The Archaeometallurgy of Copper at Feinan, Jordan: Field Research and Analytical work of an Ancient ore District

THE ARCHAEOMETALLURGY OF COPPER AT PEINAN, JORDAN: FIELD RESEARCH AND ANALYTICAL WORK OF AN ANCIENT ORE DISTRICT (!) And eas Haup mann 1. AIMS AND METHODS OF ARCHAEOMETALLURGY Resea ch wo k in a chaeome allu g is ocussed basically on he de elopmen and di usion o ancien ex ac ion and ea men o me áis, and he e a e wo undamen al ques ions which may be aced back e en o he beginnings o a chaeology i sel . The i s is add essed o he echnology o me al p oduc ion. The second deals wi h p o enance s udies o econs uc ancien ade ways. The echnology o me al p oduc ion comp ises he in es iga ion o mining and smel ing echniques, and he u he ea men o me áis such as e íning, alloying, and smi hing. S udies on hese opics we e pe o med as ea ly as he beginning o his cen- u y, among o he s by Gowland [1] o Zschocke and P euschen [2]. They quickly ecog- nised he bene i o compa ing he a chaeological wi h e hnog aphic e idences o p imi- i e mining and smel ing echniques in coun ies such as Japan, A ica o he Fa Eas . Such obse a ions a e as impoi an as expe imen al wo k, because i has been shown epea edly ha one o he jeopa dises o econs uc ing ancien me allu gical p ocesses is an in ellec ual o e load by me hods o modem me al echnology. In es iga ions on me al p oduc ion, based upon esea ch o ancien p oduc ion cen es, we e neglec ed in a chaeology o a long ime. This is due o i s esea ch heo y which up un il oday is mainly ocussed on a - ela ed a chaeology, and, henee, di- ec ed by aes he ic aspec s. In addi ion, ma e ials like slag -ancien was e— a e ha dly o unde s and by con en ional me hods o a chaeology. To unlock in o ma ions om slags and o es, no only he ins umen al applica ion o chemical, mine alogical and physical me hods is necessa y. An in e p e a ion o esponse a chaeological ques ions in a quali ied ma e is essen ially based upon he dialogue be ween a chaeologis s and scien is s, which also p esupposes a p ope "adjus men " o me hods and scien i ic p oblems o a chaeology. In his sense, pionee ing wo k on mining a chaeological and a chaeome allu gical emains o p ehis o ic me al p oduc ion was published [3,4 and 5]. DMT-Deu sches Be gbau-Museum. Heme s . 45. D -44791 Bochum. Email: [email p o ec ed] I ;ii ; : •! I a a ch'L'Il""! "" ""="•> 'h^'" ^-hí scnous coopc a ion be we^n -ARCHAi;c,M,, RY osul.cd ,n cnsidc able scienu ic daiinH.? ™ "' ,„ a chac<.l.,u . Hxaniples a e Ae chem analyses m a chaeomclallu L-y and ..ihc iclds. DNA analyses »n bio- Uni e !!?' í * '""chacomci onl a cl is ull csiablished uni e si ies in Eu ope. . . . p odii ^^ a c ac s wc c in csiiua cd nio c inicnsi ely ihan ancien h^ T'! ^ bcginning o a cha^ o n Th ^ o igin o me áis o sou ccs, o i ul he o e hcy wc e sme o o lí P o enance s udics wc c he basis o econs ue ancien ade ways ^ on oh '"^0"Tia ions on he sp cad o me allu gy. The so la ia gesi esea ch p oj^ s a is ical analyses o me al ohjee s as ea ied )ui in he six ies y iso ?'"' ^ An angen de Me aiiu gie". La e , lead innc ^ became onc o he mos poue ull ool in p o enance s udic^' esea ch wo k was ea ied ou by he Ciales/Ox o d and by he Hei- e g/Mainz esea ch g oup. Du ing all his wo k i became ob i nis iha p o en^ce les a e in ima ely connec ed wi h ques ions o he o e deposi . and he echnology ea ly me allu gical p ocesscs. -í""— •"— . . . , . especially on ancien p oduc ion siles. , ^ ^"'-Aiions OI ine o e uc|ki.sii. ¿mu ine i ,.— —- ea iy me allu gical p ocesscs. Henee, he e is a conside able deniand on í eld 'ecially on ancien p oduc ion si es o in es iua e o es, ancien mines, and smel ing ;s. ^ III CoNCíRHSü Nacional dl A queome ía 421 mine aliza ions, o a lesse con ení, eme ge a he Wadis Abu Kusheiba/Abu Qu - he si e The coppe o e deposi o Peinan is loca ed a he eas e n ma gin o he Wadi A abah igu e I) which is pa o a ans o m s ike-slip íaul om he Red Sea o he Za- g os-Tau us subduc ion zone. By a la e al mo emen o he A abian and he A ncan ia es, he i di ided he o iginally cohe en eoppc o e dis ic s o Timna and Peinan, he mine aliza i ^iya a he sou h The ou c ops o coppe o e in he Peinan dis ic comp ise an a ea o ca. 20 x 25 ( igu e 2). Fieid wo k ea ied ou in a join p ojcc bc ween he Depa men o An- iQUi ies, Ammán (Jo dán) and he Deu sches Be gbau-Museum, Bochum (Gena^^y) as e ealed ha a Peinan ea ly coppe p oduc ion ook place on a la ge indus^al ^^ale. Smel ing si es wi h 150.000 o 200.()()() o slag and mo e han 150 copps ®xceeded by a any ac i i y a Timna o a he smel e o Bi Nasib, Sinai. Indeed,in ^ is egión no o he smel ing si e o simila sizc is known. Peinan, he e o e, mus ha e P'ayed an impo an ole in he ea ly coppe supply o he sou he n Le an . he exploi a ion o he o e deposi Peinan is pa o an o e dis ic which is exposed a se e al local i ies along he ma - 8|ns o he Wadi A abah. I is a s a a o m, sedimen a y deposi o a mul is age on- 8in. The o es mono onously consis o seconda y coppe o es such as a acami e» ^ ^ Medi e anean Sea Nile del a lAín Ghazal Je icho^^^Ghassul Nahal Mishma ^ Shiqmim Abu Ma a A ad Bi Sa ad! I Bab edh - Ob a iNumei a i ▲ Peinan Abu Kusheiba #Beidha Tell Maqass Bi Nasib oo km Red Sea Figu e 1. Geog aphic map o he sou he n Le an and Sinai wi h coppe deposi s (-) and a chaeologi- cal si es (*) men ioned in he ex . 422 As'dke^ í Hmjp mann 30 45 40 35 - 30 30 - Wii be d-Jo iye Khi bo cl-uhuwebe . _'k Wii be en-„.h_. Ras " ^ en-Naqob WADI PIDAN Ain el- idan ¡y. Feino" SA9-15 _ 16 PEINAN SLS!íí! «., 18.19 Abu Ohubbaneh Ba ca ol-Heh e Smel ing si e Mining a ea JORDAN Umm el-Amad 5 km 35 15 25 30' 35 35 Figu e 2. The ancien o e dis ic in he a ea o Feinan a he oo hill.s o he Jo danian Pla ean. Indi- ca ed a e smel ing si es and mining a eas. Each mining symhol ep esen s a locali y whe e .some imes i p a i y indi idual mines ha e been disco e ed. The loca ion o mines on he n ap a e p ima ily associa ed wi h ou c ops o coppe o es. Se lemen s men ioned in he e.x a e abo shown. chi e, and a ious coppe silica es (ch ysocolla, diop as) which a e embedded in ía dipping shales and sands ones [9]. Di e en o many o he p ehis o ic o e dis ic s which a e mo e o less des oyed by modem mining ac i i ies, a Feinan i is possible s ill oday o collec high g ade o es wi h a coppe concen a ion o > 50%. This ype o o e deposi is a he a e in he Nea Eas , i has jus one pa ailei in La e P ecamb ian sedimen s in he sou hwes o he Sinai peninsula [10]. O he wise, and his is o majo impo ance o be e unde s and he de elopmen o me allu gy in he Oíd Wo ld, sul ídic o e deposi s a e p e ailing. These a e mos ly o hyd o he mal o igin, and he i on hu o gossan o such deposi s is exposed o he su ace. Wi h in- c easing dep h, a zone o oxidized o es is below he ou c op; i co e s a seconda y en- ichmen zone and inally he p ima y o e deposi . This sequence o changing com- posi ions se ed as a simpli ied model o explain he s epwise de elopmen o me allu gy: III Cong eso Nacional de A queome ía 423 he ea lies use o na i e coppe , hen he smel ing o oxidic coppe o es, oliowed by he ex ac i e me allu gy o (complex) sul ídic Cu/Fe-sul ídes. Due o hei o igin, Feinan and Timna a e ha dly o dis inguish in hei mine al con en , geochemis y, and in he iso opic composi ion o hei lead [11 and 12]. Fo ins ance, he chemical composi ion o mo e han 100 samples o o es om Timna, and he same numbe om Feinan showed ha he concen a ions o hose elemen s a e simila in bo h deposi s which should be mo e o less en iched du ing smel ing in he me al (Ag, Pb, Zn, As, Sb, Co, Ni). This implica es ha also me al objec s made om Timna o Feinan coppe o es, espec i ely, a e ha dly o dis inguish. The e is a possibili y, howe e , o sepá a e a leas he coppe o es om he wo locali ies. This is due o hei di e en geological se ing. A Feinan, he majo o e ho izon in he Dolomi e-Limes one-Shale Uni (DLS) is widely exposed o he su ace especially in he Wadi Daña and Khalid ( igu e 3). The uppe pa o his o ma ion, in a hickness o ca. 1-1.5 m, p o ides plen i ul g eenish coppe silica es, malachi e, and a acami e, embedded in a se ies o Camb ian shales which con ain conside able concen a ions o ca bona es, manganese o es and phospho i e ( igu e 4). The co e- sponding o ma ion in he wes , he Timna-Fo ma ion, is bu ied unde a hick sequence o sedimen s and, wi h bu a ew small ou c ops [12], was only exploi ed by modem mining ac i i ies. A Feinan, o es om he DLS we e easily o exploi in ancien imes, because o he iabili y o he shales. In a s a ig aphic highe o ma ion, he Massi e B own Sands one (MBS) hin ein illings occu which we e o med by a emobi- 400 . Wadi Dona Umi Khalid V Vedi Abad ■< X ' I I Massige b aune Sands eine i-- -'-'1 Bun e Sand-u Tons eine y/// Doiomi -Kalk-Tons ein olge I- ■ " I A k ose - Sands ei ne !• • I G ani Cu-E z GEOLOGIE UNO BERGBAU IM FENAN-GEBIET lUJ X Chalkoli hisch (ZU X Rbmisch X F uhe B onzezei I IX Eisenzei Figu e 3. Simpli ied de elopmen o mining ac i i ies in he Feinan dis ic . The geological sec ion Wadi Khalid-Wadi Daña .shows s o o e-bea ing o ma ions (Massi e B own Sands one, MBS, and Dolomi e- Limes one-Shale Uni , DLS). They we e e.xploi ed in di e en pe iods by speci ic echniques. 424 I i! : l ¡' III CoNcíRiiso Nacional dk A qui-ome ía 425 gañese^ ■ " coppe -nmn^onesc o e wi h Mcnis o Coppe .sili((' e. . en he idcd in hlock ^ oxides. The coppe con ení o ihis samples is 44 w .'/ .' Seale: 0.2.'^ < " . iza ion o coppe . Due o hei spa ial disi ibu ion, his mine aliza ion had o be POi ed by di e en mining echniques ( igu e 3). Howc c , i is his o ma ion ba ®n ains exclusi ely a Timna cup i ied plan elies. Nei he a Timna, ño a Peinan na i e coppe was ound. This is wo h men ion- '"8, because his was pe haps he main eason why me allu gy in he sou he n Le- an s a ed wi h a ch onological delay in compa ison wi h Ana olia and I a"- he^P coppe equen ly occu s in o e deposi s, and i was u ilized e en since e e-Po e y Neoli hic pe iod o making beads and small ools by ho and cold wo king. in ^' oge he , he ancien me allu gis s a Peinan had bene i om he o es a ailabl^ "^any espec s: They we e smel ed by a one-s age p ocess. No oas ing was necessa y as i i® c case wi h sul idic o es, e.g. om hose a Rio Tin o o Cyp us. he^ high pe cen age o i neg ained clay mine als in he hos ock especially i*^ ® LS conside ably imp o ed he eac ion a e o he componen s. wh'^h assoeia ion wi h manganese-(hyd -)oxide.s p o ided a "sel - luxing" quickly led o he o ma ion o a liquid slag inside he umace. In addi ion, be me allu gis s had no o con ol he gas-a mosphe e o he umace in such a se e e way as i is necessa y du ing smel ing i on- ich composi ion o o es. 4. THE CHRONOLOGY OF THE USE OF ORES AT FEINAN One o he majo goals o he p ojec was o es ablish a ch onological ame o he use o o es and he majo ac i i ies o coppe p oduc ion in he Peinan dis ic . Fo se e al easons, we almos exclusi ely collec ed cha coal samples om inside he mines, and om slag heaps cu by e osión o da ing by '^C-measu emen s. Al oge he 51 adioca bon-measu emen s we e ca ied ou a he Uni e si y o Heidelbe g. As ou main ield ac i i ies we e based upon su eys, po e y could be collec ed jus om he su ace and, henee, was o ümi ed alué. In addi ion, while po e y only a ely is ound in ancien mines and slag heaps, hey abound in cha coal elies om he use o wood e.g. o ligh o imbe ing and om smel ing ac i i ies. The esul s ob ained a e no comple e, and hey will be comple ed by u he exca a ions. O es om he coppe deposi o Peinan we e u ilized o a pe iod o oughly 10.000 yea s ( igu e 5). They we e used o making beads and cosme ics du ing he P e-Po e y Neoli hic in he 8"' millennium. The i s e idence o smel ing da es o he S"" millennium. I does no come om Peinan i sel , bu om chalcoli hic se lemen s in he Bee She a basin, in a dis ance o 100 km and mo e, whe e o es om Peinan we e expo ed o and we e smel ed inside he illages. Du ing he Ea ly B onze Age (EBA) II-IV, he e is he i s e idence o a mass p oduc ion a Peinan. Li le ac i i ies we e p o en om he Middle B onze Age, bu a he La e B onze and he I on Age he e is e idence o Sa dJ ^2qm m Nahai Mls ima Wsdl Fld^n A, 11 T« l WadI Ponan Wadl Rdan Aj — ' "i Banja oJ^ío lyo J Ras on^laqa i Ponan lb« 4,9 C iwai 3 Ham a uan Ja yo Nahas Penan S Ba qa el-He íya M: Wadl Oana. Khalid B. 9 10000 B C 8000 6000 4000 2000 O A.D 2000 Figu e 5. O e iew o adioca hon-da a om he Feinan a ea. I shows ha he o e deposi waí u Uiz.ed since he P e-Po e y Neoli hic p un ii he Roman-Byzan ine pe iod. No shown a e ac i i ies in he Mam- luck pe iod. 426 '' ' II A.SDKEAS some echnc^' ^ 'ndus ial scale. Majo slag hcaps da e o he Román pe iod, some echos o me al p oduc ion we e ound a he Mamiuck pe iod. 5. EXTRACTIVE me allu gy o coppe and snliHi ^ (scien i ic) s udies on ancien slags we e ocussed on he o ma ion we e in p ^ampies ha we e nol oldc han he LBA. As a ule, slags don hp younge smel ing si es such as Cyp us, Rio Tin o, Lau- ma e iak Tuscany [13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18 and 191. All hese i iAn .L ha hey we e p oduced a e he incep ion and de elop' iíimo/-> K,, níii A .,* o he men n h common ha hey we e p oduced a e he incep ion and de elop' slae h III CoNGRBSo Nacional de A queome ía 427 e p oce.ss - as i was named by C addock |2()1. Also mos o h aps a Peinan da e o he La e B onze and I on Ages and o he Román pe iod desV ^ especially, howe e , ha he ield e idence a Peinan p o i- copne p oduc ion o he EBA in he Nea Eas . The e a e se e al co es smel ing si es wi h an es ima ed onnage o 2800 o slag which yea s Th P oduc ion o se e al hund ed ons o me al wi hin a pe iod o lOOO oas" M coppe p oduc ion exis s ex e excep ion o he island o Ky hnos (21 ]. In addi ion, "si e coppe p ocessing was exca a ed wi h mo e han 600 cas ing moulds and ^^gmen s o hem, o e ICO me al objec s, nume ous c ucible agmen s, and a cache shaped ba ingo s [221. This me al ac o y was loca ed in a wa e -bea ing A ab^lT^^*^^ he Wadi Pidan opens a na u al ansi om he Peinan a ea o he V/adi an and, he ewi h, an access o he wes e n ci ies and se lemen s in Canaan. in es iga ion o slags unlocks mos impo an in o ma ions o and smel ing p ocesses. By means o mine alogical ex u e and phase con en 35 :hemical bulk analyses in o ma ions on smel ing pa ame e s can be ob ained sUch ^"lel ing empe a u e (o in e al o solidi ica ion, om which empe a u es in he ^_ nace may be econs uc ed), composi ion o he gasa mosphe e ( edox-condi ions)» scosi y, and he composi ion o he cha ge. Howe e , he las men ioned poin only J"o ides accep able esul s i slag analyses we e compa ed wi h he ac ual o es which "^® l o smel ing. O he wise, i is ha d o a güe whe he sel - luxing o es we e imV^^ ^ " luxes we e added o imp o e he o ma ion o slag. The las poin would bab/^^^^ ^ echnological de elopmen , simila o delibé a e alloying p ocesses. a luxes was o e es ima ed in a chaeome allu gy, as a esul o a has y ns e ence o p ehis o ic me allu gy o mode n echnologies and p ác icos. A e my ' iion, he e is no ha d e idence ye o he delibé a e use o l uxes be o e he La e ^ onze Age. ^ T'he chemical bulk composi ions o slags p oduced a Peinan since he Ea ly B onzc h s^ MnO, and PeO a e he p edominan! componen s ( igu e 6): con mainly silica e slags e y ich in manganese we e p oduced du ing Q ^^^"^^l ing.The phase con en comp ises eph oi e (MujSiOa), a ious modi ica ions ^"-py oxenoids, (Bus ami and Rhodoni ) and high amoun s o glass. Slags o Oli ine MnO Figu e 6. Chemical composi ion o coppe slags om dij e en pe iods in he Peinan dis ic . All bii hose om he Mamiuck pe iod a e ex emely ich in manganese. Román slags a e su p isingly high in SiO;. / = Ea ly B onze Age //////. 2 = ¡ on Age. 3 = Román pe iod. 4 = Mamiuck pe iod. such composi ions a e a he a e in Oíd Wo ld a chaeome allu gy. They we e obse ed jus in o e dis ic s whe e manganese o es a e in e g own wi h coppe o es, e.g. Timna, Cyp us, and Omán. O he wise, he mos common composi ions a e i on- ich silica e slags wi h he well known ayali e. The p ojec ion o educed bulk analyses o slags om Peinan in o sui able phase diag ams (e.g. in o he ema y sys em Ca0-Mn0-Si02) poin s o liquidus empe a u es be ween 1190 and 1300 °C. E en a la ge ange o CaO- and MnO- concen a ions would no a ec hese a he low empe a u es, i.e. he me a- llu gis s had no o ake ca e abou a ying con en s o dolomi e o manganese in he cha ge and in almos e e y case i was possible o p oduce a liquid slag. In he Román pe iod smel ing was ca ied ou a highe empe a u es. We conclude his om highe SÍO2 concen a ions which indica e empe a u es o > 1400 ®C. These empe a u es p obably we e ha dly eached in eali y, and i should be conside ed ha , in gene al, alkali-concen a ions would lowe he mel ing ange o a silica e liquid. Expe imen al .Ja. ! ' I i i .lli! 428 Asmi AS nieasu emen s o h » i ■ "ideedshowed ha ihey^woul^h^V'^ aiid I on Aycs slays in hc labo a o y iney would be l.qudied he ween 1 1 70 and 1210 °C. •ain much hig o'GiO-con^^^^^ Age slags c""' cia ion o o es be o e ch'i p' This niiuli be due o a poo bene i "•«k in he o e. This a,s mo cl. /hl'pp c'X'''"'",'''"'''"''''' ' '' " •"'"P""'"." aN •nma i ely ihe -in mj., p, "bspously had a sell lluxina composilio"- ""8 i"' wind-d i en umaces ai ^"nng cxpc inien al uo k o ccons uc e "ace cons uc ion e-í pH u/ h U í>bsc ed ha he Ca- ieh elay used o ' "'■c/hcs oek c, a la L'e ex en a empe a u es a ound esul ed om^'^ h^^M h^ '^bow a na ow aniie oí" eompíísi ions which p ^" 'haeolo¿a lwel 'T 'Im is con l med by a - P'' was ound niM u/ai '"•'"l '<> an I oii Age smelling " 'uuna íijjed wi h manganese o es (24) I age^o u ^'^^n^o-physieal p ope ies p o ide a decisi e a<í- o nside í. ''"' T " ' <-4-' P------ " 'he CO/CO. «oiue ne umace and he emne :iíii -. . . . . . o;_ ^""•age ,h ' '-"p T '■'"^'""-PhyMcal pn.pc «'io nside í. ''"' ""i " ' 'h'-- 'i III CoNCiRi-sc) Nacional di-: ARQUEOMi míA 429 <=«es 'i ^"T? "='"P<=''"'" c, npanganese oxide and ai.so manganese si- «'hich !, ,,T T®'"' ^■">•■"¡"8 'hnn ¡ on siliSa e slags «"osp e ; ' °T ^'■<-'""=7"-"" gy. They a e no. alTcCed by a changing ■n>n e wii ? : "'¡'Jiiion o cha coal in o he u nace. '"8condiHon?n''T""' '!! p"°" '"""Sánese, e.spee i cly. unde s ong educ- ° oxy " p 'Silica os a e e cn liquid unde a su pl"S '-•OnoxS C ^""'d solodily due o he p ecipi a ion o and hep,; . ™"'^'d®'-ably a ee hc .scpa a ion o me al om he slag- ' '^"ce, he quali y o smel ing ope a ions in gene al. ™'idinea ion empe a u es o slags using plo s neous "P"" ma e ial wbich de lni i cly was o med om a homoge- 'n caseT"'' '■■"m he La e B onze and I on Ages. Ve o p undecomposed ehcs o he cha ged ma e ial, he me hod is useless. '•e o é 'he incipien s ages o ex ac i a me allu gy- e*hibi 'í'" "I'"®""'"'"- ■''hey o en did no each he ulJy liquid s a e and oxide o^'ons o he o es cha ged, and a e ex emely high in coppe o coppe * ■ show all ea u es o a sho - e mina ed smel ing in small eac ion esseis millennium BC se lemen o Viíc • j he ^ad" p example, we e eco e ed om he 4'" millennium BC se lemen oí eas e ep e.sen a i o coppe smel ing slags o his pe iod in he cha ^ ^^di e anean [25]. A mac og aph ( igu e 7) indica es ha only pa s o he ® e we e liqui ied. They consis o elinopy oxene, magne i e, and glass, and La ge^'^*^^' composi ion poin s o a smel ing empe a u e o app oxima ely 1150 " T. con é consis o mm-sized agmen s o sands one whe e he o iginal mine al ^ id ex u e is p ese ad. The e is no e idence o he use o any luxes. In S®' i Fi il e 7. Mac og aph o a siag om he 4''' mille mium BC se lemen o Wadi Fidan 4 (Feinan a ea). The slag did no each he idly liquid s a e and con ains la ge agmen s o undecomposed sands one (whi e and g ey inclusions) and d ople s o cup i e and coppe (no isible on he o o). Wid h o he slag: 5,5 cm. ñe a!, ayali e, a common phase in slags om la e pe iods, is missing. Ins ead, Cu- and Cu/Fe-oxides like cup i e, eno i e and dela ossi e a e ypical p edominan cons i uen s and a e eason o majo losses o coppe in he slag. They indíca e a i ing unde lew educing condi ions. This is - ypical o smel ing p ocesses in small c ucibles. We conclude om he ex u e and he phase con en o hese ea ly slags ha i ne e was he p ima y goal o smel ing p ocesses o p oduce a liquid slag. Rega ding he high coppe con en o he o es a ailable i was p obably much mo e he in en- ion, o educe o e, o liqui y he me al and o sepá a e i om he hos ock, which by chance migh o migh no ha e eached he liquid s a e [26]. A mechanical sepa a ion o coppe by c ushing and g inding he slag was a common p ac ice o me al eco e y. 6. THE COPPER: VARYING QUALITY OF METAL IN DIFFERENT PERIODS Slags use o con ain inclusions o coppe which we selec ed ou o me allog aphy and chemical analyses (elec ón mic op obe analysis and ICP-OES) o cha ac eiize he me al p oduced. We in es iga ed his aspec in o de o be e dis inguish be ween na u al impu i ies and delibe a ely alloying p ac ices in la e s udies o me al a e ac s. Excellen ield condi ions enabled us o di e en ia e be ween smel ing si es om di - e en pe iods, and, he e o e, be ween coppe p oduced e.g. du ing he EBA and he I on Age ( igu e 8). 430 • 1 ! 10000-^/9 0,01 J 0.001 0.0001 J 0.00001 0^ 'ídO i ] Pb Zn Ni Co Coppe 1 Chalcoli hic 2 Ea ly B onze Age 3 I on Age O es: BMl Peinan DLS ~] Peinen MBS ^'gu e 8. Inle qua He un ies and medians <> se i- al ace elemen s in o es and coppe p il s oni slogs J on he Peinan u ea (no malized o Cu = 100). No e he a yin i concen a ions o elemen s in cop- P^ om dij e en pe iods. Basically, coppe o es and coppe om Peinan a e cma kably pu é in o he o es and me áis in he eas em Medi e ancan. Inclusions o cup i a o ^al ides a e e y low in he me al, bu occasionaiiy we obse e inclusions o i ®"" Phosphides which a e no uncommon in coppe p oduced om sedimen a y o e d®' Posi s. Looking mo e in o de ails, we obse ed a ying concen a ions o mino - and ace elemen s in he me al. This is caused by he exploi a ion o a ious pa s o he deposi , and by he echnological de elopmen o u naces. Due o he use o ® es om he MBS, he lead concen a ions a e a he low in EBAI coppe ; we obse e an lac ease up o a ew pe cen o his elemen (i.e. an en ichmen by a ac o o lO^O) coppe om he 3"^ and P' millennium, when o es om he DLS we e minad. he o he hand, concen a ions in coppe o i on and zinc a e p ima ily in lne*^' C6d by echnological aspec s. Thei dis ibu ion in slag o me al is a unc ion o h® ^ lox-condi ions, i.e. he oxygen concen a ion in he gas a mosphe e o he u nace. ^ íh i on- and zinc-con en s in he I on Age coppe , he e o e, may be expiained hy ^®ag educing i ing condi ions caused by a new cons uc ion o smel ing u naces. While EBa i c ucibles and na u al d augh u naces o he EBA II-IV ope a ed unde ®|Ta ic, bu a he low educing condi ions [27], be e con olled s ong educing con- he°"^ ^e e achie ed in la e pe iods by he use o bellows and uye es. They caused ^ » P ecipi a ion o a ew pe cen o me allic i on. High amoun s o i on in coppe » cases e en i on objec s we e epo ed om I on Age Timna. In con as o Peinan» III Cong eso Nacional de A queome ía 431 whe e manganese o e cons i u es he p e ailing hos ock, i on-(hyd-)oxides a e asso- cia ed wi h coppe o e he e. Gale e al. [28] con incingly demons a ed by lead iso- ope analyses on o es, coppe - and i on-a e ac s how i on p oduc ion was de eloped om he me allu gy o coppe . 7. LEAD ISOTOPE ABUNDANCE RATIOS OF COPPER FROM FEINAN To ace he dis ibu ion o expo ed Peinan coppe and o econs uc ancien ade- ways, a se ies o o es and me al inclusions om slags we e analyzed o hei lead iso ope abundance a ios a he Max-Planck-Ins i u e o Chemis y a Mainz. He e- wi h, any p oblems ela ed o ace elemen a ia ions in he o e deposi and on he way om o e o me al can be a oided. I was a majo ad an age o analyze coppe p ills in slags om well da ed smel ing si es, because hey a e be e ep esen a i e han single o e samples. We made wo obse a ions which a e cha ac e is ic. The i s is a la ge ange o composi ions o lead iso ope abundance a ios in coppe o es as a esul o he mul i- s age o igin o he deposi . This a ia ion is iden ical wi h Timna, bu he "Timna/Pei- nan ield can easily be sepa a ed om o he o e dis ic in he eas em Medi e anean ( igu e 9). Second, and his is a use ul ool o dis inguish be ween coppe om he wo deposi s, is a clus e o lead iso opes in all di e en abundance a ios o o es om he DLS. This is iden ical wi h all coppe p ills analyzed om he EBA and I on Ages. I ully suppo s he ield e idence: mining ac i i ies du ing hese pe i ods ocussed exclusi ely on his o e ho izon which was widely exposed o he su - ace in he whole Peinan a ea. A Timna, he co esponding Timna o ma ion is ex posed o he su ace by one e y small ou c op a Gi a Sasgon [29]. Any composi ions o me al objec s, he e o e, ha ma ch he DLS and he coppe de i ed om his o ma ion, wi h a high deg ee o p obabili y has i s o igin in Peinan a he han in Timna. 8. EXPORT OF COPPER ORES AND COPPER The b illian g een and blueish colou ed coppe o es om Peinan we e u ilized and aded since he P e-Po e y Neoli hic Pe iod a he S''' millennium BC. A ha ime a new ashion eme ged in he eas em Medi e anean. The coulou ed, u ilized since he Paleoli hic, changed o g een, and abundan í nds o g een beads, igu es, and cos- me ics we e made in se lemen s. Among hese "g eens ones" we e mine als such as amazoni e, u quois, C -apa i e, C -calci e, and in he Le an also seconda y coppe o es. They we e iden i ied easily by X- ay di ac ion and pe og aphic analyses. In case o Cu-silica es, hei o igin om Peinan could be de e mined wi h a high deg ee o p obabili y, because hey a e widesp ead exposed o he su ace. A o he deposi s, hese mine als a e ei he e y a e o do no occu . Beads and o he ma e ials made o Cu-silica es we e ound, o ins ance, a Bas a, Beidha, and a Ain Ghazal, a Je icho ( igu e 1), and e en a Yi ahel in Galilee. They 432 o HAVPnLWi III CoNCRiiso Nacional d . A qu ome ía 433 Z14 Z12 Z10 zoe zoe Z04 2°8pb/2oepb Fenan und Timna Vi ' +■44-+7 + .-¿1 O / I y I /• K /' /Q> y Zypem 1 E gani Maden • J -- " ^ ^ ^ I A V'' ^ ( Ana oiien und Agáis Zypom2^>'' / ✓'' ' / " ¿-Keban / » * / / ' » ' I i ' * * / * ' ' 3 / m ^ I ^ ✓ * ✓ _ Saudl-A abian _ * Saudí-A abien • Sinai 2O7pb/20epb 0.82 0.84 0.86 o.sa a9o Figu e 9. Lead iso ope abi ndance a ios o coppe o es om ihe Wadi A aba (aii symhois e.xcep i lled ci cles and as e isks). They de ine he "Feinan-Timna- ield" wbieh is di 'e en om all oíbe composi ions known om Saudi-A ahia and o e deposi s in ¡he Nea Fas . a e e idence ha he Peinan dis ic wa.s embeddcd in a a eaching ading ne wo k. The adi ion o ading o es om Peinan con inued un il he 5"' and 4'*' millennium BC when he ea lies emains o ex ac i e me allu gy appca in chalcoli hic se lemen s o he Bee She a basin. This indica es ha he monopol o coppe was in his e gión, in a conside able dis ance o he sou ce, and i poin s o a domes ic mode p o- due ion o coppe . On he o he hand, he dis ibu ion o Peinan coppe o es was limi- ed o he sou hem Le an . As ye , he e is no e idence o a u he eaching ade o o es om he e. Coppe om Peinan is p obably also among he 400 me íii objec s o he amous Jadean Dese Hoa d om Nahal Mishma . I is da ed o he i s hal o he 4"" mil- ^nium BC. The a e ac s o his hoa d a e basicaliy di ided in wo g oups o objec s ' u consis s o "p es ige i ems" such as c owns, scep e s and aceheads; he second consis s o " ools" such as axes, adzes and chisels. While he "p es ige i ems" a e made o an exo ic coppe -a senic-an imony- alloy, he " ools" we e cas om pu é coppe wi h a low concen a ion o ace elemen s. This seems su p i- sing, and one would expec he " ools" o be made o ha de alloys ins ead o ela i ely so coppe . Howe e , he main easons o manu ac u e he "p es ige i ems" p obably we e he ex emely low mel ing poin o he alloys which conside ably imp o ed he cas ing quali ies, and aes he ic easons. We can de íni ely exelude ha he me al o he p es ige i ems" esul s om local sou ces. The analyses o hund eds o o es and cop pe p ills om slags in Timna, Peinan, and he Sinai peninsula demóns a e ha such alloys we e no smel ed om local o es. Howe e , he chemical signa u e o he " ools" ma ches he one o he coppe o es om he Wadi A abah -Timna and Peinan-, and he analyses o lead iso ope abundance a ios poin o a possible o igin om Peinan. This obse a ion is suppo ed by indi ec e idence o 5"' millennium BC mining ac i- i ies and he me al p oduc ion a ound 3500 BC a Wadi Pidan 4. The " ools" may p incipally also esul om Timna-o es which, e en o a lesse ex en , we e aded du ing he 4"' millennium BC o Tell Abu Ma a in he Bee Sheba basin, bu mainly o Tell Maqass nea Aqaba [30]. The e idence o chalcoli hic coppe smel ing a Timna i sel , howe e , is s ill hea ily deba ed. Coppe i sel was expo ed om Peinan no be o e he Ea ly B onze Age II a he beginning o he 3*^ millennium BC. Du ing his pe iod, coppe was p oduced in la ge amoun s and eached an "Indus ial S age". I ook place in he icini y o he o e de posi s, as e idenced by nume ous mines and smel ing si es. Tin b onzes we e aded. Me allu gy inside habi a ion si es was, as a ule, limi ed o manu ac u ing p ocesses [30]. The ma ke o Peinan-coppe again was in he wes . Recen exca a ions by Le y e al. [22] b ough o ligh pe haps he la ges EBA coppe ac o y o he Nea Eas a Ham a I dan. This si e seemed o ha e been no only he cen e o coppe p o- cessing and cas ing o he en i e Peinan a ea. In addi ion, i was p obably he con ol ling poin , a checkpoin o he expo o coppe o he wes . This disco e y is mos in e es ing, because i comple es he í eld e idence as men ioned be o e: The EBA coppe mining and smel ing ac i i ies a Peinan, i.e. he p ima y p oduc ion, is he la ges known so a in he Nea Eas . We can demóns a e ha Peinan coppe was expo ed in la ge quan i ies again o se lemen s and o he EBA II/III ci ies in he wes and in he no h. In con as o p oblems o p o enancing which exis o chalcoli hic coppe by he a ia y o lead iso ope abundance a ios, we now a e able o ollow mo e com o able he dis ibu ion o Peinan coppe . The eason is he clus e o iso ope composi ions o o es om he DLS which was exclusi ely exploi ed du ing his pe iod. I men ioned be o e a - gumen s o he ield e idence. An excellen example a e he coppe objec s om A ad, an EBII ci y nea he sou h- wes em edge o he Dead Sea. We analyzed 21 awls, axes, and chisels. Wi h bu a ew excep ions, he chemical and lead iso opic composi ion o hese objec s we e iden ical wi h coppe smel ed du ing he EBA in he Peinan a ea ( igu e 10, [10]). We obse e a much be e con o mi y o hese da a han i was he case wi h Nahal Mishma . This í ' ' ■ : i¡ I ■ I I 434 A mnAS Hau masx 208 Pb 206 JO. l^ad 'Soiope abundance o ios o coppe ^'" e acis om A ad ond he Sinai. The lead iso ope <^omposi ion in all bu wo coppe °'^e ac s om A ad and he Sinai " "^"^ya ible wi h an om Peinan, ' ^ all coppe o es ^^nai analyzed can be uled ou ( om [JO]}. 2.140 2.120 2.100 2.080 2.060 2.040 Pb ★ me al • slag • Feinan O o e-MBS 4^ o e-DLS "jí o e-MBS Abu Kusheiba A o e Sinai 4^ A ad a i ac s -} ^CD * CD A A O 207 Pb 206 Pb L_ 0.82 0.84 0.86 0.88 l^caused by he exclusi e exploi a ion o he DLS o e o ma ion which is cha ac e ized P''onounced homogenei y in i s chemical and iso opic composi ion. We can no exelude ha he objec s om A ad may ha e hei o igin in Timna. This, is unlikely o wo easons. Fins , he o e dis ic o Peinan is close o A ad, y abou 70 km away. Timna, in he sou hwes e n pa o he A abah, is nea ly 130 om A ad. Second, he o e o ma ion o he dolomi e-limes one-shale uni is ex- "^si ely exposed o he su ace a Peinan; a Timna, in con as , he e a e only a 'y small ou c ops o his o ma ion. Ob iously, coppe was p oduced he e only in quan i ies. Ro henbe g and Shaw [291 de.sc ibed jus a small mine, Timna 250, la ^ ^"^el ing si e, Timna 149 a Gi a Sasgon, which is da ed o he EBA IV, i-e. han he l ou ishing pe iod o A ad. In any case i can be excluded ha he A ad ^'a ading . .. .... ^y Bei h-A ieh [32]. and - iiuuiiMiiii^ w. ,,, any case, II can mai ' ading cen e o coppe om he Sinai peninsula, as sugges ed by Ami an [31] 1/ * III Cong eso Nacional de A queome ía 9. BIBLIOGRAPHY 435 [1] Gowland, W., 1899, The Ea ly Me allu gy o Coppe , Tin and I on in Eu ope, as Illus- a ed by Ancien Remains and he P imi i e P ocesses Su i ed in Japan. A chaeologia 56, 267-322. 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