Use of Indicators to Evaluate Sustainability of Animal Production Systems

Use o indica o s o e alua e sus ainabili y o animal p oduc ion sys ems Nahed-To al J., Ga cía-Ba ios L., Mena Y., Cas el J.M. in Mena Y. (ed.), Cas el J.M. (ed.), Mo and-Feh P. (ed.). Analyse echnico-économique des sys èmes de p oduc ion o ine e cap ine : mé hodologie e alo isa ion pou le dé eloppemen e la p ospec i e. Za agoza : CIHEAM / FAO / Uni e sidad de Se illa Op ions Médi e anéennes : Sé ie A. Séminai es Médi e anéens; n. 70 2006 pages 205-211 A icle a ailable on line / A icle disponible en ligne à l’ad esse : -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- h p://om.ciheam.o g/a icle.php?IDPDF=800024 -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- To ci e his a icle / Pou ci e ce a icle -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Nahed-To al J., Ga cía-Ba ios L., Mena Y., Cas el J.M. Use o indica o s o e alua e sus ainabili y o animal p oduc ion sys ems. In : Mena Y. (ed.), Cas el J.M. (ed.), Mo and-Feh P. (ed.). Analyse echnico-économique des sys èmes de p oduc ion o ine e cap ine : mé hodologie e alo isa ion pou le dé eloppemen e la p ospec i e. . Za agoza : CIHEAM / FAO / Uni e sidad de Se illa, 2006. p. 205-211 (Op ions Médi e anéennes : Sé ie A. Séminai es Médi e anéens; n. 70) -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- h p://www.ciheam.o g/ h p://om.ciheam.o g/ Op ions Médi e anéennes, Sé ie A, No. 70 205 Use o indica o s o e alua e sus ainabili y o animal p oduc ion sys ems J. Nahed-To al*, L. Ga cía-Ba ios*, Y. Mena** and J.M. Cas el** *ECOSUR, Ca e e a Paname icana y Pe i é ico Su s/n 29290 San C is óbal de Las Casas, Chiapas, Mexico **EUITA, Dp o. de Ciencias Ag o o es ales, Ca e e a de U e a km 1, 41013 Se illa, Spain [email p o ec ed] SUMMARY – Few indica o s o sus ainabili y a e used in s udying animal p oduc ion sys ems. Sus ainabili y o hese sys ems should be e alua ed in a dynamic and mul idisciplina y manne , and hose indica o s used should allow o de ec ing he sys ems' mos ele an p ope ies, as well as he endency o hose sys ems o change. Indica o s p oposed by FAO p o ide in o ma ion ega ding all a ibu es o sus ainabili y, al hough in a manne which is o e ly ocused on echnical and economic indica o s a he expense o social and en i onmen al ac o s. In o de o use hese indica o s o e alua e sus ainabili y, i is necessa y o: (i) in eg a e and educe he numbe o indica o s, balancing hem o all sus ainabili y a ibu es; (ii) gene a e indica o s which show sys em sus ainabili y in ela ion o he economic, en i onmen al and social con ex ; and (iii) design indica o s which show sys em e olu ion and he in luence o his p ocess on ha sys em’s sus ainabili y. Keywo ds:Goa and sheep p oduc ion sys ems, sus ainabili y, indica o s. RESUME – "U ilisa ion d'indica eu s pou é alue la du abili é des sys èmes de p oduc ion animale". Les indica eu s pe me an de ca ac é ise la du abili é des sys èmes de p oduc ion animale son peu dé eloppés. L'é alua ion de la du abili é de ces sys èmes doi ê e dynamique e mul idisciplinai e e les indica eu s u ilisés doi en pe me e de dé ec e les ca ac é is iques les plus impo an es des sys èmes e leu é olu ion. Les indica eu s p oposés pa la FAO se en à in o me su ous les a ibu s liés à la du abili é, mais d’une açon non équilib ée e op cen ée su le sys ème de p oduc ion. Pou end e possible l’u ilisa ion des indica eu s FAO en an qu'é alua eu s de la du abili é des sys èmes, il con iend a de: (i) édui e le nomb e d'indica eu s ob enus à pa i des données de l’exploi a ion, en che chan un équilib e en e le nomb e d’indica eu s qui co esponden à chaque a ibu de la du abili é ; (ii) géné e des indica eu s ep ésen a i s de la du abili é des sys èmes liés à l'en i onnemen , aussi bien physique, économique que social ; e (iii) c ée des indica eu s qui enseignen su l’é olu ion du sys ème e de sa du abili é. Mo s-clés : P oduc ion o ine e cap ine, du abili é, indica eu s. In oduc ion An animal p oduc ion sys em is expec ed o be sus ainable i i is capable o ep oducing i sel o a easonable leng h o ime and o changing in a imely manne , when condi ions demand, in o de o con inue unc ioning long e m. Fo his o occu , esou ces and ecological and social p ocesses cen al o i s unc ioning should be capable: (i) o ep oducing and sel - egula ing; (ii) o coo dina ing hemsel es o be mu ually compa ible; (iii) o abso bing he shock o ad e se dis u bances in a imely ashion; and (i ) o eo ganizing and adap ing hemsel es in he ace o in e nal and ex e nal s uc u al changes (Mase a e al.,1999). This e y gene al de ini ion helps us know wha we should e alua e when analysing sys em sus ainabili y. Howe e , a me hodology is equi ed in o de o make his analysis ope a i e. This me hodology o analysis, syn hesis, and e alua ion becomes a aluable planning ool as i : (i) allows us o know endencies o change p e ailing in p oduc i e sys ems and hei possible consequences; and (ii) con ibu es o de ining desi able scena ios and iden i ying one o mo e planned in e en ions o he sys em which could modi y undesi able endencies (Mojica,1991). In almos all me hodologies p oposed owa d his end, indica o s a e used o de ine sus ainabili y, in o he wo ds, sa is ying he needs o p esen gene a ions wi hou comp omising possibili ies o sa is ac ion o u u e gene a ions. Acco ding o Che alie e al. (1992), an indica o is a measu e o he obse able pa o a phenomenon which allows us o alue ano he unobse able pa o ha Op ions Médi e anéennes, Sé ie A, No. 70 206 same phenomenon. Fo his eason i becomes a p oximal a iable. Con en ionally, animal sys ems esea ch con empla es he use o limi ed a iables and indica o s, wi hou he e alua ion being o ganized in he con ex o , and wi h a pe spec i e o , sus ainabili y. This s udy analyses con en ional use o indica o s in animal p oduc ion, he basis o e alua ing sus ainabili y, and he possibili ies o using he FAO indica o s in o de o e alua e sus ainabili y o small uminan animal sys ems. Use o indica o s in animal p oduc ion Depending on he scope and objec i e o he s udy, many ypes o indica o s a e used in animal p oduc ion: e.g. om census da a, o da a on consump ion o concen a es pe animal pe yea ; o om an indica o aimed a egional le el decision making, o one o use in ope a ions managemen . Indica o s may be simple o complex, depending on he in o ma ion used and calcula ions made. Some indica o s a e simply aw da a while o he s a e esol ed by combining a numbe o di e en a iables de i ed om he p oduc ion sys em o he ma ke (Toussain , 2002). I we ocus on animal ope a ions and managemen , indica o s may e e o he sys em’s physical o economic aspec s, and hei u ili y will depend on p oduc i e op ions and managemen models (Moyano e al., 2004). In mos o he s udies which men ion indica o s, hese a e g ouped as echnical, economic, o echnical-economic. Technical indica o s may be u he g ouped in o ep oduc i e ( e ili y, numbe o o sp ing pe p egnancy, in e al be ween bi hs, p opo ion o non- p oduc i e bi hs, ep oduce s pe male, % o eplacemen , e c.), p oduc i e (lambs o baby goa s p oduced pe emale pe yea , milk p oduced pe emale pe yea , e c.) and sani a y (% o abo ions, dea hs o ep oduce s, bac e iological quali y o he milk, e c.). Economic indica o s exp ess in mone a y e ms he le el o echnological and business e iciency in he ope a ions. They also measu e he esul s o managemen decisions, including income, cos s, a ia ion in in en o y, and g oss o ne ma gin. Technical-economic indica o s a e e y use ul, especially hose showing income o ma gin pe ep oduce , pe li e, o pe wo ke . These allow o esul s o ope a ions wi h e y di e en p oduc ion o ma ke condi ions. Examples o his ype o indica o a e: income pe ep oduce , ixed cos s pe li e, and ne ma gin pe ep oduce (Pé ez e al., 1998; Moyano e al., 2004). The use o a common me hodology o gene a e echnical-economic indica o s o small uminan animal p oduc ion sys ems has been one o he objec i es o he Sheep and Goa Subne wo k o FAO's P oduc ion Sys ems Ne wo k, c ea ed in 1994 wi h he goal o elabo a ing a ma ix o ollow-up o hese sys ems (Toussain e al., 1999). Ini ially, he Obse a o y analysed he e olu ion o sys ems o di e en egions in he Medi e anean wa e shed in ime and space. Mo e ecen ly, i s ac i i y has had wo ace s: s udy o he unc ioning o sheep and goa p oduc ion sys ems in hese egions and s udy o he en i onmen . Gi en he he e ogenei y o hese sys ems and o exis ing le els o in o ma ion in di e en zones o he Medi e anean egions, om he beginning he Obse a o y has had o de elop a common me hodology o ca y ou compa a i e ( ans e sal) analysis. A collec ion o indica o s has been cons uc ed o: (i) desc ibe he unc ioning o sheep and goa p oduc ion sys ems; as well as (ii) cha ac e is ics and e olu ion o hei en i onmen (Toussain , 2002). The indica o s o unc ioning a e classi ied in o ou le els. Le el 1 includes hose minimal desc ip i e elemen s needed o iden i y he sys ems´ s uc u e. These include land and labou use, p oduc s ob ained, and global economic esul s. Le el 2 includes he o me as well as mo e de ailed echnical, economic, and echnical-economic indica o s. Le el 3 includes indica o s which desc ibe he sys em’s unc ioning in mo e de ail and explain le el 2 indica o s. Le el 3 also includes di e en coe icien s ob ained om he quan i a i e indica o s, which may a y om one si ua ion o ano he . Finally le el 4 includes indica o s aimed a speci ic s udies, o which special da a is needed. The indica o s o cha ac e is ics and e olu ion o hei en i onmen which in luence sys em ope a ions a e s ill being s udied by he Obse a o y. A p elimina y p oposal (Toussain , 2002) classi ies en i onmen al indica o s in o wo le els, and le el 2 is u he di ided in o h ee sub-le els (A, B and C). Le el 1 includes a quali a i e desc ip ion o he geog aphic, economic, social, and poli ical con ex o he ope a ions. Le els 2A and 2B desc ibe hese ac o s quan i a i ely and le el 2C desc ibes hei e olu ion. Op ions Médi e anéennes, Sé ie A, No. 70 207 Founda ions o e alua ing sus ainabili y Sus ainabili y is a pa adigm which aims o comply simul aneously wi h p oduc i e, economic, social, cul u al, and ecological objec i es (Sa andón, 2002). In o de o add ess all hese dimensions, sus ainabili y analysis o animal p oduc ion sys ems should ocus on dynamic sys ems in a mul idisciplina y manne (Kau mann and Cle eland, 1995; Belche e al., 2004). Uni e sal pa ame e s and c i e ia o his app oach do no exis , and app op ia e ools and/o me hodologies a e s ill being de eloped. In o de o analysis o sus ainabili y o be ope a i e, he beha iou o an app op ia e numbe o ele an indica o s should be cha ac e ized. These should be adequa e o he objec i es and scale o he analysis, should in eg a e a iables, should be sensi i e o a wide ange o condi ions and changes o e ime, and should be eadily measu able, eliable, and easy o unde s and (Mase a e al., 1999; Sa andón, 2002). Indica o s should ha e he capaci y o de ec hose p ope ies mos ele an o he sys ems´ unc ioning and hei endencies o change. Such p ope ies o a ibu es a e necessa y o he sys ems o be sus ainable. Some basic p ope ies desc ibed by Conway (1987), Ma en (1988) and Kaine and Toze (2005) a e p oduc i i y, s abili y, eliabili y, equali y, esilience, and au onomy. In his con ex , Mase a e al. (1999) p opose a F amewo k o he E alua ion o Na u al Resou ce Managemen Sys ems (MESMIS in Spanish), which inco po a es sus ainabili y indica o s and in eg a es se en gene al p ope ies wi h which hose sys ems should comply in o de o be sus ainable. We p esen de ini ions upda ed by Ga cia-Ba ios and Pimm (in p ess) o he second edi ion o his me hodology: (i) P oduc i i y: This is he le el o goods and se ices (yields, p o i s, en i onmen al se ices, e c) which he sys em p o ides pe uni o ime and pe uni o inpu in es ed. (ii) S abili y: A p oduc i e sys em is s able i i has in e nal mechanisms which sel - egula e he s a e o i s c i ical a iables, in such a manne ha hey a e main ained a alues which allow he sys em o unc ion. A sys em is s able when one c i ical a iable ( o example, p oduc i i y) is modi ied by a dis u bance, and his e y change c ea es signals and sys emic in e ac ions which cause he a iable o e u n o i s p e ious s a e. (iii) Resilience: This is only p esen in s able sys ems, and is he a e a which he dis u bed a iable e u ns o i s p e ious s a e. I e lec s he e iciency o he sys em’s sel - egula ing mechanisms. (i ) Reliabili y: Dis u bances may cause a c i ical a iable o he sys em o each a s a e in which sel - egula ion mechanisms allowing ha dis u bance o be e e sed canno ope a e. Reliabili y is he p obabili y ha his does no occu . I depends on he equency o he dis u bance, on he esis ance which he a iable o e s o change, and on he ange o alues in which he change is e e sible. ( ) Adap abili y (o Flexibili y): A p oduc i e sys em is adap able i i is capable o eo ganizing i sel o con inue unc ioning when i unde goes i e e sible in e nal o ex e nal changes. ( i) Equali y: A p oduc i e sys em is egali a ian i i allows o ai dis ibu ion, wi hin and be ween gene a ions, in an app op ia e manne , o cos s and bene i s among he social agen s in ol ed. Equali y no only has an undeniable e hical alue, bu i is also a mechanism o social sel - egula ion which con ibu es o he sys em pe sis ing and e ol ing adequa ely. ( ii) Independence: The p e ious p ope ies la gely depend on he ex en o which beha iou o he sys em depends on i s own esou ces, in e ac ions, and in e nal p ocesses in o de o egula e i sel and e ol e, and o wha ex en i depends on condi ions, dis u bances, and ex e nal in e en ions which i does no con ol. F om hese gene al p ope ies, speci ic indica o s a e de i ed, based on echnical, economic, social, and en i onmen al a iables (Mase a e al., 1999). Impo an aspec s o conside o de elopmen and adequa e use o such indica o s a e: (i) Be o e choosing indica o s, one should gene ally cha ac e ize hose sys ems o be e alua ed, conside ing he a eas o e alua ion and pe inen spa ial scale(s). (ii) Tempo al scale o he e alua ion: The necessa y e alua ion pe iod o whe he an ag o- ecosys em is sus ainable on a sho o long- e m basis should ange om se en o wen y- i e yea s (Smy h and Dumanski, 1995). I in he de ini ion o sus ainabili y one speaks o sa is ying he needs o u u e gene a ions, he empo al ho izon should be a leas a gene a ion, o 25 yea s (Sa andón, 2002). Op ions Médi e anéennes, Sé ie A, No. 70 208 Acco ding oMase ae al. (1999), e alua ion o sus ainabili y should be ca ied ou compa a i ely. The e a e wo ways o doing his: (i) longi udinal compa ison, which s udies he e olu ion o an ag o- ecosys em o e ime, in a e ospec i e o p ospec i e manne ; and (ii) ans e sal compa ison, which simul aneously s udies one o mo e sys ems o al e na i e managemen . Pe inen in o ma ion may be ob ained h ough su eys wi h p oduce s, ield measu emen s, li e a u e e iew and analysis, s a is ical in o ma ion o a combina ion o he abo e. Once in o ma ion on he indica o s is ob ained, esul s should be in eg a ed h ough anspa en p ocedu es which can be consis en ly o ganized, analysed, and syn hesized. In he in eg a ion s age, i is no wise o y o con e a g oup o indica o s which a e di e se in na u e and scale o only one o jus a ew “a e age” indica o s in o de o compa e sys ems. A minimum numbe o indica o s necessa y o unde s anding he sys em’s beha iou should be managed simul aneously. Indica o s may be in eg a ed using one o se e al o ms o mul i-c i e ia e alua ion which has been de eloped o his pu pose (Ma ínez-Alie e al., 1998; Munda e al., 1998; Gal án, 2004). These allow o simul aneously unde s anding he po en ials and limi a ions o he beha iou o he e alua ed sys ems in o de o guide decision making on how o selec among sys ems and/ o in e ene in o de o achie e g ea e sus ainabili y. Possibili ies o using he FAO indica o s o e alua e sus ainabili y o small uminan animal sys ems Goa sys ems' sus ainabili y has been ecen ly analysed, based on he indica o s p oposed by FAO (Nahed e al., in p ess). In Table 1, hese indica o s a e g ouped by a ibu e o sys em(s) p ope ies. This esul ed om collabo a ion be ween esea che s o he Animal P oduc ion A ea o he Uni e si y o Se ille and esea che s o ECOSUR (Mexico), and om a p ojec o he Se ille esea che s in collabo a ion wi h he FAO Obse a o y in which a pilo p ojec was launched in o de o c ea e a zone o echnical-economic e e ences in Andalusia (Cas el e al., 2004, Mena e al., 2004). As compa ed wi h indica o s used in sus ainabili y s udies (e.g. As ie -Calde ón e al., 2002; Nahed e al., in p ess), FAO indica o s p ope ly conside p oduc i e and economic aspec s, bu only supe icially social aspec s, and poo ly cul u al and ecological aspec s. The e o e, new indica o s mus be de eloped o animal p oduc ion sys ems o a ying ex en s. The p oduc i i y a ibu e complies wi h he MESMIS me hodology (Mase a e al., 1999). This is logical, as i deals wi h echnical-economic indica o s. The a ibu es o s abili y, esilience, eliabili y, and adap abili y a e only pa ially conside ed, as hese a ibu es equi e ollowing he e olu ion o he sys em. Ins ead, hey we e app oxima ed by es ima ing how he sys em could e ol e o espond o a gi en change ( o example, % o adul mo ali y, p oduce age, le el o implemen ing milking echnology, e c.). The equali y a ibu e was only pa ially conside ed, while sel -su iciency was ully conside ed. Sus ainabili y is a dynamic a ibu e o a sys em. The e o e i equi es ollowing up on he mos ele an indica o s o se e al yea s. Wi h espec o his, he me hodology p oposed by FAO is qui e adequa e, as i is designed o pe iodic ollow-up o sys ems. Sus ainabili y may be e alua ed o a single sys em o by compa ing wo o mo e sys ems. Occasionally, due o lack o in o ma ion, ime o esou ces, e alua ion mus be ini ia ed using da a om only one yea , bu he u u e possibili y o b oadening he s udy ( e ospec i ely o p ospec i ely) should be kep in mind. Fig. 1 p esen s an ex eme example in o de o show he ad an ages and disad an ages o he di e en ypes o e alua ion. The ho izon al do ed line ep esen s he h eshold o lowes accep able le el o a c i ical indica o . In his heu is ic example, a ne minimum ma gin pe goa pe yea (50 €) is aken as a h eshold a which a goa sys em in Andalusia, Spain is abandoned. S1 and S2 a e di e en goa managemen sys ems. E alua ion o a single sys em (S1) may be ca ied ou in a ans e sal manne (e.g. in 2005), in a e ospec i e longi udinal manne (e.g. om 1995–2005), o in a p ospec i e longi udinal manne (e.g. om 2005-2015). The i s is easy o ca y ou , bu only allows us o begin o iden i y possible c i ical indica o s. The second speci ies his o ical da a wi h he ad an age o sugges ing possible u u e endencies. The hi d equi es mo e e o , bu is c ucial in con i ming endencies and hei consequences. Op ions Médi e anéennes, Sé ie A, No. 70 209 Table 1. Sus ainabili y indica o s o goa sys ems g ouped by a ibu e (adap ed om Nahed e al., in p ess) Indica o s Uni P oduc i i y 1. Concen a e/milk p oduced kg 2. Milk sold/goa and yea Li es 3. Fa in milk % 4. P o ein in milk % 5. Kids sold/goa and yea Heads 6. Ne ma gin/l milk p oduced € 7. Ne ma gin/goa and yea € 8. Ne ma gin/ amily wo ke and yea € S abili y, eliabili y and esilience 9. P esence o Payoya b eed o i s c osses % o a m 10. A ea owned/goa ha 11. Na u al pas u e a ea/goa ha 12. B ush a ea/goa ha 13. S ubble a ea/goa ha 14. Goa s p esen Heads 15.Goa mo ali y % 16. Kid mo ali y % 17. Goa eplacemen a e % 18. Bac e ia in milk Pe 1000 ml 19. Soma ic cells in milk Pe 1000 ml 20. Good ca aloguing o b ucellosis con ol % o a m 21. Milk p ice €/l 22. A e age kid p ice €/head 23. Cows/goa Heads 24. Sows/goa Heads 25. Sheep/goa Heads Adap abili y 26. Fa me ’s age Yea s 27. Succession con inui y % o a ms 28. Fo ma ion cou ses a ended by amily membe s Days 29. Milking echnology Deg ee o implemen a ion 30. In en o y a ia ion/goa and yea € 31. Rela ionship in es men /ne ma gin % Equi abili y 32. To al labo /100 goa s Annual wo k uni 33. Family bene icia ies wi hou occupa ion No. 34. To al amily bene icia ies No. 35. Ex e nal wo k o e s No. Independence 36. Ne ene gy ob ained om g azing % 37. To al a ea/goa ha 38. Cul i a ed pas u e/goa ha 39. Ren ed a ea ha 40. Concen a e/goa and yea kg 41. Fo age consumed in ough/goa and yea kg 42. P opo ion o amily wo k o ce in ela ion o o al wo k o ce/100 goa s % 43. Associa ions o which he a me belongs No. 44. Subsidies/goa and yea € Op ions Médi e anéennes, Sé ie A, No. 70 210 S1 and S2 may be compa ed in h ee di e en ways which p oduce di e en conclusions (Fig. 1): (i) T ans e sal: S1 and S2 a e compa ed only in 2005. I is concluded ha ne ma gin (NM) is g ea e in S1 han in S2. The e o e, S1 is p e e ed. (ii) Longi udinal e ospec i e: S1 and S2 a e compa ed om a pe iod p e ious o 2005 (1990- 2005). I is concluded ha NM o S1 was g ea e in 1990, bu ha i s ad an age has declined and in 2005 i s NM is almos equal o ha o S2. Now i is no so clea ha S1 should be p e e ed. (iii) Longi udinal p ospec i e: S1 and S2 a e compa ed in a pe iod s a ing in 2005 (2005-2015). I is concluded ha he p ocesses p e iously shown in he wo sys ems ha e in e ed he ini ial ad an age o S1 o e S2. Fu he mo e, S1 is nea ing he c i ical h eshold o he indica o while S2 is mo ing away om i . S2 should de ini ely be p e e ed. Fig. 1. Hypo he ical beha iou o ne ma gin pe goa in wo sys ems o e he cou se o 50 yea s. S1 and S2 a e di e en goa managemen sys ems. Conclusions Resul s ob ained indica e ha , as a i s app oxima ion o he s udy o sus ainabili y, he echnical- economic indica o s p oposed by FAO a e accep able, as hey p o ide in o ma ion on all a ibu es, al hough o di e en ex en s, and p ima ily ocused on he ope a ions le el. The e is a lack o in o ma ion on how he la e in e ac s wi h he la ge scale economic, en i onmen al, and social condi ions. I is necessa y o de elop a g oup o indica o s which e e o he b oade con ex . To be e conside he mul idimensionali y o he sus ainabili y concep , i is necessa y o u he de elop and be e g oup he indica o s by e alua ion a ea and by sus ainabili y a ibu es. I is also necessa y o de elop a plan o eco ding consis en long- e m da a on ele an indica o s acco ding o he objec i es o he e alua ion. In o de o make he FAO indica o s iable in analysing sus ainabili y o sheep and goa sys ems, se e al ac ions a e necessa y: (i) Reduce he numbe o indica o s o igina ing om ope a ions and keep only hose which a e ep esen a i e o each a ibu e, ying o balance he numbe o indica o s included in each. (ii) Gene a e new indica o s which show he sus ainabili y o sys ems in ela ion o hei economic, en i onmen al o social con ex . 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