation around the floor. They are made in standard sizes having slight differences according to distinct regions in Japan, but always using an aspect ratio of 2:1. In terms of traditional Japanese length units, a tatami is 3x6 “shaku - 尺 ” (Japanese foot). A “shaku” measuring 30,3 cm, the dimensions of a tatami mat will be 90,9 x 181,8 cm. UNKNOWN SUNS: LÁSZLÓ HUDEC, ANTONÍN RAYMOND AND THE MAKING OF MODERN ARCHITECTURE IN EASTERN ASIA 41 Fig. 22. THE TATAMI MAT MAKERS OF OLD AJAPAN- Image source: Internet The size of a traditional Japanese room is often measured by the number of tatami mats. For example: Fig. 23. TATAMI LAYOUT, a few possibilities - study made by the author Tatami are the basis of traditional Japanese architecture, regulating the size and dimensions for the interior and exterior of the building. This particular aspect will be later developed in the thesis. UNKNOWN SUNS: LÁSZLÓ HUDEC, ANTONÍN RAYMOND AND THE MAKING OF MODERN ARCHITECTURE IN EASTERN ASIA 42 UNKNOWN SUNS: LÁSZLÓ HUDEC, ANTONÍN RAYMOND AND THE MAKING OF MODERN ARCHITECTURE IN EASTERN ASIA 43 3 THE PATH OF LIFE – FROM EUROPE TO ASIA 3.1 FOREIGN ARCHITECTS IN SHANGHAI BEFORE THE ARRIVAL OF LÁSZLÓ HUDEC 3.2 LÁSZLÓ HUDEC, THE RISING OF AN UNKNOWN ARCHITECT 3.3 FOREIGN ARCHITECTS IN TOKYO BEFORE THE ARRIVAL OF ANTONÍN RAYMOND 3.4 ANTONÍN RAYMOND, EARLY EXPERIENCE BEFORE HIS ARRIVAL IN TOKIO. 3.5 ANTONIN RAYMOND AND LASZLO HUDEC, SHORT COMPARISON BETWEEN THEIR TRAJECTORIES FROM EUROPE TO EASTERN ASIA UNKNOWN SUNS: LÁSZLÓ HUDEC, ANTONÍN RAYMOND AND THE MAKING OF MODERN ARCHITECTURE IN EASTERN ASIA 44 CHAPTER 3 THE PATH OF LIFE, FROM EUROPE TO ASIA 3.1 FOREIGN ARCHITECTS IN SHANGHAI BEFORE THE ARRIVAL OF LÁSZLÓ HUDEC Before the mid-nineteenth century, in the architectural context of China and as well as of Shanghai, the architect as a profession, as known in the West, was totally missing. It was only after the opening of the city to foreign trade in 1842 that foreign architects came in Shanghai. They were all lead by the desire to fulfil their dream in making a fortune and becoming successful architects in a place that really needed fresh ideas and technologies. The economic circumstances gave them the opportunities they really needed and didn’t have at home (we will later see the case of László Hudec who managed to rise above others and succeeded in a place totally different from the one he was used to). The foreign architects became more and more involved in the growth of the city. Foreign merchants were starting to come to live in Shanghai. For this, the first urgent thing once they sat foot on the shore was to obtain a piece of land outside the walled city. Outside the walled city because of three main reasons: Shanghai inside the city was already overcrowded, the Chinese officials wanted to keep the foreigners outside the city in order to deal with them better, and third, because of their attitude towards people who were not from the same religion and not of the same hue, the foreigners preferred a separate community from the Chinese. Because of these reasons, the foreign settlements appeared. The British set the first one in 1842, to the north of the traditional Chinese walled city. Within this area, if they wanted to work and live in Shanghai, the foreigners had to apply to the British Consulate in order to obtain permission to acquire land to build a house with UNKNOWN SUNS: LÁSZLÓ HUDEC, ANTONÍN RAYMOND AND THE MAKING OF MODERN ARCHITECTURE IN EASTERN ASIA 45 facilities. In 1849, following the British, The French established their first Shanghai concession, between the walled city and the British Settlement. In 1850, the American established their community in the north of the French settlement, along the north bank of the Suzhou Creek and the Huangpu River. The land dedicated for the concessions was worse than the one in the walled city, it was marshy and with ancestral graves. For their business, the foreigners introduced new facilities to the town, like offices, warehouses and for their entertainment and good living, residences, hotels and clubs. Fig. 24. THE FOREIGN SETTLEMENTS IN SHANGHAI – Map edited by the author, source - Liu Bingkun, thesis: László E. Hudec and Modern Architecture in Shanghai, 1918-1937 (1)The initial British Settlement, (2)The first expansion of the British Settlement in 1848, (3) The initial French Concession, (4) The first expansion of the French Concession in 1861, (5) The American Settlement defined in 1863, (6)The expansion of the American Settlement in 1893, (7) The second expansion of the International Settlement in 1899, (8) The second expansion of the French Concession in 1900, (9) The third and the final expansion of the French Concession in 1914. UNKNOWN SUNS: LÁSZLÓ HUDEC, ANTONÍN RAYMOND AND THE MAKING OF MODERN ARCHITECTURE IN EASTERN ASIA 46 To feel comfortable and homey, the new facilities had to be designed in the style they were used to have back home, with forms and spaces suited for them. The problem was that in China, the architect as a person able to make the design did not exist. The constructions were simple made by carpenters and builders. So, the foreigners had to come with the plans for the design themselves and let the Chinese builders modify the project, in order to adapt them to the traditional materials and techniques. For this, it was becoming a real need for the presence of the Western architects in Shanghai. Before British came to Shanghai in 1842, there were no people with a title of “architect” in Shanghai. A complete study of the relationship between Shanghai’s economic growth and the rise of the foreign residents, businessmen and foreign architects in the Settlements is the one developed by Liu Bingkun in 2005 in her thesis entitled “László E. Hudec and Modern Architecture in Shanghai, 1918-1937”. The thesis is an interesting work, from which I selected some important data and facts about the developing of the architecture field, before the First World War. The first name appeared as architect in an official record of the Shanghai foreigners 23 , by 1850, was the Briton George Strachan and his firm, the Geo Strachan Company which existed from 1849 until 1865. Until the mid-1860s, there were no more foreign architects recorded. This was probably because the number of foreign residents was pretty small and foreign business was just beginning to expand. By the end of the 1843, there were only 11 foreign trading firms in business in Shanghai. Although the number of foreign residents in the International Settlement was steadily increasing, until 1860 it never exceeded 569. In the next decade, the enormous disturbance caused by the rebellion of the Taiping affected the city’s growth (In the International Settlement in 1865 there were 2,297 residents and in 1870 only 1,666) and consequently increased the number of foreign architects. This is all shown in the table below, drawn from the same thesis mentioned before, belonging to Liu Bingkun. In that period, a lot of refugees escaped from the war zones into Shanghai. When all the disturbances were over in 1865, the population of the whole Shanghai had reached almost the number of 700,000 (150,000 more than in 1852, as in the second table below, which shows the evolution of Shanghai’s population between 1852 and 1937). 23 Natalie Delande: The Diamond Jubilee of the International Settlement of Shanghai. Gongchengshi Zhanzai Jianzhu Duiwu de Qianlie. Published in Wang Tan & Zhang Fuhe ed., Di Wu Ci Zhongguo Jindai Jianzhushi Yanjiu Taolun Hui Lunwen Ji [A Collection of the Fifth Symposium of Modern History of Chinese Architecture], Zhongguo Jianzhu Gongye Chubanshe (China Architecture & Building Press), 1998. UNKNOWN SUNS: LÁSZLÓ HUDEC, ANTONÍN RAYMOND AND THE MAKING OF MODERN ARCHITECTURE IN EASTERN ASIA 47 Year Chinese districts International Settlement French Concession Total 1843 26 26 1844 50 50 1845 90 90 1850 210 10 220 1855 243 1860 569 1865 2,297 460 2,757 1870 1,666 1876 1,673 1880 2,197 307 2,504 1885 3,673 1890 3,821 444 4,265 1895 4,684 430 5,114 1900 6,774 622 7,396 1905 11,497 831 12,328 1910 13,536 1,476 15,012 1915 18,519 2,405 20,924 1920 23,307 3,562 26,869 1925 29,997 8,811 37,808 1930 9,795 36,471 12,341 58,607 1931 12,200 37,834 15,146 65,180 1932 9,347 44,240 15,462 69,049 1933 9,331 46,392 17,781 73,504 1934 11,084 48,325 18,899 78,308 1935 11,615 48,325 18,899 78,308 1936 10,400 39,142 23,398 72,940 1937 10,125 39,750 23,398 73,273 Table 5. FOREIGN POPULATION OF SHANGHAI, 1843-1937 – Data drawn from 24 24 Zou, Yiren. Jiu Shanghai Renkou Bianqian de Yanjiu [A Demographic Study on the Flux of Population in Old Shanghai]. Shanghai Renmin Chubanshe (Shanghai People’s Publishing House), 1980. UNKNOWN SUNS: LÁSZLÓ HUDEC, ANTONÍN RAYMOND AND THE MAKING OF MODERN ARCHITECTURE IN EASTERN ASIA 48 Year Chinese districts International Settlement French Concession Total 1852 544,413 544,413 1853 500 1855 20,243 1865 543,110 92,884 55,925 691,919 1870 76,731 1876 97,335 1879 33,660 1880 110,009 1885 129,338 1890 171,950 41,616 1895 245,679 52,188 1900 352,050 92,268 1905 464,213 90,963 1910 671,866 501,541 115,946 1,289,353 1915 1,173,653 683,920 149,000 2,006,573 1920 783,146 170,229 1925 840,226 297,072 1927 1,503,922 840,226 297,072 2,641,220 1928 1,516,090 358,453 1929 1,620,187 1930 1,702,130 1,007,868 434,807 3,144,805 1931 1,836,189 1,025,131 456,012 3,317,432 1932 1,580,463 1,074,794 478,552 3,133,782 1933 1,795,593 1,111,946 496,536 3,404,435 1934 1,925,778 1,148,821 498,193 3,572,792 1935 2,044,014 1,159,775 498,193 3,701,982 1936 2,155,717 1,180,969 477,629 3,814,315 1937 2,155,717 1,218,630 477,629 3,851,976 Table 6. POPULATION OF SHANGHAI, 1852-1937 – Data drawn from 25 Because of the increase of the population, a high demand for mass housing was needed. This was a real opportunity for the foreign traders, who started to invest in 25 Ibid 23 UNKNOWN SUNS: LÁSZLÓ HUDEC, ANTONÍN RAYMOND AND THE MAKING OF MODERN ARCHITECTURE IN EASTERN ASIA 49 buildings and asked huge rents from the refugees who could afford it. This business proved to be extremely profitable, within three to five month’s rent of a house would be sufficient to build a new one. Overseas trading was a lot less profitable then real estate. In the meantime, the price of the land also increased and obviously, a higher number of architects were needed. In The Chronicle and Directory for China, Japan and the Phillipines of 1866 26 , there were three men listed as architects: N. Birkenstadt, F. H. Knevitt, and J. H. Wignall, and two others as “builders”: N. Stibolt and the firm of Muller & Jacobs. But by 1875, none of them had remained in practice. In the same year there appeared another three: William Kidner, Henry Lester, and Thomas Kingsmill. Kidner remained in business until around 1880. Lester started his career as a surveyor in the Shanghai Municipal Council in 1867, later became an architect and land agent until he retired in 1916. Kingsmill, who was considered the second-longest tenure of all foreign architects in Shanghai, worked as a civil engineer and architect for 36 years until 1910. In 1880, there were only four architectural practices, while in 1885, when Gabriel J. Morrison and Fred M. Gratton formed their partnership, the number rose to six, and in 1893, it reached seven. 27 Fig. 25. FORMER RUSSELL & CO BUILDING designed by MORRISON & GRATTON companyone of the oldest buildings on the Bund no6, Shanghai (Neo-Gothic style, constructed in 1881)– Image source: internet: http://dreamofacity.com and http://www.simonfieldhouse.com The constant change in the number of architects during 1860 and 1880 was probably because of the fluctuation of the land and building market. After the Taiping rebellion was subjugated in 1865, many Chinese left the foreign settlements and returned home. After the 1870’s new measures were adopted by the settlement authorities in order to attract and encourage the wealthier Chinese who had money and possibilities to move into the settlements. 26 Jeffrey W. Cody, Henry K: Murphy, An American Architect in China. 1914-1935, 1989, p.76 27 Ibid 25, p.76-77 UNKNOWN SUNS: LÁSZLÓ HUDEC, ANTONÍN RAYMOND AND THE MAKING OF MODERN ARCHITECTURE IN EASTERN ASIA 56 But, while his future career was planned very well, First World War started, and Hudec, age 21, was enlisted in one of the artillery divisions of the Hungarian army. He went to the Russian front in February 1915. Because of his technical degree, he received the task to give assistance to the general staff by making maps and daily position reports. He was now speaking Slovakian, German and Polish. On 2 June 1915 he received his first decoration, a minor silver medal of courage. This period of tranquillity came to an end on 11 October 1915 with a sudden Russian attack near the Stripa River. Because of the great help he gave within this period of time, when his aptitudes were so deeply needed, he received a major silver metal of courage. Everything was calm until the beginning of June 1916 when the Russians broke through the south front and they received orders to retreat, so they marched 24 hours without stopping. Hudec received the task to find out if the enemy was advancing. He almost succeeded, but at the end was captured by the Cossacks and transported to Kiev and after to Moscow. After two months he was sent to Habarovsk in Siberia, in an officer’s prisoner-of-war camp. During his captivity Hudec studied English and French and Art History. After an injury that shortened his right leg, was declared invalid on 3 May 1918 and put on the Danish Red Cross invalid train. Because he realised that there was no hope for him getting home, he decided to escape. With a letter of recommendation and a half true name, Wladislaw Georgevic Hugyecz he arrived in Hilok, the first step toward his freedom. Because of the lack of engineers, he was immediately hired in the railroad division office. After making some money and obtaining a false passport, in October 1918, Hudec arrived in Harbin. His false passport was replaced with a frontier pass which allowed him to travel in China and Japan. Hudec arrived in Shanghai in early November 1918. He went to the Russian Consulate to change his document to a foreign passport in order to travel further. The atmosphere in Shanghai was quite dangerous for the citizens belonging to the defeated countries of the war. “Therefore it was a good idea of Hudec to make his Russian language false document ’nationalized’*…+ In these circumstances I regarded better to keep my Russian nationality for a while, until the situation improves” 32 . It was now that his name became HUDEC instead of HUGYECZ, because The Russian Deputy Consul rewrote his name from Cyrillic to Latin letter by 32 Ibid 4, p.35-36 UNKNOWN SUNS: LÁSZLÓ HUDEC, ANTONÍN RAYMOND AND THE MAKING OF MODERN ARCHITECTURE IN EASTERN ASIA 57 letter (interesting turn of fate, he returned to the spelling his family used until 1890). Fig. 30. HUDEC’S TRAJECTORY FROM BUDAPEST 1915 TO SHANGHAI 1918 - Map edited by the author The entire description of his War experience, from Budapest to China, can be read in the first annex of the thesis- Hudec’s Autobiography (Annex 1). UNKNOWN SUNS: LÁSZLÓ HUDEC, ANTONÍN RAYMOND AND THE MAKING OF MODERN ARCHITECTURE IN EASTERN ASIA 58 3.3 FOREIGN ARCHITECTS IN TOKIO BEFORE THE ARRIVAL OF ANTONÍN RAYMOND The birth of the architectural profession is part of the preliminary work we must carry out before any other further architectural analysis. Before the Meiji period, the whole responsibility of building and design was in the hands of the carpenter, which worked in collaboration with the client. The transmission of the knowledge was made from generation to generation, placing the emphasis on perfecting the skills and methods, rather than making innovations. Everything was controlled by the Shogunate, this also included the innovations and style evolution, which could only occur if were authorized. Everything, from the size of property, to materials used, tatami sizes, colours, size and shape of the doors and gates was dictated by the Shogunate, and it reflected the social rank. This remained unchanged until the end of the Tokugawa regime. On April 22, 1940, Antonin Raymond points this fact in a lecture given at the Japan Institute in New York City, entitled “The Common Ground of Traditional Japanese and Modern Architecture”: “When a client called in a carpenter he gave him a list of his needs and requirements and also indicated the grade of work which he thought he could afford and was suitable to his station. The carpenter then made the designs on the drawings. *…+ There was no fancy or speculation involved in his work. He knew what kind of material had to be used to perform the job required of him; what type of construction was necessary; what materials were suitable and obtainable in that particular locality. He knew the climate and its effect on materials; he knew the skill of his men and the limitations imposed by skill; the aesthetic meaning of the different materials as well as their structural qualities; the meaning of colour and texture, etc. The structure commonly used in all buildings, like posts and beams, girders, joists, roofing, doors, windows, flooring, and mats had been standardized through the ages and were obtainable ready-made from dealers in such things in many different grades. Besides the carpenter there is another professional that joined in the performing of the duties of an architectthat is, the divine. He played and still plays a very important role in the designing of buildings. I at first was extremely skeptical about his part of the designing procedure, but after my UNKNOWN SUNS: LÁSZLÓ HUDEC, ANTONÍN RAYMOND AND THE MAKING OF MODERN ARCHITECTURE IN EASTERN ASIA 59 experience with several divines I changed my mind and found that I could learn from them. They practice an ancient art which deals principally with the sanitary conditions of the locality in which the building is going to be built and with the orientation of the rooms. The carpenter provides them with all the data pertaining to the quality of the soil, the geological formation, the wind and earthquake condition, the water supply, the drainage possibilities, etc. They then place a certain circular chart in the gravity centre of the plan of the building and advise about the suitability of the particular ground and orientation of all the rooms. A typical example of the result of their checking is that all the living rooms face south or southeast, where the sun shines in the winter time and where prevailing winds come from in summer; the toilets are in the northwest corner; the entrance is of necessity on the north or northwest. The seer also determines the auspicious time for starting the building, and I found out that this also deals with concrete things like frost and dampness, the drying out of plasters and the proper sequence of the work be performed. Orientation has become again one of the principle factors of our modern design. ” 33 The birth of the architect meant that changes were about to come. The building was no longer seen as a reflection of a particular style, but could be created by an artist, specialized in design and techniques. The introduction of the foreign architects in Japan, Tokyo, gradually stopped such practices like ordering plans from abroad. This was happening in the late 1870s, the architect was designing a house for a place he could not see, for a client he did not know, and, above all, these projects were not designed according to the particular weather conditions and technical capacities of Japan. So, the separation between the design and the construction that Europe was experiencing, began. The foreign architects were starting to mix tradition with innovations. These architects were named pioneers, because they were the first to have expressed their will to combine techniques with aesthetics in order to create an architecture suited with the context of Japan. Some of the internationally acclaimed architects were starting a process by which the houses made of “wood, straw and paper” built by carpenters, were transformed into raw concrete blocks, in order to obtain a synergy between traditional and modern architecture. 33 Kurt G. F. Helfrich and William Whitaker: Crafting a modern world, the architecture and design of Antonin and Noemi Raymond. Princeton Architectural Press, New York, 2006, p.300 UNKNOWN SUNS: LÁSZLÓ HUDEC, ANTONÍN RAYMOND AND THE MAKING OF MODERN ARCHITECTURE IN EASTERN ASIA 60 JAPAN AS A SOURCE OF INSPIRATION FOR MODERN ARCHITECTS Professor Terunobu Fujimori affirms in an interview that: “In Japan, the small home was the medium for the first expressions of modernist residential architecture” 34 Japanese residential architecture has been a source of inspiration for modern architects since the beginnings of modern architecture in Europe and America. Here we can refer to one of the earliest and most famous of all, Frank Lloyd Wright. He came in contact with Japanese architecture from 1890. He mainly drew his inspiration from his passion for the Japanese prints. In his autobiography he recalled that: “Japanese prints had intrigued me and taught me much. The elimination of the insignificant, a process of simplification in art in which I was myself already engaged, beginning with my twenty-third year, found much collateral evidence in the print. And ever since I discovered the print Japan has appealed to me as the most romantic, artistic, nature-inspired country on the earth.... If Japanese prints were to be deducted from my education I don't know what direction the whole might have taken.” Fig. 31. SHUNKŌ, ICHIKAWA MONNOSUKE II IN THE SHIBARAKU ROLE & HIROSHIGE, MAPLES AT MAMMA (from One Hundred Famous Views of Edo) - Image source: Frank Lloyd Wright and Japanese prints by Julia Meech-Pekarik 34 T. Isoand N. Aono: Architecture Historian Fujimori’s Key Terms on Japanese Modernist Houses. Casa Brutus, 2004, p. 142. UNKNOWN SUNS: LÁSZLÓ HUDEC, ANTONÍN RAYMOND AND THE MAKING OF MODERN ARCHITECTURE IN EASTERN ASIA 61 In February of 1905 Wright made his first voyage to Japan in pursuit of prints, where he bought hundreds of prints which allowed him to organize an exhibition of his own Hiroshige collection at the Art Institute of Chicago in March of 1906. From 1914 he started making regular visits to Japan and became an active dealer in Japanese art. He was both an architect and an art dealer for the same clients; he designed their homes and provided the art to fit in. Fig. 32. EXHIBITION OF JAPANESE PRINTS AT THE ART INSTITUTE OF CHICAGO, 1908 - Image source: Frank Lloyd Wright and Japanese prints by Julia Meech-Pekarik Other testimonies in writing of the west in Japanese residential architecture are also to be found in the works of Edward S. Morse in 1885, Ralph Adams Cram in 1905 and more famously Bruno Taut in 1937, who introduced Katsura Detached Palace to the West in the perspective of modern architecture. 35 35 GLOAGUEN,Yola: Towards a definition of Antonin Raymond's "Architectural Identity" : a study based on the architect's way of thinking and way of design. Thesis or Dissertation, Kyoto University, 2008, p.3. UNKNOWN SUNS: LÁSZLÓ HUDEC, ANTONÍN RAYMOND AND THE MAKING OF MODERN ARCHITECTURE IN EASTERN ASIA 62 3.4 ANTONÍN RAYMOND, EARLY EXPERIENCE BEFORE HIS ARRIVAL IN TOKYO Antonin Raymond was born in Kladno, Bohemia, Austria-Hungary (now Czechia) on the 10th of May 1888. His parents, Alois Rajman and his wife Růžena, were both of Czech peasant families. His name changed from Rajman to Raymond when he left Bohemia and was living in the United States, because it was easier for the Americans to pronounce. He was the third of a family of six children. Although his mother died when he was only 10 years old, Antonín has very good memories of his mother, as he says in his own autobiography. “My home life while my mother was alive was happy and harmonious…” “My memories of my mother are commingled with impressions…” “She was a handsome and wonderful person, and the tender impression that lingers in my memory is of a very kind and wise mother.“ 36 The long periods spent on the maternal grandparent’s farm from Řenčov were among the most satisfying of his childhood and youth. The calm and medieval atmosphere of Kladno did came to an end, because of the revolutionary changes of around 1895 or 1897 that were taking hold of political and economic institutions throughout Europe. In Kladno, amusements were few, the church (religious was very present in their lives), music, theatre. Newspapers and books were widely spread among the people. Antonín started to read at the age of five, with the help of his friend’s mother. Kladno wasn’t really a place that inspires someone to emerge as an artist from such an atmosphere. Mr. Soukup, Antonín first teacher, was his greatest inspiration during the formative years; he set him on the road to art, through his examples of painting and music. The time spent at the farm in Řenčov deepened what Soukup started, by bringing him close to the nature: “bringing me into close contact with the beauty of the earth, the marvellous turnings of the seasons, the kind-hearted ways of the peasant folk, the timeless 36 Antonín Raymond: Autobiography. Copyright by Charles E. Tuttle Co., Inc., Japan, 1973, p.8 UNKNOWN SUNS: LÁSZLÓ HUDEC, ANTONÍN RAYMOND AND THE MAKING OF MODERN ARCHITECTURE IN EASTERN ASIA 63 beauty of the peasant houses, the hills, the fields and the marvellous acrid odours of the earth as it was turned up during spring plowing. “ 37 Unfortunately Antonín mother died very soon, while he was only ten years old. It was a very sad moment in their lives, from which they never really recovered. His brothers and sisters were very different. The younger brother Frank has been a problematic boy, the “black sheep” of the family, he and Ella seemed to resemble the older generation, Eugene (the engineer), Victor and Irma were highly intelligent and sensitive. Because of the sad and restless times they passed in the future, Antonín tells with sadness that he eventually lost their trace, mainly during the war time. “If the Nazis are not entirely responsible for the deaths of all my brothers and sisters, they are certainly responsible for most of them.” After his mother died, their life changed completely. His father never stopped loving his children, but it was too much for him. His fortune slowly deteriorated and he had to dispose the family house. The family moved to Prague to start a new life. The big city was fascinating. This had a profound influence on all the members, especially on Antonín. The years he spent in Prague have left a deep mark on his life and on his philosophy of design. As a student, Antonín had to work very hard. His dream was to finish his studies. He wanted to have the freedom he deeply needed, he felt the whole world was there waiting for his creativity and imagination. In architecture, the Viennese secession was spreading rapidly all over Europe. “In Prague, the youth had begun to revolt against the classics, or rather against pseudoclassicism and its imitations of past styles, and fresh impulses animated all the arts.” … ”We students were conscious of Wagner and his "Sezession" in Vienna. We knew about the first steel skeleton in Chicago in 1889, but I did not know much about Auguste Perret. “At the time of my departure in 1910, the Viennese "Art Nouveau" flourished in the rest of the Austro-Hungarian Empire, including Bohemia. In Prague Jan Kotera was the leader; there were Pavel Janák, Josef Gocár, Vladislav Hofman, Otakar Novotny, some of whom introduced cubism into architecture as an 37 Ibid 36, p.17 UNKNOWN SUNS: LÁSZLÓ HUDEC, ANTONÍN RAYMOND AND THE MAKING OF MODERN ARCHITECTURE IN EASTERN ASIA 64 expression of growing Czech nationalism and desire for independence from Austria”. 38 Fig. 33. ANTONÍN RAYMOND, SELF-PORTRAIT – ABOUT 1908 / PORTRAIT FROM 1910 - Image source: Antonín Raymond: Autobiography, p.23/24 Antonín speaks about Frank Lloyd Wright’s huge influence not only on him, but also on the students from Prague: “I remember the enthusiasm with which we students in Prague greeted a small book on Frank Lloyd Wright's work (about 1908), which was edited by Wasmuth in Berlin. Later Wright's large portfolios came out around 1909 and became a veritable fountain of wisdom and the subject of endless discussions. Wright had restated the principles of building; he had overcome the cell, liberated the plan, made space flow, given buildings a human scale and blended them with nature, all in a romantic, sensual and original way which left us breathless. He was what we had been longing for, a real revolutionary.” 39 I can imagine how he felt, maybe because I had a similar experience, one hundred years after, when I was preparing to enter as a student at The University of Architecture from Timisoara. My first impact was the one with a book dedicated to the work of this famous architect, which inspired generation after generation, and still is. 38 Ibid 36,p.24 39 Ibid 36,p.24 UNKNOWN SUNS: LÁSZLÓ HUDEC, ANTONÍN RAYMOND AND THE MAKING OF MODERN ARCHITECTURE IN EASTERN ASIA 65 Antonín was seriously starting to think about migrating to the United States, a big country, where undoubtedly, an enormous amount of new constructions would be needed. This wish, some problems his family was facing and the dramatic episode he had experienced, after stealing money from the architectural student’s club for which he had been appointed treasurer, drove him to follow his dream. He left the Technical Institute without even graduating. With great difficulty he finally arrived in New York. He had practically nothing, but somehow the fate helped him and led him to the right path. His first employment was in the office of Cass Gilbert, who was in the process of designing the world's tallest building, the Woolworth Building. His salary was seven dollars a week, which enabled him to survive. He realized that the United States architecture was not really what he expected. Everything was imported, unlike Europe, where tradition was native. The strict eclecticism was flourishing. All men from the office were very good draftsmen as a result of their Beaux Arts training, but that was all they were, lacking in creative ambition and desire for new. Because of his knowledge of Gothic architecture in Europe, one of Antonín difficult tasks was to correct a detail for the facade of the Woolworth Building, which he apparently did not succeed and the damage was about 10.000 dollars a year. Fig. 34. ENTIRE STAFF OF CASS GILBERT ARCHITECTURAL OFFICE, ON ROOF OF METROPOLITAN INSURANCE CO. ANNEX BUILDING: CASS GILBERT (CENTRE) - the author, with hands in pockets - Image Source: Antonín Raymond: Autobiography, p.29 UNKNOWN SUNS: LÁSZLÓ HUDEC, ANTONÍN RAYMOND AND THE MAKING OF MODERN ARCHITECTURE IN EASTERN ASIA 72 “My generation was brought up in the most appalling setting the world had ever known, the world of imitation marble, of three-tiered fringed curtains, of respectable drabness and false luxury resulting from the discoveries of industry and the machine. Yet just outside our door stood the wonders of the Romanesque, Gothic, Renaissance, Baroque and other architectures.” 45 Raymond fought against this problem of imitation throughout his entire career, referring to it in one of his later writings from 1949: “Just think of the colossal failure *…+ of all those designers that did and do get all their knowledge and inspiration from copying empty forms and colours and textures and proportions of the cadavers of past expressions, instead of creating from their own palette.” What I especially want to emphasize is the deep relation he had with nature, not only in his childhood, when he was spending most of his free time in the countryside at his maternal grandparents farmhouse from Řenčov and while studying in Prague seeking refuge in the surrounding nature, but also much later, while painting the picturesque landscapes from Italy, or while taking long walks with his wife in Taliesin, surrounded by nature, by life, by season changing colours. All of this had a strong impact on him, in a very good way, he was never only an architect, he was an artist, and everything he made was a synergy between the two. Raymond had a deep connection with country life. The simple yet so functional barn is also present in the rural culture of Japan, named “minka 46 ”, the traditional Japanese farmhouse, which was a source of inspiration for modern architects, including Raymond. 45 Ibid 36, p.21 46 Minka (“common people’s houses”) are vernacular houses constructed in any traditional Japanese building style, belonging to farmers, fishermen, artisans, craftsmen, tradesmen, merchants and so on. It developed from a closed structure into a more open one. Main characteristics of the minka are their basic structure and form of the roof. The most common minka is characterised by usually having a thatched single ridge roof. They were built using local building techniques and materials. Most of the minka that still exist today, date from the Edo period because it was in that period that the structural system changed (from one wood post fixed directly into the ground to one that was resting on a stone – this prevented the wood to be altered by the humidity of the ground). The interior was generally divided in two areas: doma (a compacted earth floor) and a raised floor covered with tatami. UNKNOWN SUNS: LÁSZLÓ HUDEC, ANTONÍN RAYMOND AND THE MAKING OF MODERN ARCHITECTURE IN EASTERN ASIA 73 Fig. 41. TRADITIONAL MINKA – Image source: internet, jonellepatrick.com Whenever he ended feeling depressed or frustrated because of different reasons, mainly because of the work he had to do, which was not always pleasing his dreams and concept of designing, he escapes into the nature, drawing and painting. Art was like a refuge for him. Nature and Art cannot be separated from each other. They function as an unity. Fig. 42. PLAN OF ANTONIN RAYMOND’S FARMHOUSE IN ŘENČOV, DRAWN BY RAYMOND - Image source: Antonin Raymond: Autobiography, p.11 As a student, the nature from the parks that surrounded Prague offered him wonderful views over the city. Fig. 43. PANORAMIC VIEW OF PRAGUE FROM THE SURROUNDING PARK- Image source: by the author, 2012 Raymond was guided by Frank Lloyd Wright’s principles for designing humanized architecture that reflected the connection between the inside and the outside of the house or building, the perfect balance between nature and building, where everything is connected, integrated to create a unity. Wright often referred to organic architecture as one in which all the parts were related to the whole, as the whole was related to the parts: UNKNOWN SUNS: LÁSZLÓ HUDEC, ANTONÍN RAYMOND AND THE MAKING OF MODERN ARCHITECTURE IN EASTERN ASIA 74 “Perfect correlation, integration, is life. It is the first principle of any growth that the thing grown be no mere aggregation. Integration as entity is first essential. And integration means that no part of anything is of any great value in itself except as it be integrate part of the harmonious whole.” 47 Once in Japan, Raymond integrated these principles into his designs. His houses were perfectly integrated into the surroundings and were always designed taking into account the real needs of the owners and their tradition. Wright’s house from Taliesin made such an impact on Raymond that he was bursting with creativity and beauty. “We had never before been in any building other than a traditional classic or an imitation of something-or-other. For several days we walked as in a dream. The inventiveness displayed, the original planning, the grace of proportions, the manner in which landscape and architecture blended instead of fighting, held us entranced. Then there was the fascination of looking through Wright's sketches and projects and listening to him talk about architecture and design.” 48 47 F. L. Wright: The Natural House. Meridian, New York, 1954, p. 22. 48 Ibid 36, p.46 UNKNOWN SUNS: LÁSZLÓ HUDEC, ANTONÍN RAYMOND AND THE MAKING OF MODERN ARCHITECTURE IN EASTERN ASIA 75 3.5 ANTONIN RAYMOND AND LASZLO HUDEC, SHORT COMPARISON BETWEEN THEIR TRAJECTORIES FROM EUROPE TO EASTERN ASIA After knowing almost every detail about Hudec and Raymond’s lives before the big arrival to Eastern Asia, we can make some observations. Fig. 44. COMPARISON BETWEEN HUDEC AND RAYMOND’S TRAJECTORY FROM EUROPE TO EASTERN ASIA (HUDEC’S TRAJECTORY WITH RED, RAYMOND’S TRAJECTORY WITH ORANGE) - Image edited by the author Raymond and Hudec, since the beginning of their lives, shared a lot of similitudes like: the birthplaces which are very close, Eastern Europe; years of birth, with a slightly difference of about five years, 1888/1893; their dream to become good architects; their architectural formation in the University; First World War and their active participation; and, their destination or better said, their destiny, Eastern Asia. What is very interesting about these two architects, as we see in the map above, their trajectories start from similar places, but Hudec is going East and Raymond West. Both end in Eastern Asia, one in Shanghai and the other in Tokyo. The big difference between the two is that Hudec arrived in China unwillingly, after escaping from a prisoner camp during the War, and Raymond came to Japan (with his family and Frank Lloyd Wright) with the precise aim, of designing the Imperial Hotel. As regarding their work experience, immediately after finishing his studies, Hudec was enrolled in the army. The only experience he had was the one working for his father. This was a real luck for him because, although he had to start practically from zero in Shanghai, he rapidly progressed and developed. Raymond’s work experience before arriving to Japan is pretty wide. He had always combined two things, architectural practice and painting. He worked for different architects and painted together with his wife. It was because of his talent he was invited by Frank Lloyd Wright to help him with the design of the Imperial Hotel in Tokyo. UNKNOWN SUNS: LÁSZLÓ HUDEC, ANTONÍN RAYMOND AND THE MAKING OF MODERN ARCHITECTURE IN EASTERN ASIA 76 UNKNOWN SUNS: LÁSZLÓ HUDEC, ANTONÍN RAYMOND AND THE MAKING OF MODERN ARCHITECTURE IN EASTERN ASIA 77 4 NEW BEGGININGS IN CHINA AND JAPAN - ACCOMODATION 4.1 ARCHITECTS IN ASIA, LÁSZLÓ HUDEC AND ANTONIN RAYMOND’S FIRST COMMISIONS, WORK AND FORMATTION UNDER DIFFERENT GUIDANCE AND ASSOCIATIONS 4.2 ANTONIN RAYMOND AND FRANK LLOYD WRIGHT’S IMPERIAL HOTEL, TOKYO (31.12.1919 – 1921) 4.3 LÁSZLÓ HUDEC AND ROWLAND CURRY, SHANGHAY (1919 - 1925) UNKNOWN SUNS: LÁSZLÓ HUDEC, ANTONÍN RAYMOND AND THE MAKING OF MODERN ARCHITECTURE IN EASTERN ASIA 78 CHAPTER 4 NEW BEGGININGS IN CHINA AND JAPAN, ACCOMODATION 4.1 ARCHITECTS IN ASIA, LÁSZLÓ HUDEC AND ANTONIN RAYMOND’S FIRST COMMISIONS, WORK AND FORMATTION UNDER DIFFERENT GUIDANCE AND ASSOCIATIONS. After reading all the material I could get my hands on, related to the two architects, it became clearer to me that there was a huge difference between them. If we compare the design of the buildings they both made, until certain point, they practically don’t have much in common. Their roots and lives trajectories may be similar, but, speaking about the way of designing, although they share thoughts, objectives and principles, the results are of totally diverse styles. Hudec and Raymond’s first independent projects were influenced by their early work experience. For example, Hudec clearly remained and designed in the manner of Rowland Curry’s office (Beaux-Art influence) for a long period of years and Raymond, in the same way, was stuck in the mannerism of Wright (although Raymond worked for different other architects, it was only Wright that had so much influence on his later development as an architect ). China and Japan are very traditional countries, with unique style in architecture, but with some important differences regarding modernization and preferences for each country in particular. Raymond and Hudec developed differently mainly because of their environment: China equalled opulence, luxury, rich materials, strong colours; Japan inclines more for simpler things and natural materials. All this was reflected in the work of the two architects, this gap between them is felt even more in Hudec’s early periods, before shifting to modern trends. UNKNOWN SUNS: LÁSZLÓ HUDEC, ANTONÍN RAYMOND AND THE MAKING OF MODERN ARCHITECTURE IN EASTERN ASIA 79 Can we say that Hudec is a true modern architect? Not really, perhaps we can say that he is one of the architects that tried to bring modernism into China, and he managed that. His projects were, from the beginnings, designed using all kind of modern technologies, but it was only in the 30’s that he succeeded to let go, to liberate himself from the Eclectic, Colonial Style buildings and to open more to the new trends, towards the Art Deco and Modern movements, mixing innovations with new forms. If I chose to present Hudec and Raymond’s work in a continuous parallelism, for every year of their evolution, the huge difference between their evolutions would be extremely evident. But I will try a different path. For each architect I will try to divide their work into different periods, according to certain similitudes of the style, development or theme. For each period I will have a precise conclusion. All this taking into account their different environment and cultural context, China versus Japan, Shanghai versus Tokyo, that clearly influenced the two architects, and although they could have developed the same way, they ended up having different evolutions and results. The further study is based on a short overview of the projects developed by both architects, but the focus will be on the observation and analysis of a selection, which in my opinion, are more representative regarding the aim of the thesis. UNKNOWN SUNS: LÁSZLÓ HUDEC, ANTONÍN RAYMOND AND THE MAKING OF MODERN ARCHITECTURE IN EASTERN ASIA 80 4.2 ANTONIN RAYMOND AND FRANK LLOYD WRIGHT’S IMPERIAL HOTEL, TOKYO (31.12.1919 – 1921) Once in Tokyo, Raymond’s task was to help Frank Lloyd Wright with the design of the new Imperial Hotel. Fig. 45. FIRST IMPERIAL HOTEL (POSTCARD FROM 1905) – Image source: internet: http://www.steinerag.com/flw/Artifact%20Pages/ImperialHotel.htm The first Imperial Hotel (called Teikoku Hoteru), opened in November 1890, was designed in the French Second Empire style by a Japanese student of the Rokumeikan's architect, Englishman Josiah Condor 49 . The aim of the Hotel was to "build a large hotel in Tokyo and to conduct the business of renting rooms to foreign guests, and for parties and other events...”. It had high ceilings, spacious halls and staircases, oil paintings, flower arrangements, darkness and had mould odour because of the insufficient windows for the humid Japanese climate. It was for that time, the only place in Tokyo with sufficient capacity to host public events, like balls, banquets and weddings. In those days, there were few foreigners living in Tokyo. Most of the businessmen were still established in the port cities like Yokohama, Kobe, and Nagasaki. Paul Mueller, the German-American contractor, was in charge of the construction of the new hotel building. He had done most of Wright’s Chicago work. 49 Josiah Conder, English architect and professor with an increased interest for Japanese culture, was invited to work in Japan in 1877. Josiah’s Rokumeikan existed from 1883 until 1941. He was the first architect who introduced ceramic materials in Japan. He is known as being the “father of occidental architecture in Japan” UNKNOWN SUNS: LÁSZLÓ HUDEC, ANTONÍN RAYMOND AND THE MAKING OF MODERN ARCHITECTURE IN EASTERN ASIA 81 Because most of the plans were already been well designed in Taliesin, their work on the site was chiefly of execution. Raymond’s task was to “prepare detailed drawings and perspectives of the interiors and exteriors for the master’s further study” 50 . Wright had an infinite capacity for imaginative design and use of new materials, like the Oya stone. Everything was designed according to Wright’s vision, this included all the exterior and interior finishes (specially designed brick), sculptures, fenestrations, furniture, curtaining and so on. Arata Endo was part of Wright’s architectural staff. He was a brilliant draftsman with a huge admiration for his master. After Wright’s departure from Japan, Endo designed several projects, all in the manner of Frank Lloyd Wright, but of course without the genius touch. Despite all the ridiculous criticism towards the new project for the Imperial Hotel, calling it “the tomb of Tutankhamen” by average citizens without much aesthetic understanding and knowledge, the hotel manager Aisaku Hayashi always defended Wright. He was a real loyal person. After the shareholders decided to get rid of Wright and finish the hotel under another direction, aesthetically damaging the result, Hayashi disappeared in order to die in poverty in retirement. Raymond tells in his autobiography that despite all the difficulties and obstacles, it is almost unbelievable that the hotel was actually finished. This showed F. L. Wright’s fantastic courage and enormous creative energy. Fig. 46. WRIGHT ARCHITECTURAL STAFF AT AISAKU HAYASHI’S PARTY 1921– Image source: Antonin Raymond: Autobiography, p.69 Because of the huge amount of ornamentation covering the exterior and interior of the building, it was an extremely laborious work Raymond had to do for making the perspectives and to elaborate details. This was one of the reasons why he started to revolt. He had to draw in the perspectives every single detail. After a long year, 50 Ibid 36, p.67 UNKNOWN SUNS: LÁSZLÓ HUDEC, ANTONÍN RAYMOND AND THE MAKING OF MODERN ARCHITECTURE IN EASTERN ASIA 88 Antonín Raymond in Japan, he discovered and was fascinated by traditional Chinese architecture. Instead of transplanting American foreign styles and methods he attempted to harmonize and adapt local traditional Chinese architectural forms to modern needs, to the functional requirements of the modern period, creating unity and comfort using new materials and technologies on traditional shape building: “Old Wine in New Bottles- a clever caption, strikingly bringing out one aspect of what we are accomplishing at Yenching University by the use of the new reinforced concrete construction for buildings in the old Chinese style of architecture. *…+ The more deeply I get into the beauty, richness and dignity of the best of the old buildings that have come to us from the great Chinese builders of the past, the more certain I am that it is worth all the time and trouble and expense we are putting into our efforts to translate this wonderful art from mere archaeology into the living architecture of today, and so to preserve to the Chinese, and to the world, their splendid heritage.” 63 He explained that Chinese architecture possessed five essential features which were to be preserved and adapted in “new bottles”: (1) orderliness of arrangement; (2) frankness of construction; (3) massive masonry base; (4) curving, up-turned roofs; and (5) gorgeous colour. All this was known by Hudec, and actually wrote about it in his autobiographical notes. For Hudec, the fresh start in Shanghai was not easy at all, but because of his architectural skill, he soon found work as a draftsman, by January 1919, in Rowland Curry’s office. He maintained a very close relation with his family from home. He constantly informed them about his life, through letters with detailed sketches and photos of his first room in Shanghai and the Rowland Curry’s office. Fig. 53. LASZLO HUDEC’S FIRST ROOM IN SHANGHAI, plan and views- Images source: Jánossy Péter Samuel– Deke Erh: Life and Work of HUDEC LÁSZLÓ- The Real Homo Ludens, p.35-36 China from 1914 until 1935 was different from the one of his peers. He combined modern building technology with traditional design. 63 Jeffrey W. Cody: Building in China: Henry K. Murphy’s “Adaptive Architecture” 1914-1935. The Chinese University Press of Hong Kong, 2001, p.157, 164 UNKNOWN SUNS: LÁSZLÓ HUDEC, ANTONÍN RAYMOND AND THE MAKING OF MODERN ARCHITECTURE IN EASTERN ASIA 89 Fig. 54. CURRY’S OFFICE, plan and interior view- Image sources: Luca Poncellini – Júlia Csejdy: LÁSZLÓ HUDEC. Masters of Architecture, p.25 Rowland Curry’s office was developing very well and receiving all sorts of commissions. His wife came from a wealthy local family. Thanks to this fact, he had established contacts in Shanghai’s financial sector. Hudec started work in the studio immediately, receiving a series of diverse small and large commissions (flats, offices, industrial facilities, fences and gardens) not only to design but also to direct the construction sites. In no time, due to Hudec’s talent, he became indispensable for the office (within two months he became the office manager and after two years, a partner): “Curry was an excellent businessman able to drum up trade, yet he lacked any kind of artistic ambition. *…+ Curry said he intends to make me a partner so that we can struggle through life together because I am indispensable for him. It is my ambition to become known, which I intend to achieve with Curry’s help…”. 64 Between 1919 and 1920 Curry’s architectural company completed the construction of the International Savings Society and the Chinese-American Bank on Nanjing Road, both designed in a Neo-classical style, with pilasters, Ionic and Corinthian capitals, architraves, ornaments and massive elevation (Palladian influence), following the United States trend in designing the banks. These projects were all based on “symmetry”, a very important characteristic of the classical style with Palladian influence and so typical for traditional Chinese architecture. The same treatment and style (same years 1919-1920) was found in Curry’s office design for luxury residences for rich private individuals such as Kats (the director of the Shanghai plant of Hoechst Chemicals), Beduin and Madier (the local managers of the International Savings Society). The residences were all set in the French concession settlement, surrounded by huge gardens. 64 Ibid 1, p.25 UNKNOWN SUNS: LÁSZLÓ HUDEC, ANTONÍN RAYMOND AND THE MAKING OF MODERN ARCHITECTURE IN EASTERN ASIA 90 Fig. 55. INTERNATIONAL SAVINGS SOCIETY 1919 (photo of the main façade) and the CHINESEAMERICAN BANK designed in 1920 (graphic design) - Image source: Luca Poncellini – Júlia Csejdy: LÁSZLÓ HUDEC. Masters of Architecture, p.26-27 As he said in a letter addressed to his father, Hudec was beginning to feel the lack of architectural information and qualified people from the west, fearing that he would not be able to develop further as an architect in Shanghai. The specialist periodicals were out dated “like 15 years ago at home except for those on engineering equipment, which, however, was not available in Shanghai”. 65 He decided he would have to spend six months at home, studying and reading, after every three years in Shanghai. Hudec’s early works in Shanghai were a manifestation of his studies and training at the Technical University of Budapest (his favourite subject was ancient history), which insured him with excellent knowledge in architectural morphology and design. Hudec was in charge of supervising the construction of the Kats house. In order to achieve the best results, he moved into one room from a wing already completed, to be constantly on the site. Although he had to work very hard, it wasn’t a burden. But he began to feel bored by neo-classical conventional designs and suffered from the lack of inspiration and inner peace. He criticised the poor quality of the architects who were only copying without any art history knowledge “they are talented in copying but they cannot find the appropriate proportions even by mistake”. Although ten years later, this stage in his life can be associated with Antonin Raymond’s first employment in America, for Cass Gilbert’s office, while designing the gothic details of the Woolworth Building. This period may have been hard for an architect with big dreams and expectations, but it was part of the development process, gathering working experience and relations. 65 Ibid 1, p.26 UNKNOWN SUNS: LÁSZLÓ HUDEC, ANTONÍN RAYMOND AND THE MAKING OF MODERN ARCHITECTURE IN EASTERN ASIA 91 “Here you can only design traditional buildings because anything Modern is considered to be German and that would be suicide. I won’t be a real architect in Shanghai as I had imagined at the Technical University, although I build more that I would ever have thought.” 66 Fig. 56. KATZ RESIDENCE 1919-1920, floor plan and interior view- Image source: Luca Poncellini – Júlia Csejdy: LÁSZLÓ HUDEC. Masters of Architecture, p.28-30 and Jánossy Péter Samuel – Deke Erh: Life and Work of HUDEC LÁSZLÓ, p.61 Fig. 57. BEUDIN RESIDENCE, view from the garden and interior entrance stair and MADIER RESIDENCE, view from the garden with the pond- Image source: Luca Poncellini – Júlia Csejdy: LÁSZLÓ HUDEC. Masters of Architecture, p.32, 37 He became melancholic remembering his early small projects made before arriving in Shanghai and the great feeling he had while designing them. ”How nice it was to work on my competitive design - at the Forest Directorate or the Ossarium. How beautiful and charming were my chapels – Vihnye and Volhínia. Now, when with a movement of the pencil I direct thousands I don’t feel the same inner peace as when I drew those little chapels.” 67 66 Ibid 1, p.26 67 Ibid 1, p.26 UNKNOWN SUNS: LÁSZLÓ HUDEC, ANTONÍN RAYMOND AND THE MAKING OF MODERN ARCHITECTURE IN EASTERN ASIA 92 Fig. 58. COMPETITION DESIGN BY LÁSZLÓ HUDEC: OSSARIUM TO BE ERECTED ON THE BATTLEFIELD, university project, 1914- Image source: Luca Poncellini – Júlia Csejdy: LÁSZLÓ HUDEC. Masters of Architecture, p.20 Fig. 59. VIHNYE AND VOLHÍNIA CHAPEL DESIGNED BY LÁSZLÓ HUDEC in 1914 and 1916 (Volhínia was the wooden chapel built at the front by the soldiers) - Image sources: Luca Poncellini – Júlia Csejdy: LÁSZLÓ HUDEC. Masters of Architecture, p.12, 22. Besides financial supporting his family, he devotes some of his free time and money in helping the POW’s 68 who were passing through Shanghai on their way home. This was the case of some old acquaintances Lajos Királi and Pál, the latter wrote a detailed description of the three months spent in Shanghai, helping Hudec in the office (the office was bursting with commissions, having 2000 people working on 40 buildings) and observing the city (the poverty of the Chinese quarter was a frightening reality to them compared to the exuberance of the International Settlement and French Concessions, with wide roads, huge villas, parks and gardens). 22 RESIDENTIAL HOUSES, SHANGHAI, 1920 The 22 residential homes built in 1920 in the French Concession on rue Ratard for the International Savings Society was a successful project, in which the style of American apartments were well applied in the Chinese urban environment 68 POW = prisoner of war UNKNOWN SUNS: LÁSZLÓ HUDEC, ANTONÍN RAYMOND AND THE MAKING OF MODERN ARCHITECTURE IN EASTERN ASIA 93 (according to the local newspapers of the time). 69 Hudec made two types of ground-plans and four types of elevations for these homes arranged on a linear layout with interesting combination of roofs. Fig. 60. THE ROW OF THE 22 HOUSES BUILT ON RUE RATARD from 1920- Image source: Luca Poncellini – Júlia Csejdy: LÁSZLÓ HUDEC. Masters of Architecture, p.41 His family back home was passing through some hard times due to post war changes (his home town Besztercebánya no longer belonged to Hungary) the mortgage put on the family possessions in order to cover the damages of an accident from a building site and because of the sudden death of his father after a heart attack, in 18 December 1920 (the main cause was György Hugyecz’s diabetic condition and the lack of medical treatment available only in Budapest, unreachable since Czechoslovakia closed the border with Hungary). It was the greatest loss Hudec had ever experienced, losing his best friend and role model. Since he already solved his problem in getting a Czechoslovakian passport, (issued to him without any problems and document, since he was already a well-known person in the city), he immediately embarked on a ship to go home. Géza Réz, an old friend from school, came to Shanghai to replace him while he was away. Hudec became head of the family supporting and helping them to recover completely from the debts. His trip to Europe lasted until 9 August and arrived back in Shanghai on 13 October 1921 with the aim to settle permanently. He visited Italy, France, England, Germany and Austria in search for inspiration and documentation “Eight hundred photos and sketch books packed with drawings attest to his methodical and detailed work” 70 (Now property of the Hudec Heritage of Victoria University in Canada). 69 Ibid 1, p.36 70 Ibid 1, p.42 UNKNOWN SUNS: LÁSZLÓ HUDEC, ANTONÍN RAYMOND AND THE MAKING OF MODERN ARCHITECTURE IN EASTERN ASIA 94 A new chapter in Hudec’s life begins once he returned in Shanghai. He became Curry’s partner, married Isabel Gisela Meyer, the daughter of a wealthy German entrepreneur (who had the exclusive right to import and distribute dyes from a German company all over China). In these new conditions, Curry’s studio began a prosperous period and change of style (most certainly due to Hudec’s study trip in Europe and his accessibility to European and American specialist periodicals and magazines). MCTYEIRE SCHOOL FOR GIRLS, SHANGHAI, 1921-1922 They won the competition for building the McTyeire School, due to Curry’s business skills and Hudec’s knowledge of art history, matching perfectly the clients taste and desire for a Gothic style inspiration building. The simple and elegant building has a brick-and-wood structure. The symmetrical “U” shape 31/2 story building was facing a huge green garden through a lancet corridor, a line of classrooms facing south and an auditorium in the back. The steep red-coloured double sloping roof was graced by dormers. The Gothic touch was added by Hudec through the use of some elements like Gothic windows with stained glass (bringing a warm, subtle play of light and shadow to the inside), colonnades and arches. The McTyeire School is a huge step in the process of modernizing the Chinese education for women. Traditionally, China has ignored the role of the women in the society, depriving her of education, saying that “Ignorance is a woman’s virtue”. In feudal China, women were supposed to be inferior to men, submissive to their husbands. Nowadays, this still has an echo in the society; some men don’t want their spouses to be superior to them in terms of degree, diploma or salary. Fig. 61. MCTYEIRE SCHOOL FOR GIRLS, then/now pictures and sketch for the social hall - Image sources: Luca Poncellini – Júlia Csejdy: LÁSZLÓ HUDEC. Masters of Architecture, p.43 and internet UNKNOWN SUNS: LÁSZLÓ HUDEC, ANTONÍN RAYMOND AND THE MAKING OF MODERN ARCHITECTURE IN EASTERN ASIA 95 Local recognition didn’t stop to come, and it reflected perfectly the roles of the two architects within the company and their struggle in finding the balance between knowledge, local conditions and customs: “When this style was chosen, manifold difficulties presented themselves to the architects *…+, both men of artistic vision who worked together well, Mr Curry with his experience of building schools of this type in America, and Mr Hudec with an old world background of artistic tradition. To construct such a building in Shanghai, a 14th century building *…+ designed by a 20th century architect, to be not only looked at with 20th century eyes but used by an alien race, whose living customs are entirely different from the Western world, would seem almost an impossibility. The one solution, of course, was to adapt it, but in doing this there is always the danger of losing the spirit of the historical architecture. In this instance it was particularly difficult, for secular Gothic, with its predominating wall spaces and small openings, as it does not lend itself readily to the needs of a hot climate.”(The Shanghai Sunday Times 1922) 71 HUDEC’S OWN HOUSE, SHANGHAILUZERNE ROUTE, 1922-1926 After the marriage with Gisela Meyer (below- Laszlo and Gisela wedding photo with her parents on the left), Hudec began to design their first house, with a colonial style inspiration (a mix between English colonial and Arts and Crafts architecture), on 17 Luzerne Route, outside the border of the International Settlement. The house was surrounded by 4000 square meters of garden, a semihexagonal veranda, alcoves for fireplace and a built in attic (a mansard under the high slope roof). The interior finishes (oakwood for the floors, red ceramic tiles for the bathrooms and refined wooden ceilings with geometric motifs) and furniture (including built in furniture, integrated in the composition of the complex wooden wall), all special designed by Hudec. Following the local preference for colours, the emphasis was always put on using these colours for interior and exterior finishes (including the use of natural materials). In the detailed plans and elevations of the 71 Ibid 1, p.44 UNKNOWN SUNS: LÁSZLÓ HUDEC, ANTONÍN RAYMOND AND THE MAKING OF MODERN ARCHITECTURE IN EASTERN ASIA 96 house, we can see for the first time, Hudec’s rectangular stamp, with four stylised letters in red ink with the text above: L.E. HUDEC ARCHITECT. Fig. 62. HUDEC’S OWN HOUSE ON 17 LUZERNE ROAD, garden elevation, first floor plan, ground details of the alcove’s furnishings and fireplace- Image source: Luca Poncellini – Júlia Csejdy: LÁSZLÓ HUDEC. Masters of Architecture, p.46-48 His younger brother, Géza, was studying back home to become an architect. They corresponded frequently. In one of his letters, Hudec tells him about the importance of drawing and sketching for an architect, because it is his most precious tool for creating and strengthening the relation with the client: “If the client isn’t happy, I draw it again once, twice or one hundred ties, but I don’t spend much time with working drawings.” 72 He was not an ideological architect imposing his personal ideas to the clients, but he rather was preoccupied by achieving comfort and unity with an emphasis on mechanics and technical aspects, equally important to him as the volume of the house: “You will only be a good architect if you understand materials and construction.*…+ Here buildings have either steel or reinforced concrete frame structure, walls are not considered structural elements but seen just as partitions.” 73 72 Ibid 1, p.44 73 Ibid 1, p.45-46 UNKNOWN SUNS: LÁSZLÓ HUDEC, ANTONÍN RAYMOND AND THE MAKING OF MODERN ARCHITECTURE IN EASTERN ASIA 97 AMERICAN CLUB, SHANGHAI, FUZHOU ROAD 209, 1922-1924 Another competition, won by Curry and Hudec in august 1922, was for the American Club Headquarter, who was playing a key role for the American men’s social life. The simple and elegant six storey building has a reinforced concrete structure with brown brick filling walls. It is a mixture of American Colonial style or North American Georgian style (adopted from England) with Neo-classical references. The symmetrical tripartite main façade and entrance is on the north side of the plot. On the inauguration day in 1924, “The China Press” national daily wrote the following in a special supplement: “Simplicity, regularity, dignity, and feeling of a warm welcome behind the portals form the framework of typical Colonial architecture *…+ Colonial architecture is as near the truly American style as possible. It was only natural that this home of American activities in Shanghai should be of that style. The club is one of the most modern buildings in Shanghai.” The word “modern” was attributed to the compact, simple building. The ornamentation began to reduce (as compared to the International Savings Society bank or to Beudin and Medier houses). Fig. 63. AMERICAN CLUB, street north elevation (then and now), floor plans (ground floor and general floor) - Image source: Luca Poncellini – Júlia Csejdy: LÁSZLÓ HUDEC. Masters of Architecture, p.49 UNKNOWN SUNS: LÁSZLÓ HUDEC, ANTONÍN RAYMOND AND THE MAKING OF MODERN ARCHITECTURE IN EASTERN ASIA 104 Fig. 70 THE “UPTURNED ROOF” AND SUNLIGHT- study made by the author The following two projects, Hoshi School and Women’s Christian College, already show some independent thinking, apart from Wright’s mannerism. Through one of his acquaintances he met Hajime Hoshi, an important drug manufacturer. He required a School in Tokyo (1920-1922), classrooms for 100 students, assembly hall for 1.000, swimming pool, gymnasium etc. It was an interesting project and the main story about this project is that Hoshi Salesman School was designed in a day. The School was one of the first monolithic, reinforced concrete buildings in Tokyo with a big dome over the Auditorium, composed of triangular plans. The structure was calculated to withstand strong earthquakes. It had wide ramps instead of staircases, because it provided a more efficient means of circulation during major events. This project was designed almost in the same period as Hudec and Curry designed the Mctyeire School for girls. Although the two projects are quite different regarding style, forms and interior organisation, they both reflect the architect’s need for development in growing and expanding cities. Fig. 71. HOSHI SCHOOL, exterior and interior details of the dome and ramps 1922- Image source: Antonín Raymond: Autobiography, p.82 UNKNOWN SUNS: LÁSZLÓ HUDEC, ANTONÍN RAYMOND AND THE MAKING OF MODERN ARCHITECTURE IN EASTERN ASIA 105 During 1922-1923, Raymond received a commission to design the master plan and the buildings for the Tokyo Women’s Christian College, one of the three Colleges financed by Rockefeller. His plan was divided in two areas: area A - on one side a residential area housing a dormitory for six hundred students, dining hall, faculty houses, and a gymnasium and area B - on the other side, an academic area, centred on a courtyard, with the library, administration, classrooms, science buildings and a chapel. Fig. 72. TOKYO WOMEN’S CHRISTIAN COLLEGE, 3D Model (area A and B), view of the dormitories (area A), aerial view of campus from 1931 (area A and B), the LIBRARY 1922-31 (area B, exterior and interior detail)- Image sources: Antonín Raymond: Autobiography, p.85 and Kurt G. F. Helfrich and William Whitaker: Crafting a modern world, the architecture and design of Antonín and Noemi Raymond, p.85 This project had a difficult trajectory. The construction started in 1922 with the first buildings, then, more additional building were realized during the next seven years, A B UNKNOWN SUNS: LÁSZLÓ HUDEC, ANTONÍN RAYMOND AND THE MAKING OF MODERN ARCHITECTURE IN EASTERN ASIA 106 following closely Raymond’s proposals in every detail. Because of the use of reinforced concrete, all the buildings that were already constructed, survived the disastrous earthquake of 1923 very well. A later part was commissioned in 1935 that combined a chapel and an auditorium, which will be later analysed. “It took about three years of concentrated effort to liberate myself from Wright’s powerful influence.” 75 After a period of time of continuous observation and study of traditional Japanese structures, Raymond finally started to become conscious about the age long principles that governed the design of all Japanese structures, particularly residential ones. Principles that all “pointed to the fact that the simplest, the most natural, the most economical, and the most direct way is the safest way to achieve a good design of lasting and absolute quality.” 76 Step by step, these Japanese principles began to dominate Raymond’s conceptions. Fig. 73. MAP SHOWING AN AERIAL IMAGE OF 2015 TOKYO - LOCATION OF MAIN PROJECTS DONE BY ANTONÍN RAYMOND IN HIS EARLY PRACTICE - Study made by the author 75 Ibid 36, p.83 76 Ibid 36, p.83-84 UNKNOWN SUNS: LÁSZLÓ HUDEC, ANTONÍN RAYMOND AND THE MAKING OF MODERN ARCHITECTURE IN EASTERN ASIA 107 Fig. 74. TIMELINE 01– HUDEC AND RAYMOND COMPARATIVE DESIGNS- study made by the author UNKNOWN SUNS: LÁSZLÓ HUDEC, ANTONÍN RAYMOND AND THE MAKING OF MODERN ARCHITECTURE IN EASTERN ASIA 108 5.2 LÁSZLÓ HUDEC, THE BEGINNING OF HIS INDIVIDUAL OFFICE IN SHANGHAI, STILL UNDER CLASSICISM AND ECLECTICISM INFLUENCE (1924 – 1930) The collaboration between Curry and Hudec suddenly came to an end and the American architect left Shanghai. No knowledge about his further activities can be found. Hudec opened his own studio on 1 December 1924 in a rented office in the Yokohama Bank Specie Building at Bund 24. The design of his works remains stuck in his previous period while associated at Curry’s Office, but the functionality began to be very modern like. His work was a set of eclectic and European neoclassic styles (incorporating elements that evoked memories of his homeland), mixed up to create a unified, functional building equipped with modern technologies, putting a significant emphasis on the client’s needs and taste. NORMANDIE APARTMENTS RESIDENTIAL BLOCK, SHANGHAI, 1924-1926 (now named Wukang Building according to the road on which it is located) The acute-angled plot of this project, at the triple crossroads on Avenue Joffre (1836-1858 Middle Huaihai Road), has dictated the shape and plan of the building. Built for the International Savings Society (ISS) for housing and ground floor stores, it is one of the last projects commissioned before Curry’s departure. It is quite rare to find five roads converging at one intersection in Shanghai. The Neoclassical architecture building, inspired by French Renaissance, resembles the famous Flatiron Building from New York 77 , but at a smaller scale. Residents named the building “Shipping Building” due to its form resembling a giant vessel. Besides the round corner, the eight story building has an interesting plan and remarkable organization on the site. It appears like a triangle from above. No internal courtyards are used, but “U”-shape yard opening towards the northern street, transforming the apparent symmetrical facades. The north-west façade was jagged into three parts separated by the two triangular yards and unified by the central corridor. The “U”-shape yards are used to obtain proper orientation for the 77 The Flatiron Building completed in 1902 (originally named Fuller Building) is located at 175 Fifth Avenue, New York City. The name “Flatiron” derives from its resemblance to a clothes iron. The Renaissance style building designed by D.H. Burnham & Co, has become one of the world’s most iconic skyscrapers and an icon/landmark of the city. UNKNOWN SUNS: LÁSZLÓ HUDEC, ANTONÍN RAYMOND AND THE MAKING OF MODERN ARCHITECTURE IN EASTERN ASIA 109 spaces situated on the north-west façade. The yards have different size due to the shape of the plot. Fig. 75. NORMANDIE APARTMENTS RESIDENTIAL BLOCK, first row: north-western façade with central corridor, corner façade and detail of the ground-floor arcades; second row: aerial view and NORMANDIE APARTMENTS-SHANGHAI versus FLATIRON BUILDINGNEW YORK, compared study based on the tripartite scheme – Image sources: internet, study made by the author. The façade’s composition is based on the tripartite scheme, usually associated with the work of Louis H. Sullivan. His tripartite schemebase, shaft and crowndominated the American high-rise design of tall buildings for the first two decades of the 20th century. Besides using different finishes, the three principal divisions also had different characteristics: the base consisting of the lowest two or three stories of the building, the crown consisting of the one to four upper stories from the top of the building and the shaft consisting of the stores situated between the base and the crown. The Normandie Apartments has a flat roof with a terrace on the top, projecting eaves with narrow string cornice supporting the balconies lengthwiseseparating the three divisions. To augment the division of the three registers, Hudec used a change of material, brick for the shaft and stone for the base and crown. Windows on the third floor are decorated with pediments. Some rooms facing south have delicate, Classic French-style iron-railed balconies. The ground floor is occupied by the stores, set backward from the main façade in order to form UNKNOWN SUNS: LÁSZLÓ HUDEC, ANTONÍN RAYMOND AND THE MAKING OF MODERN ARCHITECTURE IN EASTERN ASIA 110 a covered, half-opened gallery with arcades and colonnades. The building is frame structured allowing free divisions of the plans. Originally developed to house Western employees, it changed owner and the building became a popular place for Shanghai’s celebrities, especially film stars. Over time, some disasters have happened in the building. Due to this, it assimilated a reputation of being haunted by the people who committed suicide there. Comparing the exterior with the interior plans, we can affirm that the architecture of the building is a transition between historicism and modern functional architecture. COUNTRY HOSPITAL, SHANGHAI, 1923-1926 Hudec’s independent career benefits through the experience he gained at Curry Studio. Within the short period (1919-1924) he acquired exceptional technical, managerial and organisational skills. The commission was for Charles Rayner, who decided to build an up-to-date hospital for the International Community from Shanghai, the city that had made him rich. His wish, stipulated in the agreement with Hudec, was to remain anonym. “I will build a hospital for the benefit of the foreign community of Shanghai, which will be rather limited in capacity, but fitted up with up-to-date equipment. The atmosphere will be friendly – not like the usual hospital. The appearance and style will be pleasing and adaptable to the international public of the city. It will also answer the requirements of the special types of patients in Shanghai, the peculiarities of local conditions, and be suitable for our semitropical climate. The equipment of the building, technical, mechanical and medical, will not be limited to the products of one country alone but the products of all nations and be studied and put to the best use.” (L.Hudec: The Country Hospital-manuscript) 78 Since the hospital was aimed for the use of a wide cosmopolitan public of different nationalities, the architectural style of the project was required and recommended to the use of a neutral style rather than to be limited to any single national particular style. The use of a neutral style would prevent possible reminiscent tensions, consequence of the World War I. The ornamentation of the neutral Neo- 78 Ibid 1, p.51 UNKNOWN SUNS: LÁSZLÓ HUDEC, ANTONÍN RAYMOND AND THE MAKING OF MODERN ARCHITECTURE IN EASTERN ASIA 111 classical style elevations are reduced to minimum, to create elegance and simplicity. Fig. 76. COUNTRY HOSPITAL, SOUTH FAÇADE view and DETAIL- Image source: Luca Poncellini – Júlia Csejdy: LÁSZLÓ HUDEC. Masters of Architecture, p.53-54 The modern interior organization and plan were shaped strictly to the principles of functionality. In order to provide best orientation, the main building had the wards facing south, all linked by a narrow horizontal line circulation facing north. Every ward was equipped with a private bathroom, in order to provide the patron’s wishes to bring comfort and home feeling into the hospital. The main building was linked to a “T” shape utilities wing (facing the main Road with separate access for the Ambulance), housing the technical equipment and operating theatres. The building has a terrace on the top, with a solarium and fantastic views over the city and surrounding garden. The first impact while entering the hospital is the spectacular spaciousness of the two storey high entrance hall surrounded by a row of galleries. Although criticised as being a waste of space and money, this hall has a major effect on convalescent patients and visitors, creating the perfect, elegant meeting point. The early Italian Renaissance inspiration for the entrance hall, as shown in the composition of the space and in the marble floors with chessboard pattern, was designed so, to please the eye and regarding the donors taste and wishes. “This is nothing but a reminiscence of Italy, designed in that atmosphere and style, in special regard for the donor, who passed many years of his life in Italy and has a great admiration and understanding for its style. The design shall not be interpreted as a fashion craze, typical of the way some architects design in the so-called ‘Italian Renaissance’ which seems to be the vogue in some UNKNOWN SUNS: LÁSZLÓ HUDEC, ANTONÍN RAYMOND AND THE MAKING OF MODERN ARCHITECTURE IN EASTERN ASIA 112 countries at present without any deeper reason. I feel sure that many people will criticize the waste of space in the Hall and Vestibule, but if one could see and understand the local conditions, one would agree that it is not failure, and gives an entirely different atmosphere from the usual hospitals. That we were right is shown in the practise and beneficial effects the Great Hall has on both patients and visitors. True, it is good for nothing, but it pleases the eye. Naturally, only a man who can give such a hospital to the public could afford such a unique experiment.”(L.Hudec: The Country Hospitalmanuscript) 79 Fig. 77. COUNTRY HOSPITAL, GROUND AND THIRD FLOOR, orientation, circulation and functionality- Image source: Luca Poncellini – Júlia Csejdy: LÁSZLÓ HUDEC. Masters of Architecture, p.52- edited by the author Fig. 78. COUNTRY HOSPITAL, interior view of the VESTIBULE, GREAT HALL and furnishing of a WARD- Image source: Luca Poncellini – Júlia Csejdy: LÁSZLÓ HUDEC. Masters of Architecture, p.55 The local climate was a decisive factor for the main design of the Country Hospital. In order to adapt to the difficult climate of China, the south façade opens up to the exterior through three loggias. The loggias have the effect of reducing natural light 79 Ibid 1, p. 54 UNKNOWN SUNS: LÁSZLÓ HUDEC, ANTONÍN RAYMOND AND THE MAKING OF MODERN ARCHITECTURE IN EASTERN ASIA 113 and protection from the summer sun but at the same time it allows the positive effect of the winter sun to enter. Almost 60 % of the rooms from the south elevation have loggias. 60 %, because of the Shanghai Hospitals statistics, that testified that this percentage was the habitual utilization of the hospitals during summer. “To have planned the building along the lines of European and American hospitals would have been an utter failure owing to the climatic conditions in China.” 80 As said before, the commissioner desired expensive material and the most advanced technical equipment for the hospital. These were brought from all over the world, including air conditioning 81 , a relatively new technical solution and a novelty even for the western cities. The Country Hospital was the first building in Shanghai in which every important room (wards, operating theatres, maternity ward and consulting rooms), all were enjoying the benefits of air conditioning. The equipment was produced and installed by the Swizz Sulzer Brothers Company, preceding the first integral air-conditioned office building from the United States (the Milam Building in San Antonio, Texas). The Country Hospital was using the airconditioning system in summer: it sucks in the warm air, cools it down and extracts the moisture from it; then the air slowly enters into the interiors through narrow slits in the ceiling. The air-conditioning was a real novelty in Asia. Antonín Raymond speaks in his Autobiography about the lack of air-conditioning he was facing in 1934 in Tokyo and his need to develop internal ventilation systems that could create a pleasant environment inside the buildings: “Air-conditioning was not yet developed at that time. *…+ Southern exposure of rooms, maximum fenestration, cross ventilation in all rooms and also eaves over the windows on the south and west gave protection from the sun in summer and admitted the low sun in winter.” 82 Today, the hospital still functions properly. The surrounding territory was built up with newer pavilions, but the wonderful park in front of the wards was well preserved, due to the Chinese’s love for nature and art of gardening. 80 Ibid 1, p.53 81 The fundamental principle of air conditioning was patented by Willis Haviland Carrier (an American engineer who lived from1876 until 1950) in 1906. This technology, named "Apparatus for Treating Air”, was designed to control humidity or dehumidify of the air while heating water for the first or cooling it for the second. 82 Ibid 36, p.137 UNKNOWN SUNS: LÁSZLÓ HUDEC, ANTONÍN RAYMOND AND THE MAKING OF MODERN ARCHITECTURE IN EASTERN ASIA 120 predominately grey as are so many in Shanghai, and also in Antonín Raymond’s designs. Beside architectural style, the theme of colours and materials is of huge matter in defining Raymond and Hudec’s way of designing and thinking. “I hate a grey building. *…+ I must have colour and judging from the absence of adverse criticism, I must conclude that I know how to use it.” 87 Fig. 85. JOINT SAVINGS SOCIETY HEADQUARTERS, the cashier hall from the ground floor, view towards the entrance and main entrance vault (Images from 1928 and today after the restoration)- Image sources: Luca Poncellini – Júlia Csejdy: LÁSZLÓ HUDEC. Masters of Architecture, p.70 and internet 87 Ibid 1, p.68 UNKNOWN SUNS: LÁSZLÓ HUDEC, ANTONÍN RAYMOND AND THE MAKING OF MODERN ARCHITECTURE IN EASTERN ASIA 121 Although criticised by some because of using expensive materials, he did not make rebate of quality (no imitation, only real material) in order to follow “the lofty example of some of the Renaissance architects of Venice who put veritable jewellery boxes on spaces even smaller than that with which I had to work.”(P.Bryant 1928) 88 A very interesting remark belongs to Jánossy Péter Samuel and Deke Erh:“If we think of the building without decorations, it very much resembles a real neo Bauhaus 89 building from the ‘90s of the 20th century. And if we add to this the big, square like window lanes on the brick covered third, fourths, fifth, sixth floors, it is sure that we have a modern architect here.” 90 The building was declared a monument in 1994. A meticulous restoration followed in 2012, as seen in the images previous presented. The Joint Savings Society project was the first for a Chinese client. By it, Hudec earned the trust and recognition of the highest circles of the Chinese social and financial elite, which will later commission him with his masterpieces. LIU JISHENG AND CHEN DINGZHEN HOUSE EXTENTION, SHANGHAI, 1927-1931 Then there followed a series of projects for Chinese clients. Among them, a first commission was the extension of Liu Jisheng 91 and his wife Chen Dingzhen house, in the heart of the French Concession, on 681 Rue Ratardnow 675 Julu Lu Road (1927-1931). Hudec designed his most romantic Italian Renaissance style villa with the two-storey portico, which opens toward the Greek-style garden by four Ionian Columns. The garden with its charming fountain and statue of Psyche and Amor 92 , still well preserved today is a small green paradise in the middle of the city. The building was renovated several times and it is used today by the Writer’s Association of Shanghai. 88 Ibid 1, p.70 excerpt from a newsletter article. 89 The "Bauhaus" style is characterized by a preference for clean and simple lines, is named after the design school developed in Germany (1919-1933). The school, along with additional architects, led to the development of the "International Style," which ruled the architectural world from the 1930s to the 1960s. 90 Ibid 4, p. 74 91 Liu Jisheng, together with his brother Liu Hongsheng, were the owners of one of the four biggest industrial and commercial magnates (coal, matches and concrete) in Shanghai in the 1920’s. 92 The statue was Hudec’s gift for the owners, ordered from Italy. The gardener saved the statue from the devastations of the Cultural Revolution after 1949 when Liu's property was confiscated and the house was taken over by the government's real estate department according to the policy of the time. UNKNOWN SUNS: LÁSZLÓ HUDEC, ANTONÍN RAYMOND AND THE MAKING OF MODERN ARCHITECTURE IN EASTERN ASIA 122 Fig. 86. LIU JISHENG AND HIS WIFE VILLA, view from the garden and interior circular stair with original chandelier- Image sources: Internet CHAPEI (ZHABEI) ELECTRICITY AND WATERWORKS POWER STATION, SHANGHAI, 1928-1929 The Chapei Power Station was Hudec’s first impact with industrial buildings, although industrial architecture had been a key subject of experimentation for twenty years in Europe and America, since the beginning of the 20th century. These constructions were meant to be cheap and functional, to serve their purpose. Usually there are no restrictions regarding a given style, so the architects have the freedom to design according to personal stylistic preferences and wishes. Due to the administrative autonomy introduced by the government of Nanking to the towns, Shanghai began a large-scale development project to improve the services (including drinking water and electricity provision) of the city. As part of this development project, the Chapei Electricity and Waterworks Co. commissioned Hudec with the design of a new electric power plant in 1928. Fig. 87. CHAPEI POWER STATION, Advertising perspective view and detail photo- Image sources: Luca Poncellini – Júlia Csejdy: LÁSZLÓ HUDEC. Masters of Architecture, p.74 and Jánossy Péter Samuel– Deke Erh: Life and Work of HUDEC LÁSZLÓ- The Real Homo Ludens, p.75 UNKNOWN SUNS: LÁSZLÓ HUDEC, ANTONÍN RAYMOND AND THE MAKING OF MODERN ARCHITECTURE IN EASTERN ASIA 123 The one hectare site was located in the Jiangsu Province of Shanghai, at the intersection of Molin Road and Hengfeng Road (now Jungong Road 4000), on the Huangpu River (Wangpoo), halfway between Shanghai and the mouth of the river. Although the design of the Station still had some Neo-classical features (like the cornice), it was much simpler, stripped from any unnecessary decoration, carrying characteristics of a kind of modern style. The complex was formed by different blocks of varying size and form, with the maximum height of 25 metres. The Steel frame structure allowed freedom of expression, and so, artistic character and aesthetics were implemented in industrial functions. Large vertical windows were extended through the whole high of the building, combined with external brick cladding. Fig. 88. CHAPEI POWER STATION, Photograph during construction and advert from 1929 of the company who built the steel structure- Image sources: Luca Poncellini – Júlia Csejdy: LÁSZLÓ HUDEC. Masters of Architecture, p.74 The technology was obtained from Skoda Works of Europe, Prague 93 , which dealt not only with automobiles but also with energetic engineering. Hudec’s design also included the development of all the necessary industrial technology, from the arrangements of the machines, technological shafts, chimneys etc, all this due to Hudec’s Technical University background, his affirmation is now once again confirmed: he was rather an engineer than an artist. “The contemporary press wrote the following about the power station: Every evening, when the sun sets, looking at the lights in the windows of the power 93 At that time Hudec’s nationality was Czechoslovak, since his place of birth was now belonging to Czechoslovakia after the break-up of the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy UNKNOWN SUNS: LÁSZLÓ HUDEC, ANTONÍN RAYMOND AND THE MAKING OF MODERN ARCHITECTURE IN EASTERN ASIA 124 station one cannot doubt that the Zhabei Electric Station became the most outstanding building of the river bank.” 94 The design somehow recalls the movement started twenty years ago in Germany, named Deutsche Werkbund, initiated by twelve independent artists (among them Peter Behrens) and twelve craft firms. And in particular, it resembles with Behrens design for the AEG Turbine Factory, Berlin 1908 (“a conscious work of art, a temple to industrial power” 95 ) and with the later Gropius and Meyer Fagus Factory, Alfeldan-der-Leine 1911. Both projects use simple but modern aesthetic forms, Classical rigid geometry, light steel frame and alternation of glass surfaces combined with masonry walls. For the AEG design, Behrens uses light steel glass frame on the street façade and masonry solid corners. Instead, for the Fagus Factory, Gropius eliminates the solid corner to create a more open architectural aesthetics. The First World War stopped the Werkbund artists industrial design development and created interferences with Expressionism and Art Deco, and new movements after 1919 (like The Bauhaus 1919-1933). Fig. 89. BEHRENS, AEG TURBINE FACTORY, BERLIN 1908-1909 and GROPIUS AND A. MEYER, FAGUS FACTORY, ALFELD-AN-DER-LEINE, 1911- Image sources: Magdalena Droste, Bauchaus Archiv: Bauhaus, 1919-1933. Taschen, Berlin, 2002, p.14 COLUMBIA CIRCLE HOUSES FOR ASIA REALTY CO. - 76 plots, 1929 The high demand of plots outside the International Concessions for luxury buildings determined the Shanghai Municipal Council to build 60 kilometres of Extra- Settlement Roads, all in favour of the city’s development. Under the protection of Anglo-American administration, the areas outside the International Concessions became idyllic suburban environment for wealthy Shanghai citizens. 94 Ibid 4, p. 76 95 Kenneth Frampton: Modern Architecture, a Critical History. Thames & Hudson Ltd, London,1992, p.111 UNKNOWN SUNS: LÁSZLÓ HUDEC, ANTONÍN RAYMOND AND THE MAKING OF MODERN ARCHITECTURE IN EASTERN ASIA 125 Frank Raven (an American civil engineer) came to Shanghai to build a financial empire based on crediting, insurance and property business. His Asia Realty Company was dealing strictly with the development of projects. After Hudec designed seven houses for the company (in the western part of the French quarter- Route de Sieyes, Route Dufour), in 1929 Raven started another project, called the COLUMBIA CIRCLE ( 70.000 square meters on the crossroads of Amherst Road and Columbia Road). The area was divided into 76 single plots. The houses were having the same layout and internal organization of the main functions, easy adaptable to changes. Clients could choose from a wide range of styles: English Cottage, Spanish House, Italian Villa, California, San Clemente, San Diego, Colonial, Florida, Hollywood and a variety of plans within each type. The Company’s slogan was: “We’ll turn your ideas into reality.” Further changes (like increasing the size of the building, or adding an extra space) may be applied on the chosen model (“Asia Realty’s architect, Mr. Hudec, is happy to satisfy every need.” Hudec’s adaptable designs had a huge success, offering a cultural and national diversity to the international community living in the city, “designed to satisfy every taste and purse.”(The Shanghai Sunday Times 1929) 96 Fig. 90. COLUMBIA CIRCLE ADVERTISEMENTS- Image source: Luca Poncellini – Júlia Csejdy: LÁSZLÓ HUDEC. Masters of Architecture, p.59-60 The advertisements of the Columbia Circle were all describing the characteristics of the homes in their pleasant environment: “Comfortable homes”, “Own a house”, “If…dreams came true!”, “Green lawns…budding trees---flowering shrubs”, Shimmering sunlightpure air and a garden of peace”, “A garden is a beautifull thing…”, “Golden rays from a setting sun…”, “Healthily tired after a hard day’s 96 Ibid 1, p.63 UNKNOWN SUNS: LÁSZLÓ HUDEC, ANTONÍN RAYMOND AND THE MAKING OF MODERN ARCHITECTURE IN EASTERN ASIA 126 romp…”. The services, the urban infrastructural development and law enforcement were all sustained by the Shanghai Municipal Council. Fig. 91. HOUSES FOR COLUMBIA CIRCLE PROJECT, HUDEC’S SKETCH AND VIEW- Image sources: Luca Poncellini – Júlia Csejdy: LÁSZLÓ HUDEC. Masters of Architecture, p.60-61 SUN KE HOUSE, SHANGHAI, 1929-1930 Sun Ke 97 , one of the most important representatives of the cosmopolitan political and cultural elite of the 1920s and 1930s, he contributed significantly on modernising the municipal institutions and transforming the city, all based on his former education and western models. While working on the Columbia Project, Hudec designed a new house for his family on Columbia Road, near the 76 plots. The design is much more mature than the former house of the Hudec family. Traces of modern forms appear, although the main sources of inspiration for the Spanish style house were Neo-Gothic and Art Nouveau. As the house was designed by the architect for himself, the details are very well studied (like the small niches as seen in the plan) and the exterior ornamentation was reduced to the maximum. The pointed arches, a Gothic style element Hudec liked to integrate in his designs in the second half of the 1920s century, create elegance and mystery (seen on the portico’s openings, on windows and on chimney-tops). 97 Sun Ke, born in 1891, is the son of Sun Yat-Sen (already discussed his important role in the history of China). He returned to China after finishing his studies in the United States. UNKNOWN SUNS: LÁSZLÓ HUDEC, ANTONÍN RAYMOND AND THE MAKING OF MODERN ARCHITECTURE IN EASTERN ASIA 127 Fig. 92. SUN KE HOUSE, NEO-GOTHIC (first row) and ART NOUVEAU (second row) details- Image sources: Luca Poncellini – Júlia Csejdy: LÁSZLÓ HUDEC. Masters of Architecture, p.72-73 and internet In 1930, before he could finish the construction, Sun Ke asked Hudec to sell him the house. He could not turn down his offer, and his generous gesture led to a fruitful cooperation between the two (like the design for the Chiao Tung University or the Moore Memorial Church). Fig. 93. SUN KE HOUSE, floor plan- Image source: Jánossy Péter Samuel– Deke Erh: Life and Work of HUDEC LÁSZLÓ- The Real Homo Ludens, p.76 The three level brick with wooden roof structure building has an interesting internal organization and plan, combining rectangularity with two round and octagonal towers, surrounded by a nearly three hectare park. The ground floor hosts the living, the reception rooms, the kitchen, the dining-room with fireplaces and two stairs (one from the kitchen only for the supply of the upper levels). The first floor and the attic are occupied by a second living area with terraces, for the private use of the family, and by the bedrooms. UNKNOWN SUNS: LÁSZLÓ HUDEC, ANTONÍN RAYMOND AND THE MAKING OF MODERN ARCHITECTURE IN EASTERN ASIA 128 CHURCH COMMISSIONS, SHANGHAI 1926-1931 As said before, Hudec had a preference for gothic. Besides Sun Ke’s residence, he used elongated pointed arches in various designs, such as in his Church Commissions. Since the first years of the establishments of the international settlements in Shanghai, the west was constantly sending missionaries to the city. Soon, all the monastic orders had local representatives. Religion was very well integrated into the Chinese way of thinking. Hudec received two important commissions. The first one, the CATHOLIC COUNTRY CHURCH (CHAPEI CEMETERY CHAPEL), located on the outskirts of the city, designed in 1925 and completed in 1926, is still standing today, well restored and preserved. Its main characteristics are: monumental mass built of simple rectangular shapes and main cupola supported by four columns, a clearly Neo-Byzantine- Romanesque formula, reinterpreted by Hudec with gothic elements (elongated pointed arches), creating a lofty and modern 20th century design. Fig. 94. CATHOLIC COUNTRY CHURCH, recent image- Image source: Jánossy Péter Samuel– Deke Erh: Life and Work of HUDEC LÁSZLÓ- The Real Homo Ludens, p.68 Fig. 95. CATHOLIC COUNTRY CHURCH, exterior views and interior cupola- Image sources: Luca Poncellini – Júlia Csejdy: LÁSZLÓ HUDEC. Masters of Architecture, p.76-77 UNKNOWN SUNS: LÁSZLÓ HUDEC, ANTONÍN RAYMOND AND THE MAKING OF MODERN ARCHITECTURE IN EASTERN ASIA 129 The second Church commission was the MOORE MEMORIAL CHURCH (present name Mu’en Tang), Shanghai 1926-1931, on the corner of Tibet Road and Hankow Road (now 316 Middle Xizang Road), a very central location, just across from the People’s Square (the old Race Course). The American J. M. Moore made a donation for refurbishing and rebuilding The Methodist Church in this new location, in the memory of his daughter. The complicated task of the architect was to incorporate in the design various requirements: a hall with a capacity of 3.000 people for the Eucharistic ceremonies, a small ambulatory and an open-air pavilion for other events (concerts etc.). Fig. 96. MOORE MEMORIAL CHURCH, street view and elevation- Image sources: Luca Poncellini – Júlia Csejdy: LÁSZLÓ HUDEC. Masters of Architecture, p.77 The three level building had a reinforced concrete structure. The framework was produced and imported from England, the Eastern Iron Works Company. The main inspiration for this church was Gothic architecture and its main characteristics: pointed arches 98 for the openings, door and decorated windows; vaulted ceilings; tall, light and airy interior due to the use of large, bright windows. “The style adopted for the new church is known as Collegiate Gothic and great care has been taken to preserve the richer tradition of the old world cathedral architecture, although equal pains have been taken to make it thoroughly modern” (The Shanghai Evening Post 1929). 99 The main entrance of the Gothic brick elevation is completely built of stone which creates a very interesting connection. Brick and stone were the two major finishes, 98 The gothic pointed arches and vaulted ceiling were used for both decorative and practical reasons (the pointed arches distributed the forces of the heavy ceilings and could support much more weight than simple pillars). 99 Ibid 1, p.75 UNKNOWN SUNS: LÁSZLÓ HUDEC, ANTONÍN RAYMOND AND THE MAKING OF MODERN ARCHITECTURE IN EASTERN ASIA 232 The complex was composed by three strip-like buildings (reinforced concrete structure) laid out in parallel with each other. The curve of the roads was reflected in the design of the general layout. The two side buildings have rounded-off corners combined with a general arched shape that gives dynamism to the volumes. The composition of the façade is simple and modern (a mixture of Art Deco and Modern style), horizontal red brick bands are alternated by plastered bands. This continuous horizontality is interrupted by three vertical sharp protuberance for the service stairs (triangular shapeperpendicular on the façade with windowspossible explanation of this chosen shape may be to ensure natural illumination from west to the north facade) and three vertical holes through which we can see the silhouette of the main stairs that link the five floors (as seen in the study below). These narrow northern side stairs were used by the service staff. The owners had a different entrance on the southern side of the unit. Fig. 207. AVENUE APARTMENTS, PLAN, NORTHERN FAÇADE MAIN COMPOSITION, SOUTH-WEST, NORTH and WEST VIEWS of the complex- Image source: study made by the author, internet and Luca Poncellini – Júlia Csejdy: LÁSZLÓ HUDEC. Masters of Architecture, p.109 The whole residential unit was designed in order to reflect a typical suburban building, with four-five storeys with eight apartments on every level, shops and garages on the ground floor, a special heating system and interior private walking roads. The apartments consisting of one to five bedrooms were sold immediately, before the beginning of the construction. UNKNOWN SUNS: LÁSZLÓ HUDEC, ANTONÍN RAYMOND AND THE MAKING OF MODERN ARCHITECTURE IN EASTERN ASIA 233 During this exhausting period, with commissions flooding and worries (caused by the impossibility to renounce to his Czechoslovak citizenship in favour of the Hungarian citizenship, since the Czech state did not accept his application until the lawsuit launched against his family was to be closed) Hudec complained to his family of “fatigue, gout and heart problems as a result of being overworked”: “My health is my capital. Unfortunately, this is how one must think in today’s materialistic world. I am looking forward to my wealth and not my health being my capital. To restore my good mood, I am going to play the violin again” 167 . Besides the need of residential buildings, the entertainment sector of the city developed rapidly in order to keep up with the world’s trend. Shanghai was becoming one of the world’s metropolises, side by side with New York, London, Tokyo, Berlin, Paris and Chicago. Shanghai’s nightlife was flourishing. Famous artist and actors were coming to live the experience of the cosmopolitan city of the Far East. Theatre and Film were among the main attractions, both for locals and travellers, for every social class and nationality. Cinemas were becoming the trend of the period, fascinating everyone. The first cinema in Shanghai opened in 1903. Since then, until “the late 1930’s films were shown in 57 places (25 film theatres operated in the International Settlement and 12 in the French Concession)” 168 . In 1934, in a study listing the world’s top cities based on the number of cinemas they owned, Shanghai was ranked No. 8 with 53, and it was the only Asian city on the list. In the history of the cinema, moving picture shows follow a chronological development of three sections: ‘Silent Cinema 1895-1930’ (the first public film shows were dated 1895), ‘Sound Cinema 1930-1960’ (the institutionalization of sound cinema in 1930) and ‘The Modern Cinema 1960-1995’. The Cinema was kind of a cheap form of entertainment: “It was the combination of its cheapness and the fact that it was accessible to large and diverse audiences that accounts for cinema’s emergence as the dominant popular art form of the early twentieth century. The primacy of the visual imageespecially during the era of the ‘silents’- meant that films crossed barriers of language, literacy and culture in a way that other media, such as books and theatre, could not. This also helped to explain why, at a time when 167 Ibid 1, p.109 168 Ibid 1, p.110 UNKNOWN SUNS: LÁSZLÓ HUDEC, ANTONÍN RAYMOND AND THE MAKING OF MODERN ARCHITECTURE IN EASTERN ASIA 234 film production was concentrated in a handful of countries (mainly France, America, Britain, Italy and Denmark), film exhibition was spreading around the world. Some indication of the first permanent cinemas in China (1903), Japan (1903), Egypt (1904), Portugal (1904), Norway (1904), Denmark (1904), Iran (1905), Iceland (1906), Greece (1907), India (1907), Thailand (1907), South Africa (1908), Bulgaria (1908), Turkey (1908), Tunisia (1908), Lebanon (1909) and Mauritius (1912).*…+ The cinema spoke an ‘international language’ that was understood regardless of nationality, race or creed. It was this international language that accounts for the worldwide penetration of films in the period before the First World War.” 169 In the early 1930s the whole world, including Shanghai, entered the second section in the development of the cinema, the ‘Sound Cinema 1930-1960’. In this period Hudec received his various commissions for Movie Theatres. Due to the introduction of the sound, national and local cinemas (who were much smaller and affordable to the locals) were separated from the big first-class, international ones. Film theatres were divided into categories, gathering different audiences, according to the price of the ticket and location. Most elegant cinemas in the city, staging not only movies, but dramas too “were concentrated in the International Settlement between the Bund and the Race Course, along the axis of Nanking Road and Bubbling Well Road, as well as on Avenue Joffre, which was the main street of the French Concession”. 170 CHEKIANG CINEMA (now ZHEJIANG CINEMA), SHANGHAI, 1929-1930 In 1929 Hudec received his first commission to design a film theatre on Chekiang Road (now 123 Middle Zhejiang Road), at the border of the International and French Settlements, ordered by the English Cineco Ltd. The cinema is a compact volume with a galleried hall with 1000 seats. Its position, in a line of buildings, separated by blind walls on the sides, constrains the architect to a north-east orientation of the street’s façade. 169 James Chapman: Cinemas of the World: Film and Society from 1895 to the Present. Reaktion Books Ltd, London, 2003, p. 66-67 170 Ibid 1, p.110 UNKNOWN SUNS: LÁSZLÓ HUDEC, ANTONÍN RAYMOND AND THE MAKING OF MODERN ARCHITECTURE IN EASTERN ASIA 235 Fig. 208. CHEKIANG CINEMA (now ZHEJIANG CINEMA) STREET ELEVATION– Images source: internet, photos of M.TAKEHARA dated 2011 This cinema is a clear example of Modern architecture with a few Art Deco details (like the casing of the two vertical window bandsdetail D4). The exterior of the main façade is simple, with geometric volumes and elimination of all the unnecessary details. The emphasis is on horizontal and vertical lines, volumes and continuous windows (detail D2 and D4), particular for the International Style modernism. Mendelsohn’s rounded-off corners appear again in order to elegantly solve the articulation of the volumes. The ground floor with the main entrances, use the upper technical floor as a cover (detail D3), creating a pleasant feeling of protection while waiting in line or just admiring or reading the advertisement and content of the movies. Detail D1 is quite interesting and modern, a novelty in Hudec’s designs. Beneath the balcony, a whole part of the floor overhangs and a small window, perpendicular to the main façade, is now created with proper south-east orientation. Influence of contemporary Central European architecture is shown on the brick facing of the north-eastern elevation. Fig. 209. CHEKIANG CINEMA, MAIN COMPOZITION OF THE FACADE– study made by the author UNKNOWN SUNS: LÁSZLÓ HUDEC, ANTONÍN RAYMOND AND THE MAKING OF MODERN ARCHITECTURE IN EASTERN ASIA 236 The interior finishing of the stairs, with decorated Spanish ceramic tiles and floral iron railing, does not reflect the simple, modern exterior volume with continuous vertical windows. The majority of the interior walls and ceilings are decorated with exotic floral motifs and the chandeliers resemble flowers with close cups. Fig. 210. CHEKIANG CINEMA, interior details of the STAIRCASE – Images source: Internet, https://www.flickr.com/photos/zinka/4143443700/in/photostream/lightbox/ Air-conditioning and an automatic sprinkler system was installed in the building, which prove to be very useful when a fire broke out on May 1993. The threeminute evacuation plan functioned very well. The sprinkler system started operating immediately, nobody got hurt and there were no serious material damages. The opening ceremony dates 7 September 1930 and is one of the few historical cinemas that still function today, although mixed with a motel on the top floors. Interesting about Chekiang Cinema (now Zhejiang Cinema) is that it features an arc lamp projector and each day, screening details are hand written on whiteboard. UNKNOWN SUNS: LÁSZLÓ HUDEC, ANTONÍN RAYMOND AND THE MAKING OF MODERN ARCHITECTURE IN EASTERN ASIA 237 GRAND THEATRE, SHANGHAI, 1931-1933 In 1931 Hudec was commissioned by Lo Kan with the reconstruction of the Grand Cinema built in 1928. Lo Kan has just established United Theatres Inc., adding film production to its large chain of cinemas and theatres operating in Shanghai and other cities. Initially the design was meant to be a four-five years temporary building and later build a new one, but Hudec convinced the client to go ahead with the construction of a new, modern movie theatre, which ended up to become his most significant design made for the world of entertainment . The location was near the Park Hotel, on Bubbling Well Road (now 216 West Nanjing Road). Usually the buildings (Park Hotel and Grand Theatre) appear next to each other in most of the pictures taken from the Race Course. Together were defining the cityscape of the 1930s Shanghai. Fig. 211. GRAND THEATRE, MAIN VIEW from the former RACE COURSE- Image source: Jánossy Péter Samuel– Deke Erh: Life and Work of HUDEC LÁSZLÓ- The Real Homo Ludens, p.106-107 The task was to design a multifunctional establishment and to incorporate a concert hall (for Chinese opera performances, concerts, Chinese folk song festivals) also suitable for screening films. Different events and conferences could also be UNKNOWN SUNS: LÁSZLÓ HUDEC, ANTONÍN RAYMOND AND THE MAKING OF MODERN ARCHITECTURE IN EASTERN ASIA 238 held in the building. The capacity of the auditorium and gallery was 2400 seats and the large stage could accommodate an entire orchestra. Fig. 212. GRAND THEATRE, HUDEC’S SKETCH FOR THE DESIGN and MAIN ENTRANCE- Image source: Luca Poncellini – Júlia Csejdy: LÁSZLÓ HUDEC. Masters of Architecture, p.110,113 Fig. 213. GRAND THEATRE, COMPOSITIONAL STUDY OF THE FAÇADE, ART DECO and INTERNATIONAL STYLE- study made by the author UNKNOWN SUNS: LÁSZLÓ HUDEC, ANTONÍN RAYMOND AND THE MAKING OF MODERN ARCHITECTURE IN EASTERN ASIA 239 Art Deco and Modern style, straight and curved lines define the whole aspect of both the exterior and interior of the Grand Theatre. The exterior of the building, mainly its south-east façade facing the Race Course, was entirely used for commercial purpose. The geometrical composition of large horizontal and vertical elements creates a surprising effect. The composition of the walls extends beyond the top of the building, forming a pyramid-shaped mass, hosting a unique ballroom. On the top of the building, a central tower is placed. This 40 meters block of glass and steel with the name of the theatre written on its sides, functions as a giant, metropolitan advertising pillar (following the American Art Deco, who were always putting something protruding, a tower like, on the top of the cinemas where usually the name of the theatre or advertisement stand), especially when lit up from inside during the night. Being mostly an entertainment used during the night, the theme of the “light” was all over used by the architect. In the interior, the lights placed on the ceilings (central or on the sides) follow the curve form of the space, leading the customers towards the central hall or the exits. Translucent glass and mirrors are used to create the architectural illumination of the internal spaces and exterior volumes. Fig. 214. GRAND THEATRE and the IMPORTANCE OF ARTIFICIAL LIGHTING for emphasizing ‘NIGHT ARCHITECTURE’, Hudec’s code (that appears several times in the building) can be seen in the second photo- Image source: Luca Poncellini – Júlia Csejdy: LÁSZLÓ HUDEC. Masters of Architecture, p. 113, 114 & Jánossy Péter Samuel– Deke Erh: Life and Work of HUDEC LÁSZLÓ- p.99 UNKNOWN SUNS: LÁSZLÓ HUDEC, ANTONÍN RAYMOND AND THE MAKING OF MODERN ARCHITECTURE IN EASTERN ASIA 240 Fig. 215. GRAND THEATRE, LONGITUDINAL SECTION and PLANSSHAPE, ACOUSTICS, VISIBILITY and EVACUATION of the AUDITORIUM- study made by the author The architect’s skill to fit all the required spaces into such a difficult, almost triangular plot (long, narrow and asymmetrical) can be seen in the way he managed to design the entire building. The floor plan opens to two streets: on the Bubbling Well Road (now the Nanjing Street) with the main accesses and the second is on the rear Burkill Road (now Fenyang Street) the back street of the block, with the service entrance. People arriving by car could park in Honigsberg Garage (as said before, Hudec’s design from 1928), near the Park Hotel. Efficient, grandiose streamlined spaces were so well linked together, and the central auditorium was UNKNOWN SUNS: LÁSZLÓ HUDEC, ANTONÍN RAYMOND AND THE MAKING OF MODERN ARCHITECTURE IN EASTERN ASIA 241 perfectly integrated and articulated in the whole layout. The evacuation plan was carefully and strictly designed and the big hall was surrounded on both sides by escape corridors. The structure of the central hall’s gallery was quite a challenge for the engineers (the same Bengt J. Lindskog Company who worked with Hudec for many other works), but the result was fantastic, according to its dimension, it was said to be of a real novelty in the Far East: “The gallery was supported by one arched reinforced concrete beam, which was reported by ‘L’architecture d’Aujourd’hui’ to be the first of its kind in the Far East in regard to its dimensions. “ 171 The shape of the main hall and the reinforced concrete arch gallery ensure proper visibility and acoustics from all the seats. Carrier’s air conditioning equipment (25 % of the total construction cost) and fire control system were installed in the entire building. By that time, it was the only cinema in Shanghai equipped with synchronous interpretation devices integrated into each chairs. Because of that, the strict borders of the language were broken and everyone, even locals, could attend the latest foreign-language American and European films through individual earpieces. The programme changed in order to reflect the development of the Chinese film industry only after the Second World War, in 1949. Fig. 216. GRAND THEATRE, THE AUDITORIUM from the STAGE and the arched GALLERY- Image source: internet http://www.idealshanghai.com/focus/117027/ 171 Ibid 1, p. 113 UNKNOWN SUNS: LÁSZLÓ HUDEC, ANTONÍN RAYMOND AND THE MAKING OF MODERN ARCHITECTURE IN EASTERN ASIA 248 all the parts are linked and work very well together. The aerial bridge connecting the Office Building “A” with the Brew Building “B” is quite spectacular. Fig. 224. UNION BREWERY, MAIN COMPOSITION OF CUBIC BLOCKS, Arial view with the river on the back and various FENESTRATION FAÇADE COMPOSITIONS (regular composition of vertical and horizontal windows of the office building versus random window organisation of the factory building) - Images source: study made by the author and Luca Poncellini – Júlia Csejdy: LÁSZLÓ HUDEC. Masters of Architecture, p. 116-117 Designed and built before the Park Hotel, Hudec and his team were trying to find the best solutions for the foundation of the complex. The structure of the reinforced concrete building was a difficult task for the engineers because of the heavy weight of the factory (with its storages and tanks) combined with Shanghai’s UNKNOWN SUNS: LÁSZLÓ HUDEC, ANTONÍN RAYMOND AND THE MAKING OF MODERN ARCHITECTURE IN EASTERN ASIA 249 problematic soil, especially the loose soil around the river and the height of the Brew Building (the top of the nine storeys reached the height of the Sassoon House) . Around 2000 wooden piles, 33 meters deep, were used for the foundation. The machinery and technology were all imported. The Brewery was completed in 1934 and was opened in 1936. It produced 5 million bottles of beer annually, becoming China’s top Brewery. Fig. 225. UNION BREVERY ADVENT- Image source: Luca Poncellini – Júlia Csejdy: LÁSZLÓ HUDEC. Masters of Architecture, p. 117 Now, since the building became a protected monument in 1999, old parts of the former Brewery were integrated into a new concept, an Eco Park named Mengqing Garden, completed in 2005. Some parts of the former complex disappeared (the Brewery House including the Bridge were partially demolished and destroyed by negligence and the passage of time). New buildings appeared, designed in the same Bauhaus style Hudec used 70 years before. A very interesting article describes the hard struggle carried for the preservation of the Old Brewery and its urban reconstruction. This article is listed below: “A glass patch Though listed as a Shanghai Historical Building in 1999, the brewery was nearly demolished in 2002 when the municipal government planned a big botanical greenland named Mengqing Garden, or Garden of a Clean Dream. “It was a historical moment when small fish began to reappear in the formerly dirty and stinky Suzhou Creek, which had been cleaned up through a big-scale municipal project. The government decided to build a botanical green area and demolish the ‘ugly’ brewery and erect a new building to exhibit the achievement of the clean-up project,” recalls Wang Lin, director of the Historic Conservation Department of Shanghai Urban Planning Bureau and Land Resource Administration Bureau. It was also a historical moment when people paid more attention to architectural heritage. New conservation regulations were soon made to include historical areas and not just single buildings. This led to the preservation of “background buildings” in these areas. UNKNOWN SUNS: LÁSZLÓ HUDEC, ANTONÍN RAYMOND AND THE MAKING OF MODERN ARCHITECTURE IN EASTERN ASIA 250 Wang and her colleagues intervened in the middle of demolition and invited Tongji University Professor Huang Yiru to design a plan to protect the surviving buildings of the 70-year-old buildings from being razed. “The buildings which had been used by state-owned Shanghai Brewery for decades were in a poor condition,” recalls Huang, now deputy dean of the College of Architectural and Urban Planning at Tongji University. “The 9-story brew house had only five stories left and its structure had been severely damaged. The original steel gates and windows had been sold by Shanghai Brewery workers as waste steel and Hudec’s original blueprints were casually scattered around on the floor,” Huang says. His team brought back some blueprints, but when the professor sent more hands to retrieve the rest the second day, all had been sold as waste paper overnight. He did manage to find a 1942 booklet of the Union Brewery, in which the old photos were a major reference point for his renovation plan. “We worked day and night on the design as we were concerned the brewery would be destroyed at any minute,” Huang says. “The gigantic body of the brew house did shelter the view of the greenery from a nearby bridge. And the department in charge of Suzhou Creek had commissioned a Japanese architect to design a plan that included a greenhouse shaped like a huge fish and exhibition halls in traditional Chinese style to match the park area. It was very hard for them to understand the meaning of keeping this ugly factory in the planned garden,” he says. Professor Huang’s plan included using the brewery’s bottling section for an exhibition hall to display how Suzhou Creek was cleaned up, a bar in the brew house and the office block retaining its original function. After five rounds of expert evaluation meetings and five reports were submitted to city officials, Huang’s plan was approved. Wang says the bottling section was especially conducive for hosting exhibitions since Hudec used a “beamless technique” that results in big, open spaces. According to Mengqing Garden General Manager Yu Xiaolin, more than 800,000 people now visit every year, mostly young children and students. The bar has given way to a restaurant specializing in wedding banquets while the office block is leased by the Changxing Island management committee. UNKNOWN SUNS: LÁSZLÓ HUDEC, ANTONÍN RAYMOND AND THE MAKING OF MODERN ARCHITECTURE IN EASTERN ASIA 251 “It’s important to record and conserve the city’s architectural heritage but it’s also crucial to add new functions to these historical buildings. I’m satisfied with the final result of the brewery,” Wang says. “The conservation and renovation of a historical building involves firm conservation policy from the government, technological support from experts and architects, as well as understanding and respect from the owners or tenants. It was a complicated project, but the final result proves it was worth the effort.” Today the former brew house looks a bit odd as one wall is made entirely of tinted glass, making it appear as a curtain. Huang says his original design called for transparent glass where part of the building had already been destroyed. “I designed the glass curtain as a ‘patch’ to showcase the building’s ‘wound,’ but it has, unfortunately, been changed to tinted glass by the tenant,” Huang says, chuckling. “Without memories, a city has no depth. Historical buildings made of steel and concrete are solid. But they are also fragile and can be torn down for redevelopment projects and become nothing more than dust,” Huang says. “The conservation and restoration of the brewery mirrors the transition of our city’s attitude and awareness toward its own architectural heritage.” (Preservation of old brewery marks historic change in attitudes, article By Michelle Qiao, December 12, 2014) 174 Fig. 226. FORMER UNION BREVERY TODAY, PRESERVATION and URBAN RECONSTRUCTION- Image source: Luca Poncellini – Júlia Csejdy: LÁSZLÓ HUDEC. Masters of Architecture, p. 117 174 Preservation of old brewery marks historic change in attitudes, article By Michelle Qiao, December 12, 2014, internet source: http://www.shanghaidaily.com/feature/art-and-culture/Preservation-of-old-brewery- marks-historic-change-in-attitudes/shdaily.shtml UNKNOWN SUNS: LÁSZLÓ HUDEC, ANTONÍN RAYMOND AND THE MAKING OF MODERN ARCHITECTURE IN EASTERN ASIA 252 Fig. 227. FORMER UNION BREVERY TODAY, PRESERVATION and URBAN RECONSTRUCTION- Image source: internet http://www.shanghaidaily.com/feature/art-and-culture/Preservation-of-old- brewery-marks-historic-change-in-attitudes/shdaily.shtml Another fascinating example of industrial architecture designed by British architects, dated from 1933 (same year as the completion of the Brewery), is the former Slaughterhouse located in the historic Hongkou District, Shanghai. It served various functions over the years from medicine factory, cold storage facility to its current purpose as a “commercial hub for creative industries”. The Modern style architecture of the building is impressing; it is like a massive, solid concrete labyrinth with geometric and organic shapes connected by ramps, air bridges and spiral stairs. Although this building has no direct link with Laszlo Hudec or Antonin Raymond, it is one of the most interesting examples from Eastern Asia regarding the use of exposed concrete for the entire design, both structurally and decorative (Art Deco details). UNKNOWN SUNS: LÁSZLÓ HUDEC, ANTONÍN RAYMOND AND THE MAKING OF MODERN ARCHITECTURE IN EASTERN ASIA 253 Fig. 228. THE SHANGHAI’S ART DECO/ART MODERN SLAUGHTERHOUSE and its MAXIMUM USE OF EXPOSED REINFORCED CONCRETE- Image source: internet http://www.shanghaiartdeco.net/shanghaisart-deco-abbatoir/ and http://www.lacasapark.com/la/2011/11/the-last-slaughterhouse-on-earth-1933- shanghai/ HUBERTUS COURT, SHANGHAI, 1933-1937 UNKNOWN SUNS: LÁSZLÓ HUDEC, ANTONÍN RAYMOND AND THE MAKING OF MODERN ARCHITECTURE IN EASTERN ASIA 254 In 1933 Hudec started the design of a ten-storey residential building, a development financed by Hubertus Properties Fed.Inc., run by Hudec himself. He and Gisela’s father invested their own capital in the property. The location was on Great Western Road (now 918 Yan’an Road), outside the Concession zones. Fig. 229. HUBERTUS COURT “THEN”, NORTH-EAST STREET ELEVATION and ENTRANCE (first and second row left), INTERIOR DESIGN of an apartment and “NOW”, SOUTH ELEVATION and MAIN ENTRANCE from the courtyard of the DA HUA HOTEL (middle first row and second row right) and DETAIL OF THE NORTH-WEST STREET ELEVATION- Images sources: the “then” Luca Poncellini- Júlia Csejdy: LÁSZLÓ HUDEC. Masters of Architecture, p. 119 and the “now” from internet The reinforced concrete structure had a simple compact layout with straight and round articulated corners. The façade had light tons of white cement artificial stone. The Art Deco elements decorated the canopy entrances and the string cornices below the balconies separating each level. A characteristic feature of these curved console balconies was their spiral form supporting on the vertical exterior walls. Each window was framed in order to give protection in the rainy city or against the sun when needed. Orientation influenced the arrangement of the internal divisions: on each floor the two apartments and balconies were facing south and the lodgings for the staff north. UNKNOWN SUNS: LÁSZLÓ HUDEC, ANTONÍN RAYMOND AND THE MAKING OF MODERN ARCHITECTURE IN EASTERN ASIA 255 The simple design, influenced by Modern German architecture, Bauhaus mixed with Art Deco details, was immediately published in January 1936 by the Spanish periodical Viviendas saying that “is the most modern building in that part of the East. It is especially interesting since it shows how western ideas and architectural models can be introduced into a foreign environment. The design concept has no Oriental features; it could have been built in any European or American city.” In 1940 the famous Japanese Kokusai Kenchiku periodical presented Hudec’s project among the ones belonging to the leading architects of that period. The Hudec family moved in the ground floor apartment of the Hubertus Court, with direct access to the garden, since the House on Columbia Road became too big for them (their two sons were sent to a military college in Canada, as I said in chapter 5.2) and the drainage problems made the villa humid and unhealthy. The interior of their new apartment was similar to that of their former houses (hardwood floors, patterned sofas, exquisite cabinets, antique hanging lamps and artworks). This was a further proof of Hudec’s and his wife’s personal taste and their way of living. Somehow, this was not a quite honest approach as the exterior design clearly reflected the Modern style. Meanwhile for the interiors, he became like stuck in the past (a possible explanation could be that he was influenced by the stylistic preferences and demand of his clients, although no proof was found). They lived here until 1947 when, for their own protection, had to leave Shanghai. After 1949 the building was extended with a guest house and became Da Hua Hotel. Its exterior still preserves its original shape but unfortunately the interior was completely changed. SURVIVAL DURING THE GREAT DEPRESSION, 1935-1940 The Great Depression reached Shanghai in 1935. Constructions of any kind were no longer built. Bankruptcy was almost inevitable since the major investments were made in properties. During the second half of the 1930’s, Hudec was complaining about the situation and big changes that were about to come: “the sight of the empty waiting room of his office, where people used to queue up to talk to him, was distressing. 175 ” Even maintaining his office became a real problem. Since funds were lacking and investments became a real challenge, most of the designs he made in this period remained only on paper as unrealized plans, like the Y.T. Shen house 1936 (typical Modern, International Style), Tsingtao University competition 175 Ibid 1, p.120 UNKNOWN SUNS: LÁSZLÓ HUDEC, ANTONÍN RAYMOND AND THE MAKING OF MODERN ARCHITECTURE IN EASTERN ASIA 256 design from 1936 and the maternity wing of the Margaret Williamson Hospital 1936(more a Bauhaus approach). Fig. 230. UNREALIZED PLANS FOR Y. T. SHEN’S HOUSE and the ELEVATION for the MATERNITY WING OF MARGARET WILLIAMSON HOSPITAL- Image source: Luca Poncellini- Júlia Csejdy: LÁSZLÓ HUDEC. Masters of Architecture, p. 131 Actual realizations were quite a few, his famous House for D.V. Woo 1935-1938, the Columbia Country Club 1936 (Mediterranean atmosphere with Neo-Gothic and Art Nouveau details, modern interior composition; somehow this design is a back step in time, a revival of the old style since it resembles the Sun Ke house perfectly), the Sacre Coeur Vocational School for Women (for Aurora University)- design made in collaboration with B. I. Matrai between 1937-1939 (unfortunately demolished) and the German School Laboratory 1940-1941 (an interesting solution of modernist façade combined with the rusticity of a low slope roof). Fig. 231. COLUMBIA COUNTRY CLUB PLAN and VIEW, GERMAN SCHOOL LABORATORY- Image source: Jánossy Péter Samuel– Deke Erh: Life and Work of HUDEC LÁSZLÓ- The Real Homo Ludens, p.1115, 116, 122 UNKNOWN SUNS: LÁSZLÓ HUDEC, ANTONÍN RAYMOND AND THE MAKING OF MODERN ARCHITECTURE IN EASTERN ASIA 257 AURORA COLLEGE FOR WOMEN, SHANGHAI, 1937-1939 The story of the schools birth can be traced back to the 19th century, when the Sacre Coeur Association was organised in Paris to promote an educational system of Christian values all over the world. Lo Pa Hong, who dedicated his life to support missionaries and to help refugees, gave Aurora University all his support in raising funds to build an institution of higher education, specialized in giving western type education and programmes suited for women. “On 15 January, 1936 works to build the Sacre Coeur School of Female Vocation began” 176 after 250,000 dollars were collected by humanitarian acts. Even Hudec offered his services as architect for free. The design was modern, Bauhaus and International style simplicity of a “U” shape functional organization around a courtyard. The gymnasium and auditorium were quite different from the rest, creating a characteristic style for the right wing. And so, the monumentality of this part was softened by round corners and a recess in the middle of the façade, with Art Deco details creating the shape of a stylized cross. Unfortunately the building was demolished. Fig. 232. AURORA COLLEGE FOR WOMEN, THE GYMNASIUM – study made by the author Fig. 233. AURORA COLLEGE FOR WOMEN, ENTRANCE FAÇADE, ELEVATION AND PLANS- Image source: Luca Poncellini- Júlia Csejdy: LÁSZLÓ HUDEC. Masters of Architecture, p. 129 176 Ibid 1, p.127 UNKNOWN SUNS: LÁSZLÓ HUDEC, ANTONÍN RAYMOND AND THE MAKING OF MODERN ARCHITECTURE IN EASTERN ASIA 264 tér és forma, including an illustrated analysis of the design and architect, which pleased Hudec so much that he sent a thank you letter to the editor, for his wonderful description: “The building is apparently a peculiar mix of the Far Eastern and European or American way of life. It contains all that is required by the Chinese lifestyle, from the ancestral hall to several family suites and it has – of course set apart from these – a bar for cocktail parties. Some might criticise the designer for not building in the ‘ancient Chinese style’ once he is in China, and for applying forms specific to Europe’s idiosyncratic conditions. *…+ Those who think in this way are unable to see how much today’s Oriental people long for the western lifestyle, while also clinging to their own ancient mode of living. They cannot let go either of the old or the new, which both have their own value; *…+ in the work of our compatriot, who we believe has superbly got right what today’s Chinese need and thus satisfied the wish of his client the most perfectly- and this is the ultimate calling of an architect, or from a higher perspective his mission- to find a spatial and artistic form for a client’s needs that best expresses his personality”. 177 The building had different functions over the years, some of them destroying the original interiors completely. Now, after the restoration, an elegant modern restaurant and bar occupy the once famous residence and it is listed among most important objectives on the map. The famous architect I.M. Pei, nephew of D.V. Woo was again very impressed by Hudec’s design, as he often remembers his time spent as a child in the house. Since then, while playing in the gardens of the family’s “Green House”, I. M. Pei was beginning to develop an enthusiasm and flair for design and his later works prove his deep addiction and desire to create outstanding architectural works. FIG. 240. I.M.PEI PORTRET PHOTOGRAPHY- Image source: https://medium.com/postcards-from-china/hudecs-green-house-277c50fa525b 177 Sz, Lakóház Shanghai-ban [A Residential house in Shanghai] tér és forma1939/4 UNKNOWN SUNS: LÁSZLÓ HUDEC, ANTONÍN RAYMOND AND THE MAKING OF MODERN ARCHITECTURE IN EASTERN ASIA 265 The “Modern Trio” of the Park Hotel, the Grand Theatre and the D. V. Woo Residence, were the three buildings that ensured the architects recognition in Shanghai, as the “pioneer to the new styles”. Hudec remains known for these designs even nowadays when the city rediscovered their valuable architect and started a vast restoration program which included most of his heritage. Compared with Tokyo, Shanghai’s architectural heritage preserves almost all the designs made in the 20th century. One of the main reasons is that the city almost didn’t suffer any hard damages caused by the wars, especially during the Second World War. Although it was occupied by Japanese, they had big plans and wanted the city to be intact in order to make Shanghai the capital of their Empire, after winning the War. Fig. 241. MAP SHOWING AN AERIAL IMAGE OF 2015 SHANGHAI - LOCATION OF MAIN PROJECTS DONE BY HUDEC IN THE 1930’S DURING HIS ART DECO AND MODERN PERIOD (STILL EXISTING TODAY)- Study made by the author UNKNOWN SUNS: LÁSZLÓ HUDEC, ANTONÍN RAYMOND AND THE MAKING OF MODERN ARCHITECTURE IN EASTERN ASIA 266 6.3 ANTONÍN RAYMOND AND LÁSZLÓ HUDEC, SHORT CONCLUSIONS AND COMPARISON BETWEEN THEM AND THEIR WORK BETWEEN THE WARS ANTONÍN RAYMOND AND LÁSZLÓ HUDEC “in the right place at the right time” Both lived and practiced in Eastern Asia, for a long period of time, sufficient to allow them to become involved with the local people and culture. They were lucky to start their architectural practice in Japan and China, in the proper period, when these countries opened up to modernization; they were “in the right place at the right time”. In Raymond’s case, just when Japan’s pursuit of modernization slowly shifted from being mainly based on the westernization model to gradually returning towards the roots of Japanese tradition and culture. Another important reason for Raymond’s blossoming career was the fact that he benefited from the consequences of the Great Kanto earthquake and the following period of reconstruction. Laszlo Hudec was much more into the use of modern materials, functions and technologies. This was mainly the reason why the two architects met. When Raymond was finishing his design for the American Otis Elevator Company in Tokyo, Hudec was installing Otis elevators for the first time in Shanghai in his 22 storey Park Hotel. As Alessa Hudec De Wet recalls, Hudec met Raymond through the Asian representative of Otis. After the family’s first trip in 1932 in Tokyo, a lasting friendship developed between the two and their families. “From 1935 to 1941 the Hudecs spent their summer holidays in Japan in Raymond’s house on a hill near Karuizawa.” 178 This can be partially true, taking into the account that the Raymonds had to leave Japan in 1938. On the other side, Antonin Raymond gained a deep insight into traditional building techniques, use of materials and on a wider scale into Japanese Culture. This allowed him to deal with the problematic issue of finding the perfect balance between the traditional Japanese and western modern architecture, the necessary synthesis to the creation of a modern architecture suited to Japan. 178 Ibid 1, p. 133 UNKNOWN SUNS: LÁSZLÓ HUDEC, ANTONÍN RAYMOND AND THE MAKING OF MODERN ARCHITECTURE IN EASTERN ASIA 267 Fig. 242. TIMELINE 02– HUDEC AND RAYMOND COMPARATIVE DESIGNS- study made by the author UNKNOWN SUNS: LÁSZLÓ HUDEC, ANTONÍN RAYMOND AND THE MAKING OF MODERN ARCHITECTURE IN EASTERN ASIA 268 Fig. 243. TIMELINE 03– HUDEC AND RAYMOND COMPARATIVE DESIGNS- study made by the author UNKNOWN SUNS: LÁSZLÓ HUDEC, ANTONÍN RAYMOND AND THE MAKING OF MODERN ARCHITECTURE IN EASTERN ASIA 269 ARCHITECTS AND THEIR OWN HOUSES: The best way for an architect to achieve full architectural development is by letting him design his own house, often started as experiments that later inevitably became representative projects. In Raymond’s case this happened more than once but first with his Reinanzaka concrete house which ended up to be a real modern project, one of his masterpieces. Designing his own house or his Karuizava studio, an architect has all the necessary freedom to create art which incorporates all his knowledge, believes and principles. Without compromises and restrictions, this is the way how real art and architecture are born. A clever remark was made by Raymond when he saw architects Albert Kahn own house, on one of his business trips to America which he made in order to obtain a commission from Henry Ford to build a large assembly in Japan. “His work at that time was creative and modern in every way; I was, therefore, amazed to find that both his office and his home were designed in an entirely eclectic way. It was difficult for me to understand how those two things could be reconciled in one personality, as both aspects could not be the expression of a truly sincere conviction.” 179 A similar situation is L. Hudec’s case; both of his houses were designed following the local trend of eclecticism and classic revival. He was somehow more aiming towards the comfort of the family in the detriment of the modern form and the development of new trends in the history of architecture. Hudec might had been influenced by his wife’s wishes and classic stylistic preferences (as we can see in the numerous drawings and details of the furniture designed for Gisela’s bedroom) and another reason could be his financial business skill, since he was very good in making investments and gain profit after selling the property. The styles chosen for their family houses were not defining the architect’s vision of a perfect, modern work of art, but may rather reflect the overall preference of future possible clients, proving that Hudec was more interested in making business than creating outstanding designs. An exception was Hudec’s Sun Ke’s house. It seems that the architect designed it in a freer, creative mood, perhaps because the house was originally meant for him, and some traces of shifting towards new modern trends were just around the corner. Since he did not have to please any client, he felt the freedom to indulge himself by experimenting with his own ideas. Since he got a 179 Ibid 36, p.139 UNKNOWN SUNS: LÁSZLÓ HUDEC, ANTONÍN RAYMOND AND THE MAKING OF MODERN ARCHITECTURE IN EASTERN ASIA 270 very good offer from Sun Ke, he sold the house before it was completely finish, just another proof of his ambition in making enough money to further develop. HUDEC AND RAYMOND’S DIFFERENT VISIONS OF HOW AN ARCHITECT SHOULD BE: Independence and freedom are two important aspects, vital to an architect or artist, in order to protect their creative work from anything that might compromise it. “A real architect must be an independent artist. He must have freedom and strength to stick to his principles.” 180 But, besides that, an architect has to be able to do beautiful and economical architecture even in the worst situation possible: “It is the architect’s job to create beauty in every house, no matter what the economic level is.” 181 A good architect has to be an engineer? Both Hudec and Raymond have the same Polytechnic academic formation. Both Universities, from Budapest and Prague, were putting a great emphasis on the proper education, an engineering preparation of their students. But, due to their different cultural context of living and designing, the two architects ended up having different orientations. Hudec is more “the engineer” type and Raymond more “the artist” as can be seen in their way of thinking and designing. Although this slight difference existed, both of them had considered vital the collaboration between the architect and the engineer. As Raymond stated, they must: “*…+ work hand in hand *…+ from the beginning (of the project), in order to find not an extraordinary solution, but the simplest, the most direct and most economical solution of the problem.” 182 Soon, he finally realized that in order to eliminate any kind of constrains due to any future possible confrontation with engineers, an architect had to become one with himself in order to achieve his aims, and more, in the technological present era, an architect has to know the properties and technological processes of different materials : 180 Ibid 35, p.46 extract from Antonin Raymond’s lecture in New York, 1953 181 Ibid 35, p.46 extract from Antonin Raymond’s lecture “Housing- A Post War Responsibility and Opportunity” (Lecture on Building at the New York Institute of Finance), 1945 182 Ibid 35, p.48 extract from Antonin Raymond’s “Antonin Raymond-His Work in Japan: 1920-1935, Tokyo: Johan Shoin, 1936, distributed by Architectural Record in the United States; A. and N. Raymond “Antonin Raymond- Architectural Details”, Kokusai Kenchiku Kyokai, 1938, published by Antonin Raymond, distributed by Architectural Forum in the United States. UNKNOWN SUNS: LÁSZLÓ HUDEC, ANTONÍN RAYMOND AND THE MAKING OF MODERN ARCHITECTURE IN EASTERN ASIA 271 “The aim of the architect is to plant once more his feet on the ground, to work naturally and from inside, to avoid outside artistic and abstract influences, to become once more an “Architect” which means “Master-Builder.” 183 “Designers, whether they are architects or designers for the industry, have, as a rule, little idea how their designs are to be executed.” 184 This was enhanced by the context of Japan, where previously, the profession of an architect did not exist and the carpenter had the role of an architect and engineer at the same time. This subject was previously developed in the chapter 3.1 of the Thesis. Hudec, on the other side, regarded himself as an engineer rather than an architect. The technical aspects, structure and construction techniques were part in the process of defining the architectural form, being equal in importance, always seeking for unity and interaction between them: “You will only be a good architect if you understand materials and construction.*…+ Here buildings have either steel or reinforced concrete frame structure, walls are not considered structural elements but seen just as partitions.” 185 HOW FAMILY LIFE CAN AFFECT OR SUPPORT THE ARTISTIC DEVELOPMENT OF AN ARCHITECT: The relations with their families from back home were quite opposite. Raymond speaks sporadically about his family members; practically they all died quite young (due to sickness or war). On the other hand, Hudec was building his whole existence in Shanghai, based on the thought of returning home and of giving constant help to his family from back home. Hudec kept the close relation with his family through letters, informing them about every detail of his life in the big city of Shanghai. Although he was living a very good life in Shanghai, with exquisite food and conditions (including butlers), the climate (38-40 degrees) affected his fragile constitution and was feeling a constant homesickness. “The good life is just a burden if your family, whom you cannot stop thinking about, are not there. If I come home in January or February of 1921, it will have been about five years since I was home and even if I have to give up my whole future I’m coming home.” 186 183 Ibid 181 184 Ibid 35, p.48 extract from A. Raymond, “Basic Principles in Architecture”, 1953 185 Ibid 1, p.45-46 186 Ibid 1, p.28 UNKNOWN SUNS: LÁSZLÓ HUDEC, ANTONÍN RAYMOND AND THE MAKING OF MODERN ARCHITECTURE IN EASTERN ASIA 272 His wife Noemi Pernessin has been always on Antonin’s side, giving him the support he needed, the peace to design and also sharing with each other principles and knowledge. Being herself an exquisite artist and designer, she collaborated with her husband on a great number of projects, mainly designing furniture. In an essay written by Noemi in 1953 “On the Design of Interiors” she points out the huge importance of interior spaces and the way that affect our thoughts and lives. The difficult task of a designer is to create harmony; a room has to give the owner or visitor a sense of well-being. Everything in the room has to be chosen in order to fulfil primary the needs, avoiding all that has no practical, spiritual or aesthetical use. The correct placement of the furniture is due to proper lighting and function: “the right thing in the right place at the right time” 187 . “No matter how crowded a household, how few the rooms, how poor we are, there is always something that can be done, even if it is just the rearrangement of things. *…+ The Japanese know this, “Elimination is the key to elegance.” 188 The best way to realize Noemi’s support in the office work is through her letters addressed to Raymond. When they were apart she always informed him about everything, they had a deep relationship, not only personal but professional. She was constantly involved in the life of the office, and was not shy to criticise her husband’s work when needed, in order to improve and guide him. She stand by her husband and was willing to give up everything for the sake of the beauty and harmony, money was never the matter, their aim was to create architecture in their own way, on their own principles mixed with tradition, not copies and adaptations. “I want life to run through me, free, and serve it alone obeying its dictates only. And I want you to stand up and dictate to them what they shall have. You can do it. You can mould them. Think of the truth and speak it and do your will. They will accept it. But you have to be strong and not waver.” 189 (Excerpt from Noemi’s letter to Antonin- Tokyo, 7 sept. 1925) From Antonin letters addressed to Noemi while he was away on trips, their deep relation becomes clearer; we can see his constant need of her approval and support, his profound admiration of her work: “I long for you and wish I was with you. I feel loose and disconnected, so far from you. *…+ I refused every invitation for tonight in order to refresh and 187 Ibid 33, p.306 188 Ibid 33, p.307 189 Ibid 33, p 32 UNKNOWN SUNS: LÁSZLÓ HUDEC, ANTONÍN RAYMOND AND THE MAKING OF MODERN ARCHITECTURE IN EASTERN ASIA 273 rebalance myself by writing to you. I need it badly, to see clearly, to act calmly. I have lost myself, under those experiences and I am thinking of you intensely trying to see, how you would act and think and see, if you were with me.” “How difficult furniture is. When I look over all that you have done, I marvel at your ability and determination. How I wish I had part at least of your discipline.” 190 “Noémi’s influence on Raymond during the inter-war years was substantial. She encouraged him to break away from Wright’s rigid style and explore the design of the Reinanzaka House. She increased her interest in Japanese art and philosophy, including ukiyo-e woodblock prints and introduced Raymond to various influential people, including the mystic philosopher Rudolf Steiner. She expanded her design repertoire to include textiles, rugs, furniture, glass and silverware. Noémi exhibited in Tokyo in 1936 and New York in 1940, and her textiles were chosen by American designers like Louis Kahn to cover furniture in their designs.” 191 Noemi was constantly present in the life of Raymond (work and ordinary life), always appears in photos of the Office staff and family. In a total opposition, Gisela, L. Hudec’s wife was more distant, no word of her direct involvement in Hudec’s office task appears, she was a staying home mother, carrying for her children. Besides that, the marital problems between the two husbands (in the already discussed issue involving Hudec’s brother Géza) affected not only their personal life, but Hudec’s health and work concentration. 190 Ibid 33, p 323, 325 191 Extract from Antonin Raymond- Influence of his wife, Noémisource: internet http://www.booksllc.net/sw2.cfm?q=Antonin_Raymond UNKNOWN SUNS: LÁSZLÓ HUDEC, ANTONÍN RAYMOND AND THE MAKING OF MODERN ARCHITECTURE IN EASTERN ASIA 280 when they learned of the horrors their families passed through in the Nazi Death Camps of Hitler. Six million Jews had perished. The refugees that have found escape in Shanghai will never forget the city and will be eternally grateful. 7.2 RAYMOND’S LIFE AND PRACTICE DURING THE WAR World War II, Preparation As a member of the Tokyo Club since the early twenties, Raymond was allowed to attend the conversations between the most prominent members of the club. These conversations were about politics, mostly in Japanese, about the fate of the Empire, and its position towards the United States and Hitler: “I thought those discussions to be theoretical only, but all of a sudden I realized that the armed forces of the Empire had been working at preparations for war for a long time.” 200 He tells about an incident from 26 February 1936, while returning home with his wife and son. They encountered a long row of Army tanks, with guns pointed towards the Headquarters of the revolting officers. Although the circumstances were tragic, the soldiers treated them in the kindliest manner, inviting their 10 years old son to enter one of the tanks to satisfy his curiosity. Japan sank into a period of military operations, not at all in the favour of any further architectural development. There were many signs which convinced the Raymonds that it was time to move, leaving all their possessions in Japan (the properties, the office etc.). PONDICHERRY 1937 – “Golconde dormitories” In this situation of incertitude, Raymond decided to accept a very interesting job invitation from his French friend in India, the engineer-mathematician Philip St. Hilaire. He became a disciple of the famous Indian philosopher Sri Aurobindo Ghose at his Ashram in Pondicherry- India. Sri Aurobindo wanted to build in his own Ashram, a truly modern dormitory for his disciples, a place of rest and peace. Because of his believes and stylistic preferences, Raymond was chosen to do this job. First, he sent George Nakashima to survey the situation and report back, such that the office could develop the design. After a few months, the Raymonds 200 Ibid 36, p.158 UNKNOWN SUNS: LÁSZLÓ HUDEC, ANTONÍN RAYMOND AND THE MAKING OF MODERN ARCHITECTURE IN EASTERN ASIA 281 together with the Czech Architect Franҫois Sammer (former pupil of Le Corbusier, working for the Raymond Office since 1936) left Tokyo for India. After passing through Shanghai (great misery and anxiety since it was already occupied by Japanese troops) on their way reaching Saigon (peaceful and friendly with “excellent, modern reinforced concrete work which the French did there and which seemed better to me than the work done in their own country” 201 ), Angkor Wat, Bangkok and Singapore they finally reached southern tip of India (at that time a dominion of the British Empire). Fig. 245. GOLCONDE DORMITORY, PERSPECTIVE FROM NORTH ANTONIN RAYMOND’S DRAWING - Image source: Crafting a modern world, the architecture and design of Antonin and Noemi Raymond, p.171 “We found Pondicherry to be an extremely interesting and in many ways a charming city. The architecture is colonial French from the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries; well-laid-out streets, squares and fine public buildings. There was a library, the shelves of which were stacked with original volumes published in the 1600's and 1700's, and much of the original furniture and equipment was intact. Apparently French architects of the colonial period trained Hindu workmen extremely well. The buildings are of brick of good quality, stuccoed. The stucco is coloured in bright yellow, pink, blue, red and green, mellowed by salt and sun but still brilliant and beautiful against the tropical skies.” 202 201 Ibid 36, p.161 202 Ibid 36, p. 162 UNKNOWN SUNS: LÁSZLÓ HUDEC, ANTONÍN RAYMOND AND THE MAKING OF MODERN ARCHITECTURE IN EASTERN ASIA 282 Contrasting the dirty Indian cities, the Ashram of Sri Aurobindo (covering a large area of the town) was immaculate, with buildings kept in perfect condition on narrow streets of rose-orange sand. The Raymonds integrated perfectly in the life of the disciples, which were the ones beside Nakashima and Sammer that would help developing the project, although they had no experience in that field. Because the building was designed of reinforced concrete, totally unknown in India, Raymond decided to build a working model first, where he could test the local compound for the concrete mixtures. “Here I was to do a technologically complicated modern building with former priests and monks from Tibet, India and Indo-China, with former professionals from all over the world, including some French and British.” 203 “Sri Aurobindo Ghose originally was a revolutionary working for the independence of India and therefore a thorn in the side of the British. He took refuge in the then French colony of Pondicherry, and laid aside politics for spiritual pursuits. He became the foremost spiritual leader of India”. 204 “Sri Aurobindo Ghose lived an entirely secluded existence. He had not in many years left his apartment. He seldom saw anyone but the "Mother." All my dealings were with the Mother. My interview with Sri Aurobindo was of a few minutes' duration. I stood before him as he sat facing me. Neither of us said a word. Nevertheless, I was profoundly impressed by the peace and beauty of his countenance and an extraordinary light which emanated from him. It is difficult in a few words to convey the idea of the significance of the Mother. To the disciples of the Ashram, she was both their spiritual guide and the manager of things secular. She was always intently watching over the welfare of each individual, seeing to particular needs of each one, for each disciple lived according to his own particular rule. The Mother is a truly remarkable person, organizing everything concerning this large organization, giving out instructions to every individual of the community as to his duties, and ever as to his daily work and diet. Among many other things, she took care of the accounts for the design and construction operations. Her attention even to the smallest details of the administration of this complicated community filled me with wonder and seemed often quite miraculous. 203 Ibid 36, p. 162 204 Ibid 36, p. 163 UNKNOWN SUNS: LÁSZLÓ HUDEC, ANTONÍN RAYMOND AND THE MAKING OF MODERN ARCHITECTURE IN EASTERN ASIA 283 A daily ritual was the hour of meditation, attended by most of the disciples of the Ashram. I was not required to attend, but I often did because the setting was an open hall between two beautiful gardens and I found this time spent in trying to detach one's mind from all earthly concerns a great relaxation.” 205 Raymond and Nakashima always remember the high quality time spent in Pondicherry, filled with peace and beauty in the idyllic ashram. The work for the dormitory developed very well. Everything was done by hand to a great perfection. Despite the heavy work, the architects could not resist the temptation to do a lot of sketches of the environment. “Southern India is so suffused with colour that to my mind it offered ideal conditions for painting and was an endless source of inspiration.” 206 The construction of the dormitory began in 1938 under Raymond’s direct supervision. Because of the Raymonds necessary return to the United States, the building remained in the hands of his talented and enthusiastic associates G. Nakashima and F. Sammer, overseeing the execution of important details. Fig. 246. GOLCONDE DORMITORY, NORTH-EAST view, under construction 1940 and NORTH-WEST view, after completion- Image source: internet and Antonin Raymond: Autobiography, p.165 The plan of the building is simple. As the plot was quite narrow, the building (three floors and a semi-basement) had to fit in. It has a central core [A] and two staggered wings [B]&[C], following a precise angle in order to fully benefit the limited space. 207 Each wing was composed by a series of north facing gallery, which runs the length of the building. The entire structure was covered by precast, thin-shelled concrete roof vaults to create a buffer from the tropical solar exposure, provide ventilation and to facilitate drainage during the intense monsoon rains. 205 Ibid 36, p. 163 206 Ibid 36, p. 166 207 It looks like a flying bird from the air. UNKNOWN SUNS: LÁSZLÓ HUDEC, ANTONÍN RAYMOND AND THE MAKING OF MODERN ARCHITECTURE IN EASTERN ASIA 284 Fig. 247. GOLCONDE DORMITORY, PLAN OF THE ENTIRE PLOT AND BUILDING, MAIN FUNCTIONS, SURROUNDING AND SELF SUSTAINABILITY – Image source: Antonin Raymond: Autobiography, p.165, study made by the author Fig. 248. GOLCONDE DORMITORY, NORTH FACADE ROOF DETAIL, PAST and PRESENT VIEW - Image source: Crafting a modern world, the architecture and design of Antonin and Noemi Raymond, p.172 and internet Each room (eight on the west side and nine on the east) of the Golconde Dormitory offered a place to sleep and to study, more than sufficient for the indoor, private activity of the disciples. The simplicity of the interiors was completed with functional furniture. The common areas including the dining and laundry were situated in the partially excavated ground floor. Stairs, bathrooms and toilets were positioned in the central service tower. This interior organization resembles the one UNKNOWN SUNS: LÁSZLÓ HUDEC, ANTONÍN RAYMOND AND THE MAKING OF MODERN ARCHITECTURE IN EASTERN ASIA 285 from Le Corbusier’s Pavilion Suisse (which may be a possible source of inspiration, due to the fact that all three architects- Raymond, Nakashima’s and Sammer knew and admired Le Corbusier work, and this particular one had a great impact on Nakashima way of thinking since it was being constructed under his nose, while studying in Paris. Noémi and Antonín have seen the pavilion in 1932, Noémi even had made a sketch of it in a letter addressed to her half-sister Jeannette). Fig. 249. TYPICAL INTERIOR OF DISCIPLE’S ROOM with FURNITURE and THE BRISE-SOLEIL FROM THE INTERIOR OF THE ROOMS FACING SOUTH– Image sources: Antonin Raymond: Autobiography, p.165 and Jose Maria Cabeza Lainez and Juan Ramon Jimenez Verdejo: The Japanese Experience of Environmental Architecture through the Works of Bruno Taut and Antonin Raymond The building was elevated from the ground in order to provide air ventilation and free access to the surrounding gardens. A defining argument for the design of the Golconde was the humid environment and the unbearable heat. 208 Good ventilation was a must, so the building was oriented to face north and south, to take advantage of the local winds. The solution was to shield the openings with Brisesoleil 209 made of asbestos cement with 10 inch (25,4 cm) wide blades. These shielded the interior from the brilliant sun, offered protection against seasonal heavy rain and strong wind and, at the same time, it permitted free circulation of air (this may be why the French word brise meaning breeze is used together with soleil meaning sun). These horizontal louvers are capable of converting direct 208 Respecting the first principle of architecture that teaches us to regard local conditions as basic factor and starting point of the design. This will allow the building to take the most suitable and logical shape dictated by the environment. 209 Brise-soleil (French: “breaks the sun”) “Sun baffle of vertical or horizontal louvers outside the windows or extending over the entire surface of a building's facade, especially precast concrete grids of the type developed by Le Corbusier. Many traditional methods exist for reducing the effects of the sun's glare, such as the projecting upper-story window of latticework (mashrabiyah or mushrabiyah) used in Islamic architecture, pierced screens as used at the Taj Mahal, or blinds of split bamboo (sudare) as used in Japan” – source Encyclopaedia Britanica. UNKNOWN SUNS: LÁSZLÓ HUDEC, ANTONÍN RAYMOND AND THE MAKING OF MODERN ARCHITECTURE IN EASTERN ASIA 286 sunlight into a softer, reflected light thus reducing the glare and overheating (especially if they are painted in light colours). This passive building opens and closes according to the need of the disciples, manually not mechanically, by opening and closing the louvers from the exterior skin. The moveable brise-soleil was combined in the interior with woven teak sliding doors which permitted ventilation without compromising the privacy. Fig. 250. SOUTH –NORTH SECTION of the GOLCONDE DORMITORY and DETAIL of the WOODEN SYSTEM for ROTATING the LOUVERS OF THE FACADE – Image source: Jose Maria Cabeza Lainez and Juan Ramon Jimenez Verdejo: The Japanese Experience of Environmental Architecture through the Works of Bruno Taut and Antonin Raymond “The landscape plan situates lines of water channels and reflecting pools along the northern and southern gardens; furthermore, the northern garden has a spare ground cover, whereas the southern shade garden has been densely planted with trees. The temperature differential between the northern and southern gardens facilitates natural convection currents through the building.” 210 The rough concrete building is perfectly integrated in the surrounding landscape, facing the calm and meditative environment of the pool and garden. With all these features and artefacts the building became one of the earliest works of sustainable modern architecture in the world. 210 Pankaj Vir Gupta and Christine Mueller: Golconde: The Introduction of Modernism in India. University of Texas at Austin, Research 2005, p.151 UNKNOWN SUNS: LÁSZLÓ HUDEC, ANTONÍN RAYMOND AND THE MAKING OF MODERN ARCHITECTURE IN EASTERN ASIA 287 Fig. 251. INTERIOR CORRIDORDETAIL OF THE LOUVERS AND SLIDING TEAK DOORS, VIEW OF LOTUS POND AND SOUTH FAÇADE (PHOTOGRAPH BY ASHOK DILWALI)- Image source: internet and Golconde: The Introduction of Modernism in India Once again, the natural beauty of the materials, the raw aspect of the wood with the knots and smooth surfaces, the Japanese “Wabi-sabi“- aesthetic ideal of imperfection, remained an important aspect for the buildings finishes. Because the surfaces were left as they were, unfinished, naturally, the exposed concrete had to be done carefully, every detail was visible- “the joints of the planks, the screw heads and even the grain of the wooden planks.” The contrast between the dark polished Cuddapah (local slate) floors, wood details (railing) and crushed seashell plaster walls provided the perfect combination for the simple, light interior of the building and added a sense of warmth and intimacy. Fig. 252. STAIR AND ENTRANCE with FINISHES, RICH TEXTURAL CONTRASTS - Image source: internet UNKNOWN SUNS: LÁSZLÓ HUDEC, ANTONÍN RAYMOND AND THE MAKING OF MODERN ARCHITECTURE IN EASTERN ASIA 288 Golconde Dormitory in the Ashram of Sri Aurobindo was completed in 1942 as the first reinforced, cast-in-place concrete building in India celebrating “the modernist credo: architecture as the manifest union of aesthetics, technology, and social reform” 211 and the introduction of Modernism in India. Nowadays, the building continues to serve as a dormitory for devotees in Sri Aurobindo’s Ashram. THE RAYMONDS IN AMERICA – THE EXPERIENCE OF AN ARCHITECT IN ASIA Advised not to return in Japan, Raymond and his family left India. Their office in Tokyo remained in the care of their Japanese staff. Their first stop was in Europe, where Antonin saw his relatives for the last time, since they all perished during the chaos established by Hitler in the Second World War. In the fall of 1938, the family arrived in New York, prepared to start all over again. In the first period spent in America, they were mostly concerned in spreading the design philosophy of the Orient through exhibitions of their projects (at Rockefeller Centre, New York, 1939), organizing meetings and assemblies of architectural associations where he disseminated his knowledge and work experience in Japan, as modern architect. In one of his lectures he said: “During the eighteen years that I stayed in Japan I often longed to find myself again amongst people of my profession to whom I could try to convey some of the ideas which moved me during my stay there and which I subsequently tried to express in my life’s work.” 212 Fig. 253. RAYMOND’S EXHIBITION FROM ROCKEFELLER CENTRE, NEW YORK- 1939, views and plan – Image source: Antonin Raymond: Autobiography, p.170 211 Ibid 210 212 Ibid 35, p.40 extract from Antonin Raymond’s lecture “Experienced Stories Before 1938 in Japan” (Lecture at the Architectural League of New York), 1938 UNKNOWN SUNS: LÁSZLÓ HUDEC, ANTONÍN RAYMOND AND THE MAKING OF MODERN ARCHITECTURE IN EASTERN ASIA 289 The exhibition lasted from 28 February 1939 until 6 May 1939 and it was titled “Antonin Raymond, His Latest Work in Japan and India”. Raymond designed a unique installation of photographs and renderings displayed on curved corrugated panels. Fusuma, shoji and a full-size horizontal sliding window were imported from Japan and together with Noémi’s furniture, textiles and rugs were part of the whole ensemble. He was critical of the American society, characterizing it as mainly materialistic and with wrong consideration regarding beauty and aesthetics: “They begin with a preconception of what is beautiful rather than with fundamentals and allow beauty to arrive of its own accord.” 213 On the other hand, he praised the Japanese society and the great respect the Japanese held for the architect, considering him an artist: “The desire of the Japanese public for a modern environment made it easier for me to create with a freedom in which I was aided by lessons learned from ancient Japanese architecture. Today, the general public with the sense of newly found freedom is willing and even anxious to accept what goes under the name of modern architecture *…+” 214 “I found that Japanese clients, almost as a rule, have respect for the opinion of the artist, be he a painter, a sculptor, an architect, a musician, or a writer and that is why the clients choose and employ him. I often wonder, when I deal with Western clients, about their lack of judgment in thinking that an artist is just a tool and that a client’s own likes and dislikes will result in something of permanent value.” 215 On April 22, 1940, Antonin Raymond points in a lecture given at the Japan Institute in New York City, entitled “The Common Ground of Traditional Japanese and Modern Architecture”, the following mutual features related to domestic architecture: 1. The most direct and simple solutions to problems (logic of construction and plan) 2. An appreciation for air, light and sunshine (the mobility of the openings in the Japanese house, close contact with nature, correct orientation) 213 Ibid 35, p.54 extract from Antonin Raymond’s “Antonin Raymond-His Work in Japan: 1920-1935, Tokyo: Johan Shoin, 1936, distributed by Architectural Record in the United States; A. and N. Raymond “Antonin Raymond- Architectural Details”, Kokusai Kenchiku Kyokai, 1938, published by Antonin Raymond, distributed by Architectural Forum in the United States. 214 Ibid 36 215 Ibid 35, p.54 extract from Antonin Raymond’s “An Architect’s Memory” (Published in This is Japan, 1962) UNKNOWN SUNS: LÁSZLÓ HUDEC, ANTONÍN RAYMOND AND THE MAKING OF MODERN ARCHITECTURE IN EASTERN ASIA 296 After more than 50 years of silence, forgetfulness and sometimes carelessness, Hudec’s built legacy and memory is being rediscovered. In 2008, on the occasion of the 115 anniversary of the birth and 50th anniversary of his death, the Consulate General of Hungary in Shanghai has organized, in association with the Shanghai Urban Planning Administration Bureau, with the support of the Ministry of Culture and Education of Hungary and the College of Architecture and Urban Planning of Tongji University, the “Year of Hudec”, to commemorate his life and his architectural work in Shanghai. It was a unique opportunity to rediscover part of Shanghai’s cultural heritage. The intense restoration programme, brought back to life Hudec’s masterpieces once again, ensuring him his role as a “pioneer of modern architecture in the Far East”. 7.4 RAYMOND’S PICK OF CAREER IN TOKYO, AFTER THE II WORLD WAR After the War was over, nothing could stop Raymond’s wish and plan to return to Japan. He was the first artist to return to Occupied Japan with General MacArthur’s permission and invitation. He reopened the Tokyo office in 1949, after ensuring it was safe to do so. During the first half of the 1950s, Raymond’s commissions were acquired based on Rado’s support from New York. Due to Antonín’s wartime activity (designing for military purpose), he gained the respect and trust of the Americans. Rebuilding Japan and Korea seemed a necessity, since they were seen as frontlines against China and Soviet powers. Once in Tokyo, he was witnessing the painful recovery from the devastation of the war, just like he had experienced before, after the Great Kanto earthquake and its consequences. The task of reconstructing the city appeared gigantic and quite impossible at that time. The foremost necessity was to resolve the problematic issue of providing fuel and electric energy. He succeeded in getting help from American industries that sent experts in hydroelectricity. His first impact is described below: “It is almost impossible to describe the emotions that filled my heart to overflowing when I sighted the islands and the mainland of Japan from the plane. The beauty of the islands and the seashores and the valleys and the hillsides of Japan from the air was overwhelming and staggered the imagination.*…+ Complete devastation met our eyes. For miles around, there was nothing but ruins in great disorder. Instead of the gaily dressed holiday crowds that met us on our arrival in Japan in 1919, there were only ghostly appearances of human UNKNOWN SUNS: LÁSZLÓ HUDEC, ANTONÍN RAYMOND AND THE MAKING OF MODERN ARCHITECTURE IN EASTERN ASIA 297 beings seen in the ruins here and there, with ash-grey features, thin and miserable. It is no exaggeration that I was so deeply moved that I could not help crying. It was infinitely worse than I had imagined.” 220 His former office and part of the staff were waiting for him: “One of the most surprising things to me was that when I arrived in Japan, found that my old office was apparently reorganized and ready to do business under my name. It appeared that the members of the office, when the war was declared, put all the files and documents onto a truck and took them to my summer house in Hayama, where they lay untouched until the end of the war. The remaining members of the organization assured me that they knew that one day I would return, and that was the reason why they took so many pains to preserve everything. There were several who were with me before the war, but some were still missing. Present were Tsuchiya, Kimura, Nakagawa, Amano and Ishikawa, but we had to look for the others. We finally got the most important men together and got busy again.” 221 Life in Occupied Japan was rather unusual. Raymond’s first priority was to find out the situation of his former designs. Most of the residences were now property of the Army, housing generals and colonels. They redecorated the buildings in their own personal taste, rather cruel than artistically, far away from their original atmosphere. They even destroyed the gardens, on the account that the typical Japanese arrangements looked unsanitary to them. “They did great damage not only to the buildings which I designed, but also to many buildings of superior artistic level, many of them very old, situated all over Japan. They meant well, but they certainly were ignorant, unnecessarily destroying things of immense cultural value, such as absolutely irreplaceable ceremonial tea houses or tea rooms…” 222 Antonin recalls a characteristic feature of the simple traditional Japanese man, through a story about: “a Japanese gentleman who was very pleased and flattered by the fact that his purely Japanese house was taken by the Occupation forces to serve as a residence for a prominent American general. He was so pleased that he bragged about it to his friends. One day, he went to the house to pay his respects to the new tenant. To his horror, the whole house, inside and outside, was all painted 220 Ibid 36, p. 198-199 221 Ibid 36, p. 202-203 222 Ibid 36, p. 205 UNKNOWN SUNS: LÁSZLÓ HUDEC, ANTONÍN RAYMOND AND THE MAKING OF MODERN ARCHITECTURE IN EASTERN ASIA 298 white, and that drove him almost insane. He set fire to the house the next night and landed in jail.” 223 The Reader's Digest building from 1951 on the former grounds of the French embassy is Raymond’s first remarkable commission after the War, through which he could “demonstrate the absolute principles of good design to the young and coming generation of Japanese architects”. Surprisingly, like in 1924, he had the privilege of designing twice on the same site of his former temporary house for Paul Claudel. Despite the surprising modernity and its merits as a “milestone in Japanese architecture”, being the first building in Japan with air conditioning, soundproofing and integrated lighting, it was demolished in 1964 to free the space for a bigger office building. The simplicity and modernity of the layout was remarkable. He introduced a central core plan of the toilets and stairways, freeing the rest of the space, which was closed from the exterior, by curtain walls, glass and louvers to control the light coming in, and unfinished concrete surfaces to the sides (east and west façades). These innovations soon became part of the contemporary Japanese vocabulary. Among other things, some authorities questioned the seismic stability of the relatively bold, double cantilever structure, which was nevertheless been well proven. The design was meant to be “the best that the United States could offer in modern architecture”, although Raymond designed the building, following Japanese guiding principles, such as proper orientation, closeness to nature, simplicity, modesty, economy of material used in their natural state, lightness and elegance, almost transparent and, as a response to Le Corbusier’s modulor unit, he used the Japanese 3x6 shaku, as an overall module for the entire layout. At first, they asked Frank Lloyd Wright to design the building, but since they did not receive any answer from him within months, they chose the second best architect, which was Raymond (leaving Wright rather indignant). He was awarded by the Japanese Institute of Architects with a medal for the “first and best building after the war in Japan” 224 . Raymond describes in his Autobiography the main reasons why the building was torn down, along with his preoccupation and anger: “The desire of owners to replace obsolete or obsolescent buildings is understandable enough, but something should be done to preserve at least those buildings that have played formative roles in the development of contemporary architecture”. 225 Besides natural disasters and 223 Ibid 36, p. 205 224 Ibid 36, p. 219 225 Ibid 36, p. 221 UNKNOWN SUNS: LÁSZLÓ HUDEC, ANTONÍN RAYMOND AND THE MAKING OF MODERN ARCHITECTURE IN EASTERN ASIA 299 war destructions, this was probably another reason for the disappearance of most buildings belonging to Raymond. Fig. 258. READER'S DIGEST BUILDING, south garden façade, detail of the balcony’s louvers, ground plan and night view- Images sources: Crafting a modern world, the architecture and design of Antonin and Noemi Raymond, p.201-202 and Antonin Raymond: Autobiography, p.217 The period that followed marks the busiest time in Raymond and Rado’s career. Commissions were bursting, like: Embassy Staff Housing for the U.S. State Department (1950-51), Yamaha Hall for the Yamaha Musical Instruments manufacturing company in Ginza, successful for its acoustics (1951), Mikimoto 226 Pearl Shop in Tokyo (1952), The First National City Bank of New York (1952), Camp Zama and Camp Drake for the 8th Army in the Orient who were desperately needing for permanent quarters and modern communication (1951-52) and the Memorial Hall for Yawata Steel Workers’ Union from Kyushu (1954). The necessity of moving Raymond’s Headquarter Office was first priority in 1950. Following the former idea of the Karuizawa project (mixing work and living), the Raymonds found a place in Azabu (now, Tokyo’s residential Nishi Azabu district), of 226 Kokichi Mikimoto was the founder of the world-famous cultured pearl industry. UNKNOWN SUNS: LÁSZLÓ HUDEC, ANTONÍN RAYMOND AND THE MAKING OF MODERN ARCHITECTURE IN EASTERN ASIA 300 about 600 ‘tsubo’ (21,600 sq. ft. - approximately 2000 sq. m.) for their own office and living quarters. The Kôgai-Chô Studio was built between 1950 and 1952, a remarkable architectural achievement: “I think I succeeded in creating an extremely practical and modern shelter for our activities, using the Japanese technique of round lumber for the trusses and roof purlins, and accomplishing something of true honesty, directness, simplicity and utmost economy, of great importance for the then-impoverished Japan.” 227 The complexity of the studio was due to its combined staff of architects, engineers and designers. Not only did they do the architectural designs but all the engineering too, in order to develop the project “from inside out as much as possible”. Raymond insisted on the importance of the details and strict supervision: “I believe that a real architect should be a master builder and should know the science of building as well or even better than the building contractor. Only in that way can the architect gain the confidence of the workers and explore with them the new possibilities of today's technology.” 228 Fig. 259. THE KÔGAI-CHÔ STUDIO, south façade, drafting room and plan - Images sources: Crafting a modern world, the architecture and design of Antonin and Noemi Raymond, p.212, 215 and Antonin Raymond: Autobiography, p.237-238 227 Ibid 36, p. 234 228 Ibid 36, p. 241 UNKNOWN SUNS: LÁSZLÓ HUDEC, ANTONÍN RAYMOND AND THE MAKING OF MODERN ARCHITECTURE IN EASTERN ASIA 301 The studio was built entirely based on traditional Japanese post-and-lintel technique, using locally found materials. They even integrated in the design the existing walls of the former property. Raymond’s years in the USA have left some marks on his way of designing, introducing new features, typical for the 1950’s American houses, like the use of outdoor space for activities that were previously considered indoor ones. Thus, the outdoor dining table became their favourite place, similar to a traditional inner garden. Fig. 260. THE KÔGAI-CHÔ STUDIO, interior dining-room, exterior dining table under wisteria with view of garden and pool- Images sources: Crafting a modern world, the architecture and design of Antonin and Noemi Raymond, p.201-202 and Antonin Raymond: Autobiography, p.238 After 1955, a normal separation occurred between Raymond and Rado, and they began to work independently. Raymond took over his former office in Tokyo, strictly focused on the designing and handling work in Japan while Rado remained in New York handling commissions in the United States. Relation with the USA still perpetuated through the oeuvre of his former, talented members of the staff, like Yoshimura Junzô, David Leavitt, George Nakashima and others, who continued to further develop Raymond’s studio principles of designing according to Japanese traditions, adapted for the American way of life. Some of these projects remained masterpieces of mid-century Americas design. For the Raymond’s studio, the post-war period was a continuation of their previous work on concrete. New experiments were on the way, with the use of folded concrete plates and a continuation of studies and realization using reinterpreted wood structures. A good comparison can be made between his St. Anselm’s Church UNKNOWN SUNS: LÁSZLÓ HUDEC, ANTONÍN RAYMOND AND THE MAKING OF MODERN ARCHITECTURE IN EASTERN ASIA 302 and Priory in the Meguro district of Tokyo (1952-1956) and his St. Michael Church from Sapporo, Hokkaido (1960-1961). First of all we must say that the Church of St. Anselm is a particularly moving work. According to Raymond, it was commissioned by Father Hildebrand in 1954, which was Prior of the Benedictine Order in Japan. The Church should have about 500 seats, a Priory dorm, offices, an assembly hall, a library and a kindergarten. All these have to fit on a very difficult small plot, restricted by many regulations. Raymond works more than two years on the subject, building many models. He tells us that the result was gratifying because the economy was large and the structural system very advanced. The dimensions of the church are 50 x 50 shaku (about 15 x 15 meters) for the cross section and are doubled to 50 x 100 shaku in plan, which gives the building some graceful proportions. The folded slabs creating both walls and ceiling were finished in natural concrete with an unprecedented smoothness through the use of metal-sheet formwork. In the longitudinal direction, each side of the chapel is a folded wall, zigzag in shape of 6 ‘sun’ ‘寸‘ 229 (about 20 cm) thick. The roof consists of continuous beams of 2.7 ‘sun’ (about 8-9 cm) thick. The section of each beam is of a triangular shape with a hollow inside, more like a “V” positioned upside down. Each portion of the zigzag wall is joined to a beam to form a rigid gate-shaped frame. This frame structure supports the load of the roof and resists the transversal direction efforts caused by earthquakes. The coefficient of seismic resistance required by Japanese Standards is more than 0.2. It had been estimated that the earthquake resistance coefficient for this church building was able to withstand vibrations up to 0.22. “I - says Raymonddesigned the altar and all that belongs to it (that is, the tabernacle, the candlesticks and everything) in an original way made possible only by the excellence of Japanese craftsmen, both in cast iron and cloisonné. Over the altar, from a canopy of concrete, heavily gilded, a crucifix was suspended.The Stations of the Cross were designed by Noémi and executed in black iron and rusty iron, using hands as a symbolic expression of the meaning of each station. The holy-water fountain and the baptistery grille and font were extremely carefully studied and successfully executed. (No mention is made about the beautiful railing crafted in artificial stone) Noémi designed and hand-painted many of the large windows which were supposed to be of stained glass. As there were no funds available for anything so expensive, they were executed in coloured plastics in the hope that they would endure for a time, and the fact that they did not last was a great disappointment to us.” 229 A sun ‘寸‘ is a Japanese unit of measurement of 1/10 shaku and 30,30 millimetres. UNKNOWN SUNS: LÁSZLÓ HUDEC, ANTONÍN RAYMOND AND THE MAKING OF MODERN ARCHITECTURE IN EASTERN ASIA 303 Even the confessionals were designed by the couple, covering the walls to make them acoustic absorber. “Father Hildebrand, a truly superior spirit and intellect, encountered adversity in his ambitious quest and became extremely difficult to get along with in our efforts to complete the job and later, in 7964, to change the plan to conform with the new liturgy. Squares of black lines on the east wall behind the altar were superposed by Father Hildebrand during one of my periodical absences abroad, over my original circles (but are put back today), which I had decided upon in the absence of a contemplated fresco. Squares make no sense and are disturbing.” In October 1956, Father H.V. Straelen of the Society of the Verbi Divini (S.V.D.) wrote an article about the church. Among other things he said: "This church born of prayer is all prayer. In addition she proclaims an important message. She meets modern man. She belongs to our period. Her style has something universal and acceptable for the man of 1956." 230 The zigzagging walls are interrupted by vertical window openings with interior brackets in order to make the structure more rigid and to modulate the incoming sunlight. When the sun shines, due to the relative South orientation of the wall, near the churchyard, and emphasized by these folded triangle shape walls, a curious dynamic pattern of light and shadow casts upon the concrete surfaces. The rays extend deep, bathing the entire nave. The upper floor has two light galleries emerging from the choir, appearing like floating in a completely unreal atmosphere, but at the same time vivid. The garden located in the northern region, has almost the classical dimensions of a karesansui, with some typical dark stone lanterns and trees of bonsai style. Some of the other units of the building open in this wa-yo (a style blending Japanese and Western motifs) courtyard, especially the library, workshops and the new bedrooms. To reduce the massive impression of the overall concrete volume, the façade was composed by alternating exposed concrete plates with ones painted ochre red. The railing of the gallery is made of artificial stone, highly polished. Dark red and black paint was used also for decorating the back side of the gallery’s slab, including geometrical patterns on the floor. Fig. 261. ST. ANSELM CHURCH, exterior view, alternating red and natural concrete- Image source: internet http://tokyo.catholic.jp/wp-content/themes/catholic-tokyo/img/diocese/church/meguro1s.jpg 230 Ibid 36, p. 259 UNKNOWN SUNS: LÁSZLÓ HUDEC, ANTONÍN RAYMOND AND THE MAKING OF MODERN ARCHITECTURE IN EASTERN ASIA 304 Fig. 262. ST. ANSELM CHURCH, exterior and interior views and plan- Images sources: Crafting a modern world, the architecture and design of Antonin and Noemi Raymond, p.227-229 and Antonin Raymond: Autobiography, p.260 However, in the work of St. Michael church in Sapporo (1961), the gasshô zukuri technique is used. The glasses are decorated with paper drawn by Noémi Pernessin, miming the tradition shôji. Usually, they represent two concentric circles in black and white. The timbers that Raymond left exposed were polished with straw and sand, but otherwise did not have any treatment (just like in his Karuizawa summer house and St. Paul’s church). The unions were sometimes very complex with these cylindrical beams, such as when three were joined together. Interestingly, in these and in other works of churches, he also uses brick which is a much more alien material, although less so in Sapporo due to the American influence in the 19th century. Fig. 263. ST. MICHAEL CHURCH, interior view of the wood structure- Image source: internet UNKNOWN SUNS: LÁSZLÓ HUDEC, ANTONÍN RAYMOND AND THE MAKING OF MODERN ARCHITECTURE IN EASTERN ASIA 305 Fig. 264. ST. MICHAEL CHURCH, exterior entrance view and detail of Noemi’s glass paper decoration- Images source: internet http://10plus1.jp/photo-archives/147/album.php?c=3&i=0 Churches were part of Raymond’s struggle to reinterpret traditional church forms and functions in modern terms. After 1957 they designed churches all over Japan: “from Kyushu to Hakkaido, for Catholics, Protestants and even one for Budhists” 231 . He continued his experimentation with folded concrete plates throughout the 1950s in his design for the Gunma Music Centre (1955-1961) from Takasaki, a town north of Tokyo. Planned for 2000 seats, the Centre is, at the same time, a symphony concert hall, a ballet theatre, a stage for conventional dramas, a theatre for the traditional Kabuki of Japan (a revolving stage located in the centre of the stage) and a cinema equipped for wide-screen movies. Similar to St. Anselm structure, the music centre had 11 V-shaped folded concrete slabs organized in a continuous sculptural rhythmic pattern, seen both in the exterior and interior. In order to stabilize the lateral movement of the front and rear walls, four concrete beams were proportionately spaced in the longitudinal direction throughout the building. This apparently random composition produces spectacular acoustics and resonating effects while the performers were playing their music. On the rear portion of the main auditorium Raymond designed two wings to house a dressing room and a small auditorium for 150 people. The V- shape structure was also maintained for the two wings, in order to create continuity in form and structure. The sculptural staircase is adding dynamism to the whole composition. Fig. 265. GUNMA MUSIC CENTRE, interior stair- Image source: internet 231 Ibid 36, p. 262 UNKNOWN SUNS: LÁSZLÓ HUDEC, ANTONÍN RAYMOND AND THE MAKING OF MODERN ARCHITECTURE IN EASTERN ASIA 312 CHAPTER 8 CONCLUSIONS 8.1 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS Architecture is a direct reflection of culture, always changing in order to fit the necessities of the period. Chinese society underwent unexpected changes, along the late 19th century and early 20th, marked by the invasions of the Western powers, First and Second World Wars, rebellions, old regimes’ collapses and the founding of New China in 1949. As compared to China, Japan was facing constant earthquake issues, in addition to the ones already mentioned (for example, Raymond’s major challenge was to develop his designs to be earthquake resistant). “Architecture primarily is a social art, closely related to the needs of the people. Each age has its own social requirements. The architect must know the desires and demands of today's individual, in today's complex social structure, before he can design successfully.” 234 The constant mixture between “new and old” was the main feature of contemporary Eastern Asia, Chinese and Japanese architecture. Referring to the “new”, unprecedented types of architecture appeared: consulates, churches (missionaries of all kinds), schools (for example the special schools for girls), banks (western and local), hospitals, new type of residences (private and multi-storey blocks), industrial complexes (factories), gas stations and entertainment functions (like cinemas, theatres, ball–rooms, cabarets, department stores) etc. For all these building types, “new” materials (iron, steel, cement) and construction techniques, methods and equipment had to be used and invented (reinforced concrete or steel structures), a substantial shift from the typical Chinese and Japanese traditional wooden structures and manual labour. Although this change forced the local 234 Ibid 36, p.296 UNKNOWN SUNS: LÁSZLÓ HUDEC, ANTONÍN RAYMOND AND THE MAKING OF MODERN ARCHITECTURE IN EASTERN ASIA 313 builders to adapt to these new modern requirements, they succeeded and, in most of the cases, they ended up surpassing westerners. Raymond particularly preferred to work with locals, due to their meticulousness, patience and attention to details. Referring to the “old”, Raymond and Noémi were the ones who searched their inspiration in Japanese traditions, and by this I do not mean a simple act of copying old forms, but rather a more profound search, getting to know the traditions, roots and ways of thinking: naturalness, simplicity, honesty, economy and functionality. Although the two architects (Antonín Raymond and László Hudec) were having similar origin and formation, their path of life drove them both far away, in the Far East. China and Japan, apparently alike, ended having quite different influence on the two. The local environment mixed with their personalities, way of thinking and stylistic preferences left a definite mark on their architecture. Close similitudes were found between the two when Hudec approached Modern Architecture in his late period. There is no concrete evidence proving that the friendship between the two architects (which started in the 1930s) was influential in defining their architectural style. Hudec ‘went with the flow’, his stylistic preferences and each phase in his design career, correspond with the ones Shanghai was going through. He followed the local trend. He stood out and earned local and international recognition mainly in his last period, when Modern Architecture became his last stylistic choice. Hudec’s approach of such a diverse palette of architectural styles was a reflection of Shanghai’s International character, due to the city’s multinational environment. Being such an expert in dealing with historical styles, he could easily adapt his designs to commissions coming from a high diversity of clients, each one with personal stylistic preference. Historical knowledge and this skill to adapt easily to a certain demanded style, is a common feature for architects who have studied at the Royal Technical University of Budapest. On the other side, Raymond was acting totally different. He used modern style since the very beginning of his private office. His aim was to find the perfect balance between modern and local traditions. When Chinese Revival became a trend in the 1930s among young Chinese architects, trained in western Universities, Hudec was not trying to introduce these local forms of architecture in his designs and neither used them as a source of inspiration. None of his projects use Chinese Revival motifs and elements. Even when designing for his local clients, the only possible link with their past was the internal organization of the main functions, the high number of rooms, each one UNKNOWN SUNS: LÁSZLÓ HUDEC, ANTONÍN RAYMOND AND THE MAKING OF MODERN ARCHITECTURE IN EASTERN ASIA 314 used for special purpose as in the past (in some of these, sometimes typical Chinese decorations motifs appearjust to satisfy the client wishes). Yes, Hudec was and still is loved by Shanghai’s citizens. After he left China in 1947, his once famous-name was almost forgotten until 2008 when, the General Hungarian Consulate in Shanghai and local government launched the “Year of Hudec”. He was recently voted a “Shanghai Symbol” by millions Chinese and was the only foreigner among a galaxy of Chinese celebrities. His buildings have survived through hard times and were all restored and given suitable functions (most of them are still used for their original function, a very beneficial thing for their historical preservation), due to the intense program of rediscovering the city’s heritage. Although he was not the first one to introduce modern style to the East, but when he did, the quality of his designs (almost incomparable to that of his contemporaries) was the main characteristic that ensured him the role of “pioneer of modern architecture in the Far East”. Antonin Raymond was a privileged figure which embodied through his life and work, the fusion between Occident and Japan. He knew perfectly that what we call today the “Forgotten Japan”, the unitary assembling, resulted after a long evolution of own culture due to secular isolation. At the same time he assisted and definitely contributed to the adaptation of this culture to the modern world. Nevertheless Japan reached, thanks to him and many others, the proper basis for opening to the world. To paraphrase, using Emperor’s Hirohito words, drawn from Buddhist sutras, uttered during the signing of the Japanese surrenderin the language of the Imperial Court that only a few understood: "We are determined to suffer the insufferable and endure the unendurable to pave the future way of the Great Peace". Or as Kenzaburô Ôe remarked, citing the famous legend of Genji, the "yamato damashi", a Japanese soul must flourish only after the learning and the knowledge. Perhaps now it is lost, but before it disappears entirely between mists of time, we would be happy to give it a moment of glory in the work of Antonín Raymond; it is the “moment that precedes the glory”. UNKNOWN SUNS: LÁSZLÓ HUDEC, ANTONÍN RAYMOND AND THE MAKING OF MODERN ARCHITECTURE IN EASTERN ASIA 315 8.2 HUDEC AND RAYMOND’S CONTRIBUTION TO THE MAKING OF MODERN ARCHITECTURE IN EASTERN ASIA Hudec and Raymond are called pioneers of modern architecture because they were among the first western architects who came in eastern Asia (in a completely different cultural context as their native one), developed as modern architects and managed to guide, transform and implement a new way of thinking and designing. They had the luck of being in the right place at the right time. Once in Japan, far away from his native Europe, Raymond had to adapt his way of thinking with the way of design. So he tried to define what he considered to be the principles of a true modern architecture, everything based on the synthesis between his own pre-Japan experience and what he had learned since his arrival in Tokyospace, structure and philosophy of Japanese traditional architecture. After that period characterized by absorbing everything linked to western trends, a new one emerged, where the new generation of architects became more and more conscious of the true value of Japanese assets and started to develop the principles of the new modern architecture that best suited Japan. Antonin Raymond, found himself in a relationship with Japan that offered him the best conditions for developing his principles: “honesty”, “simplicity”, “economy”, “directness”, “functionality” and “naturalness”. Nature goes hand in hand with beauty, and beauty, in the traditional Japanese houses, was to be found in pure simplicity. It was only after years of experience and observation of the Japanese houses, he realized the easiest way to achieve beauty in architectural design: “It is through increased simplicity and elimination that the man of taste finds elegance.” 235 Raymond managed to combine western and Japanese traditional architecture through the use of tatami as a proportion module for the entire house. Although among his residences there are few that have only a single traditional tatami room, the rest of the house follow the same proportions of the tatami used like a grid in order to obtain the area of the different functions. The projects presented herein, belong mainly to Raymond’s first period of practice in Japan, because they reveal the formative aspect of his architectural approach, appropriately supporting the Thesis’ objective of discovering the making of the Modern Architecture. The projects he made after the beginning of the Second World War, during his stay in America and after his return to Japan, are a 235 Ibid 33, p.302 UNKNOWN SUNS: LÁSZLÓ HUDEC, ANTONÍN RAYMOND AND THE MAKING OF MODERN ARCHITECTURE IN EASTERN ASIA 316 continuation of his previous knowledge and thoroughgoing study. Although in my opinion the pre-war projects are more important for his development, the later ones, belonging to his mature period as modernist, are the ones remembered in the history of modern architecture. Hudec’s modernism lies in his architectural ability and complexity, as a man always ready to change his life drastically when confronted by dire events or facing necessity. He gained architectural experience in Shanghai (not as the leader of the architectural movements but always prepared to follow and to adhere to new trends and styles if his clients were wishing for, constantly adapting to the fashion and introducing latest western technologies in the Far East), diplomatic experience during the Second World War (providing humanitarian aid, helping his compatriots and Jews from the Nazis’ terrors) and teaching experience in America (giving lectures on archaeological themes). As seen on Shanghai’s map displaying the location of his main buildings (annex 3), his designs were spread all over the city, no matter the function, the location or client. Thus, he developed his office as being more accessible and friendly to anyone. His portfolio was embracing a vast area of diverse architectural forms and building types, covering a large functional palette. Following his business interest (the same one that drew most of the foreign architects to become involved in the construction of the city between the 1920s and 30s ), he was always alternating between “old” and “new” according to his commissions. Hudec was not as avant-garde as the trend-setters European contemporaries, who were concerned about reforming and creating new guide lines in architectural design. But, thanks to his dexterity in articulating Modern functions, spaces and shapes with the worlds most advanced technologies, he became one of the leading architects of the fashion in Shanghai, enjoying local and international recognition through his designs that deeply reflected the city’s growth and cultural character in the constant changing Chinese society. UNKNOWN SUNS: LÁSZLÓ HUDEC, ANTONÍN RAYMOND AND THE MAKING OF MODERN ARCHITECTURE IN EASTERN ASIA 317 9 BIBLIOGRAPHY 9.1 BOOKS AND ARTICLES 9.2 INTERNET SOURCES (STYLE, CHRONOLOGICAL DATA, EVENTS, PHOTOS) 9.3 WIKIPEDIA FILES 9.4 DOCUMENTARIES AND FILMS UNKNOWN SUNS: LÁSZLÓ HUDEC, ANTONÍN RAYMOND AND THE MAKING OF MODERN ARCHITECTURE IN EASTERN ASIA 318 CHAPTER 9 BIBLIOGRAPHY 9.1 BOOKS AND ARTICLES - Adriana Piccinini Higashino: Roof typology and Composition in Traditional Japanese Architecture. Project Year: 2001 – 2004 - Alan Colquhoun: Modern Architecture. Oxford University Press, New York, 2002 - Anne Massey: Interior Design since 1900. Thames & Hudson world of art. London, 2008 - Antonin Raymond: Autobiography. Copyright by Charles E. Tuttle Co., Inc., Japan, 1973 - Antonín Raymond: Antonín Raymond Architectural Details. Tokyo, 1938 - Antonin Raymond: Concrete for New Designs. The Architectural Record 79 ,January 1936 - Antonin Raymond: Natural Concrete Finish and Reasons for its development. LAARK,1961 - Antonin Raymond’s lecture: “Experienced Stories Before 1938 in Japan” (Lecture at the Architectural League of New York). New York, 1938 - Antonín Raymond’s lecture: “Housing- A Post War Responsibility and Opportunity” (Lecture on Building at the New York Institute of Finance). New York, 1945 - Antonín Raymond: “Basic Principles in Architecture”, 1953 - Black, Cyril Edwin: The Dynamics of Modernization: a Study in Comparative History. New York: Harper & Row, 1967. - Bryna Goodman: Native Place, City, and Nation / Regional Networks and Identities in Shanghai, 1853-1937.University of California Press, Berkeley·Los Angeles·Oxford, The Regents of the University of California, 1995 - Bruce Brooks Pfeiffer: Frank Lloyd Wright. Benedikt Taschen,Köln,2000. - Bruno Taut: La casa y la vida japonesa. Colección Arquitemas, Madrid, 2007 - Bryna Goodman: Native Place, City, and Nation / Regional Networks and Identities in Shanghai, 1853-1937. University of California Press, Berkeley·Los Angeles·Oxford, © 1995 The Regents of the University of California. - Cabeza Lainez, J. M.: Antonín Raymond. Lecciones de Japonisme. Notas para una biografía arquitectónica. Revista de Historia y Teoría de la Arquitectura. Número 2-3, Sevilla, 2001 - Cabeza Lainez, J.M. and Juan Ramon Jimenez Verdejo (2001): The Japanese experience of Environmental Architecture through the Works of Bruno Taut and Antonín Raymond. Journal of Asian Architecture and Building Engineering, 2007. UNKNOWN SUNS: LÁSZLÓ HUDEC, ANTONÍN RAYMOND AND THE MAKING OF MODERN ARCHITECTURE IN EASTERN ASIA 319 - Cabeza Lainez, J. M.: La ciudad japonesa. Ascenso y caída de las Megalópolis. En el libro,¿Qué es Japón? Introducción a la cultura japonesa. Publicaciones de la Universidad de Extremadura, 2008 - Charlotte & Peter Fiell: 1000 Chairs. Taschen, Köln, 2005 - Christine Vendredi-Auzanneau: Aux origines du béton au Japon : Antonin Raymond à travers la presse architecturale et un fonds d'archives inédit - Christopher Alexander, Sara Ishikawa, Murray Silverstein: A Pattern Language: Towns, Buildings, Construction. Oxford University Press, 1977 - C.A. Montalto De Jesus: Historic Shanghai. The Shanghai Mercury, Limited, Shanghai, 1909 - David Curtis Wright: The History of China. Greenwood Press, Westport, Connecticut, London, 2001 - David G. Wilkins, Bernard Schultz: Art Past- Art Present. Harry N. Abrams, Incorporated, New York, 1990 - Dr. Ines Eben von Racknitz: Chinese Perceptions of Europe before 1949. Perspectives from the Qing Dynasty (1644- 1911). Freie Universitat Berlin, 2013 - Eberhard Syring, Jörg C. Kirschenman: Hans Scharoun 1893-1972. Taschen, Cologne, Germany, 2004 - Edward Denison, Guang Yu Ren: Building Shanghai: The Story of China's Gateway. Wiley- Academy, University of Michigan, 2006. - F. Javier Monclus Fraga: Exposiciones internacionales y urbanismo. Edicion UPC, 2008 - F. L. Wright: The Natural House. Meridian, New York, 1954. - Gloaguen,Yola: Towards a definition of Antonin Raymond's "Architectural Identity" : a study based on the architect's way of thinking and way of design. Thesis or Dissertation, Kyoto University, 2008. - Jacques Gernet: Lumea Chineza. Vol I & Vol II. Editura Meridiane, Bucuresti, 1985James Chapman: Cinemas of the World: Film and Society from 1895 to the Present. Reaktion Books Ltd, London, 2003 - Jánossy Péter Samuel – Deke Erh: HUDEC LÁSZLÓ - Élete És Munkássága – Az Igazi Homo Ludens (Life and Work of HUDEC LÁSZLÓ - The Real Homo Ludens). Építésügyi Tájékoztatási Központ Kft. Budapest, 2010. - Jean- Louis Cohen: Le Corbusier 1887-1965. Die Lyrik der Architektur in Maschinenzeitalter. Taschen, Koln, 2004 - Jean-Marie Le Breton. Maretia si Destinul Batranei Europe 1492-2004. Humanitas, Bucuresti, 2004 - Jean-Franҫois Lejeune and Michelangelo Sabatino: Modern Architecture and the Meditranean. Vernacular Dialogues and Contested Identities. Routlege- Taylor & Francis Group, London and New York, 2009 - Jeffrey W. Cody: Building in China: Henry K. Murphy’s “Adaptive Architecture” 1914-1935. The Chinese University Press of Hong Kong, 2001. - Jeffrey W. Cody, Henry K: Murphy, An American Architect in China. 1914-1935, 1989. - Johnan Shoin: Antonín Raymond, His Work in Japan, 1920-1935 (preface by Élie Faure and an article by Antonín and Noémi P. Raymond). Tokyo, 1935 - Jonathan D. Spence: The Search for Modern China. W.W.Norton & Company, New York- London, 1989 - Julia Meech-Pekarik: Frank Lloyd Wright and Japanese prints UNKNOWN SUNS: LÁSZLÓ HUDEC, ANTONÍN RAYMOND AND THE MAKING OF MODERN ARCHITECTURE IN EASTERN ASIA 320 - J.W. Maclellan: The Story of Shanghai. From the Opening of the Port to Foreign Trade. Printed and Published at the North-China Herald Office, Shanghai, 1889 - Kenneth Frampton: Modern Architecture, a Critical History. Thames & Hudson Ltd, London,1992 - Kenzo Tange, Walter Gropius: Katsura: Tradition and Creation in Japanese Architecture. Yale University Press, 1960 - Koichi Yoshida: Auguste Perret. Kashima Shuppankaù 1985 - Kurt G. F. Helfrich and William Whitaker: Crafting a modern world, the architecture and design of Antonin and Noemi Raymond. Princeton Architectural Press, New York, 2006. - Le Corbusier: Vers une Architecture. Flammarion, Paris, 1rst edition: 1923, 2d edition: 1924 - Liu Bingkun: László E. Hudec and Modern Architecture in Shanghai, 1918-1937. Thesis for the degree of Master of Philosophy at the University of Hong Kong, July 2005. - Luca Poncellini – Júlia Csejdy: Hudec László - Az építész mesterei - Könyv (LÁSZLÓ HUDEC. Masters of Architecture). Holnap Kiadó, Budapest, 2010 - Louis H. Sullivan: The Tall Office Building Artistically Considered. Lippincott's Magazine (March 1896) - Magdalena Droste, Bauchaus Archiv: Bauhaus, 1919-1933. Taschen, Berlin, 2002 - Maria Bostenaru Dan: Fachwerk architecture in Germany and Gaiola Pombalina in Portugal. Research on Vernacular Architecture and Timber Structures. Cluj Napoca, Romania, 2008 - Marius B. Jansen: The Making of Modern Japan. The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Massachussets, London, England, 2000 - Mary Ninde Gamewell: The Gateway to China. Pictures of Shanghai. New York, 1916 - Meter Dosel und Gabriela Leuthauser. ARCHITEKTUR del 20 Jahrhunderts. Taschen ISBN 3- 8228-4123-4, Koln, 2005 - Natalie Delande: The Diamond Jubilee of the International Settlement of Shanghai. Gongchengshi Zhanzai Jianzhu Duiwu de Qianlie. Published in Wang Tan & Zhang Fuhe ed., Di Wu Ci Zhongguo Jindai Jianzhushi Yanjiu Taolun Hui Lunwen Ji [A Collection of the Fifth Symposium of Modern History of Chinese Architecture], Zhongguo Jianzhu Gongye Chubanshe (China Architecture & Building Press), 1998. - Noemi Raymond: “On the Design of Interiors”, 1953 - Otto Wagner 1896 : Modern Architecture: a Guidebook for his Students to this Field of Art, Introduction and translation by Harry Francis Mallgrave, the Getty Center Publication Programs for the History of Art and the Humanities, Santa Monica, CA, 1988 - Pankaj Vir Gupta and Christine Mueller: Golconde: The Introduction of Modernism in India. University of Texas at Austin, Research 2005 - Paul Johnson: O istorie a Lumii Moderne 1920-2000 (Modern Times. A History of the World from the 1920s to 1990s). Humanitas, Bucuresti, 2005 - Robyn Griggs Lawrence: The wabi-sabi house,the Japanese art of imperfect beauty. Clarkson Potter, 2004 - Sevastean I. Ianca: Elemente de Arhitectura. Editura Orizonturi Universitare, Timisoara, 1997 - Stewart,Dennis B: The Making of a Modern Japanese Architecture: From the Founders to Shinohara and Isozaki. New York, United States: Kodansha International ISBN 4-7700-2933- 0 2002 UNKNOWN SUNS: LÁSZLÓ HUDEC, ANTONÍN RAYMOND AND THE MAKING OF MODERN ARCHITECTURE IN EASTERN ASIA 321 - T. Isoand N. Aono: Architecture Historian Fujimori’s Key Terms on Japanese Modernist Houses. Casa Brutus, 2004 - Teiji Itoh: The Elegant Japanese House: traditional Sukiya architecture.Weatherhill, Tankosha, Tokyo, 1969 - Ulrik Plesner: In Situ. An Architectural Memoir from Sri Lanka. Aristo Publishing, 2013 - Urs Matthias Zachmann: China and Japan in the Late Meiji period. China policy and the Japanese discourse on national identity, 1895-1904. Routlege- Taylor & Francis Group, London and New York, 2009 - Vlad Gaivoronschi: Matricile Spatiului Traditional. Colectia Spatii Imaginare, Paidea, Bucuresti, 2002 - William J.R. Curtis: Modern Architecture since 1900. Phaidon Press Limited, New York, 2012 - Zou, Yiren. Jiu Shanghai Renkou Bianqian de Yanjiu [A Demographic Study on the Flux of Population in Old Shanghai+. Shanghai Renmin Chubanshe (Shanghai People’s Publishing House), 1980. 9.2 INTERNET SOURCES (STYLE, CHRONOLOGICAL DATA, EVENTS, PHOTOS) - http://www.ladislavhudec.eu/index.php?main_page=index&cPath=67 – László Hudec, The Man Who Changed Shanghai, by Ladislav Kaboš - http://jmcentarfer.tripod.com/ch28_2.pdf - China and Japan confront the West - http://www.medicographia.com/wp-content/uploads/2010/02/photo_3.jpg- Map of Shanghai showing Foreign Concessions - http://www.emersonkent.com/map_archive/world_map_population_1918.htm - Density of population in the world for the year 1918 - http://litshanghai.wikispaces.com/20th+Century+Shanghai - 20th century Shanghai - http://www.greatkantoearthquake.com/map_archive.html - Evolution of Tokyo - http://www.lib.uci.edu/about/publications/exhibits/shanghai/index.php?page=section_1 – Shanghai - http://chnm.gmu.edu/cyh/primary-sources/133 - the Kaichi Elementary School - http://www.japantimes.co.jp/news/2012/10/23/reference/tokyo-stations-marunouchi- side-restored-to-1914-glory/#.VSq6q_mUd8E - Tokyo Station’s Marunouchi side restored to 1914 glory - http://www.simonfieldhouse.com/galleries/shanghai/ - Buildings of the Bund- Shanghai - http://www.virtualshanghai.net/Texts/Articles?ID=34 – The Shanghai Bund - http://www.steinerag.com/flw/Artifact%20Pages/ImperialHotel.htm - Imperial Hotel- Tokyo - http://paradiseleased.wordpress.com/2012/06/18/interlude-frank-lloyd-wrights-imperial- hotel/ - Interlude- Frank Lloyd Wright’s Imperial Hotel - http://www.shanghaidaily.com/feature/art-and-culture/A-shining-star-built-with-class-in- Spanish-style/shdaily.shtml - Estrella Apartments - https://ssl.panoramio.com/photo/98075954 - Former residence of J.G. Ballard - http://www.idealshanghai.com/focus/117388/ - Hudec’s daughter recalls happy times in former family home - http://www.lib.utexas.edu/maps/historical/history_china.html - Perry-Castañeda Library- Map Collection – Historical Maps of China UNKNOWN SUNS: LÁSZLÓ HUDEC, ANTONÍN RAYMOND AND THE MAKING OF MODERN ARCHITECTURE IN EASTERN ASIA 328 I escorted Sir Major von Majevac from the division commandership. I also received orders from Lieutenant Colonel Balassa, division Chief of Staff, to go to elevation 382, if at all possible, in order to ascertain the circumstances of the break-through and to determine our own troop or Russian troop presence there. All communications with the 9th and 11th Regiments had been cut off, and it was impossible to form a clear picture of the situation. I led Sir Major von Majevac to the base of elevation 382. At this time, certain companies of the 57th Imperial and Royal Regiment – a division reserve – were developing into counterattack formation in order to close the gap and advance to point 382. One company mistook their direction in the valley and, caught in heavy artillery and machine gun flank fire, were in danger of annihilation. Noticing this, I ran across the valley. After reaching the company, I stepped in for the wounded company commander and led them across a barren area toward elevation 382. Thus, we succeeded in stopping the other recoiling companies of the 57th Imperial and Royal Regiment. Because I knew the terrain as well as the palm of my hand, this company of the 57th Regiment was able to advance within close range of the Russians by way of the communication trenches and back lines. We suffered very few casualties and drove back the Russians who were lost in the labyrinth of trenches. Unfortunately, our biggest achievement was that point 382 was occupied partly by us and partly by the Russians. Our entrenchments were 30 steps apart and hooked in clasp-like manner. I surveyed the situation, returned via the same route, and conveyed my report to Sir Major von Majevac who was joined later by Captain Molnár and Orderly Officer Cavalry First Lieutenant Sándor Stranyavsky (Chairman of Parliament and retired Minister of Agriculture after 1938) who also witnessed the event. On the orders of Captain Molnár, I stayed at the base of hill 382 to assist the ranking officer of the dismounted cavalry and other troops that arrived on time in setting up a second line of defense. At night when I returned to the division commandership Staff Officer Sir Major von Majevac shook my hand and said, “I am deeply grateful for your actions, you have behaved in exemplary fashion.” This acknowledgement caused me much pleasure, and I thought the matter to be done with without attributing to it special importance, this being merely one episode of the fulfilment of my duties. For this reason, I was especially surprised when one day at the end of autumn Commander of Army Corps Sir Arz under the escort of Sir Major von Majevac arrived at the division commandership and, accompanied by a speech, presented me with a major silver medal of courage in front of all present officers and division reserves. He informed me of his order to recommend my promotion to lieutenant. I have attached as Appendix 1 the copy of extraordinary promotion request number Op.No.438/10 of 15 October 1915, which I received later. His Excellency Sándor Stranyavsky offered to attest to the above said at any time. In the beginning of winter 1915 I received two weeks vacation. After my vacation I was transferred to the unit of the 20th Infantry Regiment, and I joined the regiment located northeast of Luzk in Wolhinia. Here I was posted to the 82nd Brigade commandership, whose commander later became Sir Captain Molnár, at this time temporary commander of the 44th Division. At the 82nd Brigade commandership I worked alongside Staff Officer Captain Béla Hedry (currently a retired Field Marshal) as engineer officer, the same post I held in the 77th Brigade. During this time I devised new steel concrete posts for machine guns and cannons, and I led their construction at the front. Moreover, since the trench posts led through marshland thus making it impossible to dig trenches and underground shelters, I built anti-barrage shelters using tracks from the existing railroad line. Regiments neighboring our division often borrowed me to build them similar arrangements. After I UNKNOWN SUNS: LÁSZLÓ HUDEC, ANTONÍN RAYMOND AND THE MAKING OF MODERN ARCHITECTURE IN EASTERN ASIA 329 fulfilled my duties, I joined my regiment again in April. At this time Sir Captain Molnár accorded me praise in brigade order 1022 written on 3 May 1916, the copy of which I have attached in Appendix 2. My regimental commander was Lieutenant-Colonel Bugsch. I joined the regiment’s 11th Company, located at the railroad crossing and including the advanced officer field outpost. I was often their commander. Inasmuch as we succeeded in repelling the Russians’ attacks, I was luckier than many of my fellow-soldiers who were slaughtered or taken prisoner during Russian surprise attacks on the field outpost. Besides such outpost skirmishes, there was extraordinary calm on this front until the beginning of June, when the Russians broke through the front south of us at the level of Luck and rapidly pressed westward. CAPTIVITY On 6 June 1916 our division received orders to retreat toward the northwest. We had to leave behind our entrenchments that we had so diligently built lest we fall into Russian hands. From the morning of 6 June we marched for 24 hours straight until 7 June, when after a half-hour break I received orders to find out if the enemy was advancing and if so, with what force and in which direction. The terrain was grassland, marshland, and later forest. Our maps of this region were quite unreliable. For this reason, the choice fell on me, as I was the sole officer among the pure Hungarian regiment who spoke the native population’s language. In addition to Polish, I also learned the region’s language of Ukrainian. I chose 20 of my most reliable men, and so that we could cross the stream, I took with me wood, which we used to build light bridges. At the first town I recruited a Ukrainian guide who was of great assistance to us in the maze of streams and marshland. Advancing in the direction given by the order, I did not come upon any enemy, and neither did my patrols dispatched toward the right and left wings. Around 11 o’clock we stumbled upon a Russian caravan and ammunition carts escorted by Cossacks. We quickly retreated to the woods. It was clear that we reached the enemy’s flank, and now we did our best to return to our firing line the same way we came. Unfortunately, the Cossacks detected us and the shooting began. This prevented us from going through the grasslands, so we attempted to return in the northwestward direction through the marshland and woods only. We almost succeeded with the few patrols I had left, for the other patrols, collapsing in exhaustion, fell behind. As I had mentioned, we marched nonstop for 24 hours the day before with little rest. We played hide-and-seek with the Cossacks who, joined by more Cossack patrols, chased us. We were about halfway to our entrenchments when we had to cross a small clearing to reach the shelter of another woods. That is when the advancing Cossacks attacked from all sides and knocked us down. I collapsed due to a strike on the head. In Appendix 3 I am attaching a copy of Sir Lieutenant-Colonel Rugsch’s letter of 26 June 1916 to my father in which he reports my disappearance. (The original letter must have been misplaced among my father’s letters, but the official copy is sure to be located in the 20th Regiment’s archives.) From here, after the Cossacks robbed us and, in fact, even wanted to pull my gold tooth, they led us to be bound, then interrogated. It is there that when I refused to tell them my regiment’s number, they laughed and pointed to the number 20 on my cap. Since I was exhausted and my head was bleeding, I was held in the field hospital for a while. Later, they transported me to Kiev (they immediately separated me from my remaining men), where many thousand captive officers had been gathered. UNKNOWN SUNS: LÁSZLÓ HUDEC, ANTONÍN RAYMOND AND THE MAKING OF MODERN ARCHITECTURE IN EASTERN ASIA 330 From here they took me to Moscow, then they placed me along with fifty others in two houses in the city of Makariew in Kostromo province. Approximately two months later they directed us to Habarovsk in Siberia. We arrived in Habarovsk four or five weeks later. There they placed us in an officer’s prisoner-of-war camp with approximately 3000 people. From here, in the course of the spring, they transported me approximately 20 kilometers north to a prisoner-or-war camp in Krasznaja-Riecka where there were approximately 250-300 officers in each and every camp. The names of my captive mates with whom I shared a room: ALADÁR BARTAKOVICH, imperial and royal reservist lieutenant of the 66th regiment, currently municipal prosecutor of Ungvár, SÁNDOR SPECK, reservist First Lieutenant of the same regiment, currently citizen of Ungvár, GÉZA BORBÁS, Lieutenant of the same regiment, currently border police captain, moreover Dr. REZSŐ BART, reservist Lieutenant, Dr. IMRE SZELEI, reservist Lieutenant, PÁZMÁNY, reservist First Lieutenant. During my captivity I studied the English and French languages as well as art history. In the summer of 1917 I contracted typhoid fever and lay ill in the prisoner-of-war hospital. In December 1917 I returned to the prisoner-of-war camp. At this time as a result of a fall I fractured my leg. It turned out that I broke it in three places, and one of the fractures began in the ankle. Considering the severity of the fracture, they transported me to the Russian military hospital in Habarovsk, where I was treated. As a result of the fact that following therapy my weakened right leg became shorter causing me to limp severely, I was declared an invalid. In Appendices 4 and 5 I have attached the photocopy of the medicolegal reports of the prisoner-of-war hospital’s head physician and the Russian military hospital’s head physician. The documents are dated 3 May 1918. In May 1918 they took me up on the Danish Red Cross’s invalid train, which was then departing. Imperial and royal Captain GYÖRGY PETRICHEVICH (currently Colonel, Knight of the Order of Maria Theresa, address at the Office of the Maria Theresa Order, Budapest, Castle) was my captive mate in the hospital and on the train. This train advanced with great difficulty due to the shifting state of war between the retreating Reds and the advancing troops of Admiral Kolcak. The train was held up for weeks in Petrowski-Zavod, and when news arrived that the invalids would be placed in the Berezowka prisoner-of-war camp and there is no hope of our getting home, I decided that I would escape and try to break through toward the east. ESCAPE I prepared my escape thus: After becoming acquainted with the leader of the Petrowski- Zavod railroad division engineer Sienkiewic, a Polish man, I took his advice and letter of recommendation and travelled to the neighboring railroad division in Hilok, where there was a dire need for engineers. The Polish engineer’s letter of recommendation was on my behalf, my name stated as Wladislaw Georgevic Hugyecz invalid prisoner-of-war. That is to say, he was unwilling to enter a different name so that in case I was caught, he would not be in an uncomfortable position because of writing any falsehoods. He brought it to my understanding, however, that if I am clever, Hilok will be the first step toward my freedom. UNKNOWN SUNS: LÁSZLÓ HUDEC, ANTONÍN RAYMOND AND THE MAKING OF MODERN ARCHITECTURE IN EASTERN ASIA 331 There I will move around freely and will be able to completely prepare my further escape. Let me note that while I resided at the Russian prisoner-of-war hospital, I learned to speak Russian fluently and could also write the language, although I did speak with a heavy Polish accent. This posed no problem, however, because an extremely large number of Poles lived and worked in Russia and Siberia. In Hilok they immediately hired me to work in the railroad division office, first for external work in leading the repair of bridges and tracks. This job met with great difficulty precisely because of my weak and lame right leg. Thus, I soon found myself in the central office where I took over direction of the construction of unfinished round-houses and water towers. My prisoner-of-war status was known only to certain high-ranking officials, whom I asked not to reveal it. They all treated me kindly as a colleague and valued my work, which was of help to them due to the lack of engineers. I used this time first, to save money from my wages, and second, to obtain a false passport. I washed it and had my name inscribed in it, since my photo railroad identity card and free pass that I received through my employment had my own name on them. I left the previous owner’s birthplace of Mittau unaltered. Other papers and documents that I had received from various official assignmets, including wage booklets, had my own name on them, and I collected them so that they would support the false passport. Of course, my prisoner-of- war status was not mentioned in any of these railroad papers. During this time I maintained contact with my mates who were unloaded from the invalid train to the Berezowka prisoner-of-war camp. In fact, once, dressed in Russian railroad uniform, I even visited them to discuss an escape plan with Captain György Petrechevich, who readily offered to substantiate all of this. Reckoning with the possibility that the invalid train might be allowed to pass through, I also maintained contact in Irkutak with the Danish consulate, who was in charge of defending the Hungarian prisoners-of-war. Regarding this I am attaching in Appendix 6 a photocopy of the 7 September 1918 letter of the Danish Consulate in Irkutak. In September, in the midst of preparations to escape, Czech legions appeared at the Hilok station searching for prisoners-of-war at large. The Czechs either executed them or forced those with Czech and Slovak names to join the legion. Even though my preparations were not finished, and I was waiting for my previously requested free pass to Harbin which had already reached the railroad management, I gave everything up and thought it better advised to depart eastward immediately. As is evident in the Danish consulate’s letter, I had missed the opportunity to go west. After an adventurous trip, during which on more than one occasion I was in danger of being discovered and shot, in early October 1918 I arrived in Harbin thanks to the numerous documents that supported my passport. Here, at the Chinese eastern railroad management owned by the Russians – who, under the leadership of General Affansiew, also had jurisdiction in the railroad zone – and after much formality, my existing false passport was replaced with a frontier pass with which I could travel to China and Japan. They kept my internal Russian passport for their archives. I have attached in Appendix 7 a photocopy of my frontier pass issued on 31 October 1918. SHANGHAI I arrived in SHANGHAI in early November 1918. I reported to the Russian consulate, which belonged to the White government of Vladivostok, on 3 November 1918 because the pass was issued only for travel to China and Japan, and in the event of further travel I would have had to replace it again with an external passport. It was my intention to work here to UNKNOWN SUNS: LÁSZLÓ HUDEC, ANTONÍN RAYMOND AND THE MAKING OF MODERN ARCHITECTURE IN EASTERN ASIA 332 earn money and be able to get home. The Russian Deputy Consul rewrote my name from Cyrillic to Latin letter by letter, and thus the spelling of my name became “Hudec” instead of Hugyecz. The photocopy of the back of the pass confirms this. It is an interesting turn of fate that thus I returned to the spelling my family had used until 1890. I kept this spelling in Shanghai, and after having become known by this name, I requested during my repatriation proceedings to keep this spelling. Soon after, the 11 November 1918 ceasefire presented me with a new situation, for the English put the German civilian population – who until this time had been free – in concentration camps and confiscated their fortunes. Under these circumstances, I thought it better to stick with my Russian identity for a while, until things settled down. In November of 1918 I received employment at the firm of an American architect, R.A. Curry, as a draftsman. A few months later I became office manager, and later my employer took me on as his associate architect. At this time Shanghai was undergoing its first development boom, and our office became the busiest in Shanghai. Our projects included schools, private homes, apartment buildings, offices and commercial buildings; several of our proposals were award winners. Among these, the eight-story Shanghai American Club building was the most interesting. Given the dire economic situation in Hungary and the extreme difficulties of everyday life, and given my steady living in Shanghai, where I was becoming well-known as an architect, I decided to remain in Shanghai on a permanent basis. Following the collapse of the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy, I had no consular protection in Shanghai and was completely at a loss as to how to maintain my citizenship. The Hungarian Government did not charge the Dutch Consulate with protecting Hungarian subjects until much later, in 1923. Since I had no documents whatsoever to establish my identity, I attempted to have my parents, at home in Besztercebánya, secure a passport for me. But given the postwar conditions and the infrequent communications by ship (there was no postal service via Siberia), my parents were unable to send me a passport. In 1921, due to my father’s sudden death, I had to travel home quickly and needed a passport urgently. Since I had been a resident of Besztercebánya, I turned to the Shanghai Czechoslovak consulate – which so far I had avoided – for a passport. Since I was by then well-known in Shanghai due to my work, the consulate immediately provided me a temporary passport. Upon my return home, I learned that the Czech state had sued to confiscate my father’s estate on political grounds, and had frozen his assets by court order. My father’s estate was represented in the suit by three lawyers retained by my family: Oszkár Petrogalli, a friend of my father’s and leader of the Hungarian community of Czechoslovakia, who has since died; his associate Dr. Béla Bothár, who is today Chief Judge of the Court of Appeals in Budapest, and is willing to provide information; and Dr. Ede Ripelly. At that stage of the lawsuit, the lawyers advised me not to change my citizenship. That same year I returned to Shanghai. In summer of 1922 I married Gizella, the daughter of Carl Theodor Meyer, a German businessman from an old Lutheran trading family from Bremen. My wife’s mother was of English descent, a Tisdall from the Carrickfergus branch, as shown in the family tree in Attachment 20. My wife was born in Shanghai and educated at the Kaiserin Augusta School in Potsdam. In January 1925 I founded my own architectural firm. My work was extremely wide-ranging and my clients included not only the members of the international expatriate community, UNKNOWN SUNS: LÁSZLÓ HUDEC, ANTONÍN RAYMOND AND THE MAKING OF MODERN ARCHITECTURE IN EASTERN ASIA 333 but also members of the Chinese National Government, which took power in 1927. Among my projects from this era was the Country Hospital (1925). Attachment 8 is a description of this project in a Shanghai newspaper, together with my photograph. In 1927 and 1928, I travelled home and again went to Budapest, but both trips were short ones because my business in Shanghai did not permit me to be away for long periods. During these visits I took steps toward my repatriation. In late March of 1929, the Dutch Consulate of Shanghai, which since 1923 had been temporarily charged with the protection of local Hungarians, informed me that further to my petition, the Minister of the Interior of the Royal Hungarian Government had approved my repatriation into the Hungarian State, and called upon me to take an oath of citizenship, which I did immediately, on March 29, 1929. The Certificate of Repatriation was dated June 22, 1928, and its serial number is 36029/1928/II. This means it took nine months for the document to travel from Budapest to the Royal Hungarian Embassy at The Hague, to the Dutch Foreign Ministry, to the Dutch Embassy in China, and finally via the Dutch Consulate in Shanghai to me. The Certificate of Repatriation is attached as Attachment 1. After I took my oath of Hungarian citizenship, I immediately returned my passport to the Czechoslovak Consulate, and also informed the Dutch Consulate of this action. The Dutch Consulate provided me with a temporary Hungarian passport, since they were not authorized to issue permanent Hungarian passports. At this time, Baron Antal Radvánszky – younger brother of Baron Albert Radvánszky, President of the Hungarian House of Magnates, a family friend and an admirer of my father - took the initiative to have me named as Honorary Consul of Hungary in Shanghai. I have attached the correspondence between Baron Antal Radvánszky and Grof Sándor Khuen-Héderváry (the permanent Deputy of the Foreign Minister of the Royal Government of Hungary). This correspondence consists of Attachment 9: a photocopy of Grof Sándor Khuen-Héderváry’s letter to Baron Antal Radvánszky, dated March 6, 1929; and Attachment 10: a copy of Baron Antal Radvánszky’s response, whose original can be found in the archives of the Foreign Ministry, together with a copy of the above letter. Nothing became of the plan to name me as Honorary Consul, partly due to the lack of cooperation (detailed below) by the Czechoslovak authorities, and partly because the Hungarian government had no economic treaty with China. In his letter, Baron Antal Radvánszky makes mention of my prominent position and stable financial situation, and vouches for my reliability in other respects. He was well acquainted with my father and my family. He also writes a few lines referring to a characterization of me by General Molnár based on my activities in battle – a characterization I had not been aware of. Shortly thereafter, the Czechoslovak Consulate informed me that it continues to consider me a Czechoslovak citizen until such time as the Czechoslovak state should revoke my citizenship. But this revocation cannot take place as long as the lawsuit to confiscate my father’s estate (in which I was named as one of the affected parties) is still pending. The Czechoslovak Consulate also informed the Dutch Consulate of this decision – and this step by the Czechoslovaks had a major impact on me. In Shanghai, the Consulates – which in that international city were the highest governing authorities – had a longstanding agreement among themselves that they would not recognize any citizen as their own if another government had not yet revoked that individual’s citizenship. The reason for this agreement was to prevent abuses by the citizens of various nationalities, who enjoyed ex territorialis rights in this international city: the agreement would prevent a citizen from [Document text truncated for crawler view.]