Gender composition at work and women's career satisfaction: An international study of 35 societies

Recei ed: 1 June 2021 - Re ised: 4 July 2024 - Accep ed: 30 July 2024 DOI: 10.1111/1748-8583.12570 SPECIAL ISSUE ARTICLE Gende composi ion a wo k and women's ca ee sa is ac ion: An in e na ional s udy o 35 socie ies Jane L. Y. Te ps a‐Tong 1 |Len J. T e iño 2 |Ala a Cansu Yaman 3 | Fabian Jin ae F oese 3,4 |Da id A. Rals on 5 | Nikos Bozionelos 6 |Oli ie Fu e 7 |B ian Tjemkes 8 | Fidel León‐Da de 9 |Yongjuan Li 10 |Pingping Fu 11 | Ma io Mol eni 12 |Ian Palme 13 |Zuzana Tučko á 14 | E na Szabo 15 |Gab ielle Poeschl 16 |Ma in Hemme 17 | Ma ía Te esa de la Ga za Ca anza 18 |Sa oko Suzuki 19 | Na asimhan S ini asan 20 |Jaime Ruiz Gu ié ez 21 | An onin Rica d 22,23 |Zol an Buzady 24 |Luis Sigala Papa ella 25 | Vik Naidoo 26 |Ma ia Kangasniemi‐Haapala 27 |Te ik Dalgic 28 | Vojko Po ocan 29 |Yongqing Fang 30 |Cal in Bu ns 31 | Ma ian C owley‐Hen y 32 |Vi ginia Lasio Mo ello 33 | And e Peke i 34 |Shabnam Seyed Mehdi 35 | Abdullah A. Aldousa i 36 |Maya Bal aza He e a 37 Co espondence Fabian Jin ae F oese, Uni e si y o Goe ingen, Pla z de Goe inge Sieben 5, Goe ingen 37085, Ge many. Email: [email p o ec ed] Abs ac D awing om s a us cha ac e is ics heo y, we de elop a mul ile el model o explain he ela ionships be ween gende composi ion (e.g., emale‐ emale supe iso ‐ subo dina e dyads, a emale majo i y a he nex highe Abb e ia ions: CFA, con i ma o y ac o analysis; CFI, Compa a i e Fi Index; HLM, hie a chical linea modeling; ICC, in aclass co ela ion coe icien s; MGCFA, mul i‐g oup con i ma o y ac o analysis; MNEs, mul ina ional en e p ises; RMSEA, oo mean squa e e o o app oxima ion; TLI, Tucke – Lewis Index; WBL, Women, Business and he Law Index. Jane L. Y. Te ps a‐Tong, Len J. T e iño and Ala a Cansu Yaman con ibu ed equally. This is an open access a icle unde he e ms o he C ea i e Commons A ibu ion‐NonComme cial‐NoDe i s License, which pe - mi s use and dis ibu ion in any medium, p o ided he o iginal wo k is p ope ly ci ed, he use is non‐comme cial and no modi ica- ions o adap a ions a e made. © 2024 The Au ho (s). Human Resou ce Managemen Jou nal published by John Wiley & Sons L d. Hum Resou Manag J. 2024;1–31. wileyonlinelib a y.com/jou nal/h mj - 1 le el, and a emale majo i y a he same job le el) in he wo kplace and women's ca ee sa is ac ion. We hypo he- sise ha wo king wi h a emale supe iso and a emale majo i y a he same le el will be nega i ely ela ed o women's ca ee sa is ac ion, while a emale majo i y a he nex highe le el will be posi i ely ela ed o women's ca ee sa is ac ion. Mo eo e , we p opose ha o mal so- cie al (gende ‐equali y) ins i u ions and in o mal cul u al (gende ‐egali a ian) alues, each has a mode a ing e ec on he impac o gende composi ions on women's ca ee sa is ac ion. Ou esul s om a mul ile el analysis o 2291 women ac oss 35 socie ies suppo he h ee hypo hesised main e ec s. Whe eas ins i u ions ha suppo gende equali y weaken he posi i e e ec o wo king wi h a e- male majo i y a he nex highe le el, hey ampli y he nega i e e ec o a emale majo i y a he same hie a chical le el. Ou indings highligh he complex and pa adoxical na u e o gende composi ion e ec s on women's ca ee sa is ac ion. We discuss he heo e ical con ibu ions o ou indings and hei implica ions o he di e si y manage- men p ac ices o mul ina ional en e p ises. KEYWORDS ca ee sa is ac ion, gende s a us belie s, in agende compe i ion/ coope a ion, pa adox, queen bee phenomenon, s a us cha ac e is ics heo y 1 | INTRODUCTION The p opo ion o jobs illed by women globally has inc eased subs an ially o e he las se e al decades (Fields & Blum, 1997; O iz‐Ospina e al., 2018). In esponse, a esea ch s eam has eme ged ega ding he impac o gende composi ion (e.g., emale‐majo i y, male‐majo i y, and mixed‐gende wo k en i onmen s) on indi idual and eam ou comes. In he con ex o women a wo k, some no able con ibu ions include Engel e al. (2023), who ound ha women conside ing joining a s a ‐up a e sensi i e o o ganisa ional gende composi ion and less willing o apply o jobs in s a ‐ups wi h a mino i y o women. In addi ion, Bo n e al. (2022) epo ed ha women we e less willing o lead han men, i espec i e o eam gende composi ion, bu mo e willing o lead a emale‐majo i y eam han a male‐majo i y eam. Mo eo e , B adley e al. (2021) ound ha emale‐majo i y eams pe o med be e han male‐ majo i y eams when in e pe sonal dislikes we e p esen among eam membe s. Fu he mo e, Bo dalo e al. (2019) disco e ed ha belie s abou one's abili y a e mo e gende ‐s e eo yped in mixed‐gende pai s han in same‐gende pai s. These indings complemen one o he mos popula esea ch a eas in gende composi ion esea ch, namely boa d gende composi ion and i s impac on o ganisa ional decisions and pe o mance (Ahmed & A i , 2021; Li & Zhang, 2019; Romano e al., 2020). 2 - TERPSTRA‐TONG ET AL. 17488583, 0, Downloaded om h ps://onlinelib a y.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/1748-8583.12570 by Tomas Ba a Uni e si y in Zlin, Wiley Online Lib a y on [16/12/2024]. See he Te ms and Condi ions (h ps://onlinelib a y.wiley.com/ e ms-and-condi ions) on Wiley Online Lib a y o ules o use; OA a icles a e go e ned by he applicable C ea i e Commons License Al hough he a o emen ioned s udies indica e ha subs an ial s ides ha e been made in unde s anding he impac o gende composi ion on indi idual, eam, and o ganisa ional ou comes, li le is known abou how gende composi ion ela es o he subjec i e e alua ion o ca ee s, including ca ee sa is ac ion. This is un o una e, as ca ee s a e impo an o he as majo i y o people (Ande son e al., 2015), and ca ee sa is ac ion is he mos widely used indica o o how people iew and e alua e hei ca ee s (Heslin & La zke, 2019; Hu e al., 2022; La an, Jabbou , Jabou , Ali & Pe ei a, 2022; Te ps a‐Tong e al., 2022). Indeed, ca ee sa is ac ion e lec s indi iduals' e alua ion o hei ca ee p og ession and p ospec s (Abele & Spu k, 2009; G eenhaus e al., 1990). The impo ance o he subjec i e pe spec i e o ca ee s has been s ongly emphasised o i s u ili y in explaining and p edic ing how indi iduals eel and ac in o ganisa ional en i onmen s (D ies, 2020). Fo example, ca ee sa is ac ion is ela ed o willingness o sha e knowledge wi h colleagues (Kundi e al., 2023), inno a i e beha iou s (Zhu e al., 2022), and u no e in en ions (Zhu e al., 2019). The e o e, how gende composi ion in he o ganisa ional en i onmen ela es o ca ee sa is ac ion can p o ide insigh s in o how employe s can e ain women employees and mo i a e hem o pe o m well (c . Ng & Feldman, 2014). The inclusion o mo e women in leade ship posi ions has been ound o play a c ucial ole in acili a ing g ea e women's ep esen a ion in lowe o ganisa ional le els (Cohen & B oschak, 2013; Kim & Kim, 2023). P omp ed by his inding and he po en ial ou comes associa ed wi h inc eased ep esen a ion o women, we ex end he gende composi ion li e a u e by in es iga ing whe he g ea e ep esen a ion o women a a ious le els wi hin an o ganisa ion would simila ly lead o highe ca ee sa is ac ion—a psychological s a e ha mos employees and employe s would aspi e o achie e. This leads o ou esea ch ques ion: To wha ex en does gende composi ion con ibu e o he ca ee sa is ac ion o women employees? Answe ing his ques ion is impo an because gende composi ion in an o ganisa ion is a modi iable social s uc u e achie able h ough delibe a e o ganisa ional in e en ion, simila o changing he gende mix on a co po a e boa d. As such, we belie e ha modi ying gende composi ion could be a ac ic ha o ganisa ions use o achie e hei wo kplace gende equi y objec i es. Addi- ionally, we a gue ha gende composi ion is as impo an as inc easing he shee numbe o women gi en i s associa ion wi h desi able o ganisa ional ou comes. To his end, we in es iga e h ee al e na i es. Fi s , we examine he ex en o which wo king wi h a emale supe iso (i.e., a dyad) is ela ed o ca ee sa is ac ion o women subo dina es. Second, we s udy he ex en o which wo king wi h a emale majo i y a he nex highe le el (i.e., a c oss‐le el g oup) is ela ed o ca ee sa is ac ion o women. Thi d, we e alua e he ex en o which wo king wi h a emale majo i y a he same hie a chical le el (i.e., a pee g oup) is ela ed o women's ca ee sa is ac ion. We selec hese gende composi ion ela ionships because hey a e he mos immedia e and p oximal in e pe sonal con ex s ha indi iduals encoun e in he wo kplace. In de eloping he heo e ical ounda ion o his s udy, we d aw p ima ily om s a us cha ac e is ics heo y (Ridgeway, 2011,2019) o concep ualise he po en ial in agende dynamics inhe en in he a o emen ioned gende composi ion con ex s, ul ima ely impac ing women's ca ee sa is ac ion. Acco ding o Ridgeway (2019), s a us e e s o he compa a i e social anking o indi iduals o g oups, de e mined by he le el o honou , espec , and es eem acco ded o hem. S a us, deeply ing ained in people's minds, ac s as a ‘cul u al schema ha indi iduals employ o manage si ua ions whe e hey a e ei he coope a i ely in e dependen o achie e desi able goals, o compe i i ely in e dependen o enhance hei pe sonal ou comes om collabo a i e e o s’ (Ridgeway & Ma - kus, 2022, p. 3). The e o e, s a us belie s and pe cep ions shape how indi iduals espond o social si ua ions. Ex apola ing on his poin , we posi ha s a us belie s and pe cep ions also guide indi iduals o assess he ex en o which hey pe cei e a si ua ion as compe i i e o coope a i e, o bo h. Acco dingly, we posi ha gende composi ion ep esen s a con ex wi hin which women engage in compe i ion, coope a ion o bo h in he pu sui o ca ee sa is ac ion. We a gue ha he balance be ween compe i ion and coope a ion a ies acco ding o women's psychological p opensi ies in coping wi h di e en gende composi ion con ex s in o ganisa ional se ings. In he wo kplace, his compe i ion‐coope a ion dynamic is likely mo e p onounced among women han men, gi en he o en‐ epo ed emale‐on‐ emale hos ili y and compe i i e beha iou s owa ds one ano he (Apicella e al., 2017; Heim e al., 2001; Miz ahi, 2003). Howe e , women a e also known o celeb a ing sis e hood and uni y in some TERPSTRA‐TONG ET AL. - 3 17488583, 0, Downloaded om h ps://onlinelib a y.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/1748-8583.12570 by Tomas Ba a Uni e si y in Zlin, Wiley Online Lib a y on [16/12/2024]. See he Te ms and Condi ions (h ps://onlinelib a y.wiley.com/ e ms-and-condi ions) on Wiley Online Lib a y o ules o use; OA a icles a e go e ned by he applicable C ea i e Commons License con ex s (Hu man, 2013; McNul y, 2018), sugges ing a complex ela ionship be ween collabo a ion and i al y. Fu he mo e, o explain how women espond o compe i i e si ua ions in he wo kplace, we highligh he ‘in isible bu dens’ (i.e., disad an ages ela i e o men) hey end o endu e a wo k (Ridgeway & Ma kus, 2022, p. 627). To de elop ou h ee main hypo heses, we begin wi h a e iew o he cen al ene s o s a us cha ac e is ics heo y and he coope a ion‐compe i ion amewo k, and we supplemen hem wi h addi ional concep ual ools commonly used in he gende s udies li e a u e o unea h he challenges ha women ace in a gi en con ex . Fo example, Hypo hesis 1is ela ed o emale‐ emale subo dina e‐supe iso dyads and, as such, we u n o he li e a u e on he queen bee phenomenon o suppo ou heo isa ion, gi en he equen ly epo ed ension be- ween emale dyads. Fo Hypo hesis 2, which ocuses on c oss‐le el g oups, we adop he social compa ison lens o explica e he possible compe i i e o coope a i e dynamics gi en he ob ious s a us di e ence and nume ical di e en ials. Fo Hypo hesis 3, which is ela ed o pee g oups, we ocus on he ca ee ‐as‐a‐ ou namen model due o he embedded compe i ion among pee s in his con ex . While hese h ee concep ual ools may appea un e- la ed, hey all all unde he domain o concep s ha a e use ul o explaining compe i ion/coope a ion dynamics and women's esponses in he wo kplace. Pai ed wi h s a us cha ac e is ics heo y, hese concep ual ools enable us o cap u e he dominan in agende dynamics inhe en in a gi en gende composi ion con ex , and how he na u e o he con ex a ec s women's pe cep ions o hei ca ee s. To his end, we u ilise a p ima y in e na ional da ase o 2291 pa icipan s spanning 35 socie ies. As indi iduals' beha iou s a e nes ed in socie ies, and ca ee s e ol e wi hin ecosys ems and ex e nal en i onmen s, socie al ac o s exe simul aneous in luences on women's ca ee pe cep ions (Ba uch, 2015; Kossek e al., 2017). Fu he mo e, gende s a us, as a cul u al schema, may a y ac oss cul u es and, as such, i s impac could be a ec ed by he p e ailing s a us pe cep ions owa ds women in a gi en socie y. The e o e, we include o mal ins i u ions (gende equali y laws and egula ions) and in o mal cul u al en i onmen s (gende egali a ianism alues) (No h, 1990) ha shape membe s' gende ‐ ela ed esponses and beha iou s, as socie al mode a o s in ou mul ile el models. By explo ing hese ela ionships ac oss di e se cul u al se ings, ou s udy seeks o p o ide a nuanced unde s anding o he in e play be ween o ganisa ional gende composi ion and women's ca ee sa is- ac ion. Figu e 1p o ides ou hypo he ical model. Ou mul i‐socie y, mul ile el s udy makes se e al impo an con ibu ions o he gende composi ion li e a u e. Fi s , in es iga ing he ela ionship be ween gende composi ion and ca ee sa is ac ion seen h ough he lens o s a us cha ac e is ics heo y and he pa adoxical compe i ion‐coope a ion pe spec i e ep esen s a no el heo- e ical app oach. While he compe i ion‐coope a ion pe spec i e is o en u ilised in he s a egy li e a u e, i has FIGURE 1 Concep ual model. 4 - TERPSTRA‐TONG ET AL. 17488583, 0, Downloaded om h ps://onlinelib a y.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/1748-8583.12570 by Tomas Ba a Uni e si y in Zlin, Wiley Online Lib a y on [16/12/2024]. See he Te ms and Condi ions (h ps://onlinelib a y.wiley.com/ e ms-and-condi ions) on Wiley Online Lib a y o ules o use; OA a icles a e go e ned by he applicable C ea i e Commons License a ely been applied in wo kplace beha iou al s udies. This is e idenced by he call o pu sue his line o esea ch by Ka k, Yacobo i z, Seagl‐Caspi and Kalke ‐Zimme man (2023). Second, ou indings enhance ou unde s anding o con ex ual de e minan s o ca ee sa is ac ion, he eby add essing he call o mo e con ex ‐ ela ed esea ch on ca ee success (Spu k e al., 2019) and expanding he knowledge bounda ies o he ca ee success li e a u e. Thi d, ou da ase , which includes da a om 35 socie ies, is a signi ican imp o emen o e p io single‐coun y esea ch. As such, ou c oss‐socie al s udy b oadens he geog aphic bounda ies o he li e a u e, allowing us o de elop globally gene alisable insigh s (Gel and, 2024; Hennekam e al., 2017). Speci ically, ou mul i‐socie y indings enable us o disce n which indi idual‐le el indings a e likely o be global (in he absence o a socie al mode a ing e ec ) and which a e likely o be idiosync a ic (in he p esence o a socie al mode a ing e ec ). Whe e socie al mode a ing e ec s a e iden i ied, we assess whe he he socie al in luence is supplemen a y (magni ying he indi idual‐le el e ec ) o complemen a y (weakening he indi idual‐le el e ec ). By examining hese ela ionships c oss‐ cul u ally, we explo e he nuances and deepen ou unde s anding o he impac o gende composi ion in he wo kplace. This is c ucial o heo e ical e inemen , as mul i‐socie y s udies help o cla i y he geog aphic bounda y condi ions o heo ies ha ha e been de i ed om single‐le el s udies. Fou h, he in eg a ion o ou mul ile el esea ch design wi h ou mul i‐socie al da ase add esses conce ns ega ding indi idual‐le el ela ion- ships nes ed in socie al‐le el mac oeconomic en i onmen s (Smi h & Bond, 2019), allowing us o delinea e he a iance explained a he indi idual‐le el e sus he socie al‐le el and yielding mo e p ecise indings (Hox e al., 2017). 2 | THEORETICAL BACKGROUND Ou heo e ical amewo k begins wi h s a us cha ac e is ics heo y, whe ein we highligh he impac o lowe s a us on women's p o essional li es. We hen elabo a e on he in e play be ween compe i ion and coope a ion in an examina ion o he impac o gende composi ion on women's s a egies o ca ee sa is ac ion, se ing he s age o a deepe discussion in he hypo hesis de elopmen sec ion. 2.1 | S a us cha ac e is ics heo y Women's p o essional expe iences in he wo kplace can be unde s ood h ough s a us cha ac e is ics heo y (Be ge e al., 1977; Co ell & Ridgeway, 2006). S a us e e s o he es eem, espec and honou acco ded o an indi idual o a g oup in compa ison o o he s, based on social cha ac e is ics such as gende o ace (Co ell & Ridgeway, 2006; Ridgeway, 1991). People o highe s a us a e pe cei ed o ha e highe gene al compe ence and abili y ac oss asks and domains (Bunde son, 2003). S a us ma e s in all social ela ions as i shapes o he ‐and sel ‐expec a ions abou how one should ac , eac , ea o he s, and be ea ed (Co ell & Ridgeway, 2006; Ridgeway & Ma kus, 2022). In essence, i ac s as a basis o he di e en ia ion o expec a ions. In he wo kplace, s a us belie s a ec employees' pe cei ed sel ‐compe ence and o he s' pe o mance pe cep ions o hem, he eby in luencing hei access o esou ces and oppo uni ies (Be ge e al., 1977; Co ell & Ridgeway, 2006; Ridgeway e al., 2022). As such, lowe ‐s a us people, compa ed o highe ‐s a us people, ace ce ain ‘in isible bu dens’ (Ridgeway e al., 2022, p. 627). Speci ically, women end o be pe cei ed as less compe en han men, as well as less i o ha ing au ho i y (Ridgeway, 2011). These a e bu dens wi h which men a e no encumbe ed and o which men ypically a e no e en awa e ha women a e so encumbe ed, simply because women a e pe cei ed as lowe s a us ela i e o men. Gende , as a p o o ypical di use s a us cha ac e is ic (Co ell & Ridgeway, 2006) and a p ima y s a us schema, unc ions as a men al sho cu . I enables o he s o e icien ly gauge an indi idual's compe ence and abili ies, e en when he e is limi ed knowledge abou he pe son's speci ic cha ac e is ics and capabili ies (DiMaggio, 1997; TERPSTRA‐TONG ET AL. - 5 17488583, 0, Downloaded om h ps://onlinelib a y.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/1748-8583.12570 by Tomas Ba a Uni e si y in Zlin, Wiley Online Lib a y on [16/12/2024]. See he Te ms and Condi ions (h ps://onlinelib a y.wiley.com/ e ms-and-condi ions) on Wiley Online Lib a y o ules o use; OA a icles a e go e ned by he applicable C ea i e Commons License Elleme s, 2018; Ridgeway, 2011). This aming mechanism has led o pe asi e gende s e eo ypes wi hin he wo kplace, whe e women a e o en pe cei ed o be lacking he compe encies and abili ies necessa y o high‐s a us oles (Ka ila & Me iläinen, 1999; Ridgeway & Co ell, 2006). Ins ead, hey a e expec ed o exhibi ypical communal cha ac e is ics such as nu u e, exp essi eness and compassion. I is c ucial o ecognise ha hese gende s a us belie s a e common, consensual knowledge ope a ing on an unconscious and implici le el, and ha hey a e au oma ically ac i a ed when people (women and men) y o make sense o social si ua ions (Eagly e al., 2020; Ridgeway, 2011). Indi iduals wi h highe asc ibed s a us a e o e ed mo e oppo uni ies o pa icipa e in and in luence hei o ganisa ions because hey ep esen an ‘ideal wo ke ’ image (Ridgeway e al., 2022, p. 627). Consequen ly, hey ecei e mo e posi i e e alua ions om o he s and hei con ibu ions o he g oup a e pe cei ed as mo e aluable han hose wi h lowe asc ibed s a us (Co ell, 2004), all o which lead o mo e ca ee suppo and esou ces (Spu k e al., 2019). Gi en hese ad an ages, indi iduals wi h highe asc ibed s a us (e.g., men) a e mo e p one o demons a e ini ia i e, sha e hei ideas, and e en in e up o he s in wo kplace se ings (McDonald e al., 2004), u he ein o cing hei ele a ed s a us. Con e sely, s a us belie s p o ide no ma i e guidance o women o assume a subo dina e ole in he wo kplace, encou aging hem o downplay hei con ibu ions and exhibi less ini ia i e han men (Weck e al., 2022). Un o una ely, his c ea es a sel ‐ ul illing p ophecy (Cohen & Rope , 1972), ein o cing women's in e io posi ion wi hin an o ganisa ion. In spi e o hese obs acles, ca ee ‐o ien ed women can al e o he s' pe cep ions o hei s a us and hence lessen he impac o in isible bu dens hey ace by achie ing speci ic s a us cha ac e is ics. Speci ic s a us cha - ac e is ics con ey in o ma ion abou an indi idual's compe ence o expe ise in ela ion o a well‐de ined and iden i iable ask (Be ge e al., 1977). Wo king diligen ly and displaying e idence o pe o mance a e e ec i e ways o enhance he pe cep ion o speci ic s a us cha ac e is ics. Indeed, c oss‐socie al s udies (e.g., Rals on e al., 2024) ha e ound ha women a e as p oac i e as men in applying o ganisa ionally bene icial, sel ‐se ing, and image‐ building upwa d in luence s a egies, and hese s a egies can be applied in he p ocess o na iga ing one's ca ee . Howe e , because o hei di use lowe ‐s a us cha ac e is ic and being pe cei ed as less‐compe en han men, women end o no only ou pe o m hei male coun e pa s o p o e hei abili ies, bu addi ionally, hey end o shoulde he ‘bu den o p oo ’ (Wagne & Be ge , 2017) by demons a ing hei ela i e pe o mance. This bu den has been e e ed o as double s anda ds (Foschi, 1996), and in p ac ice, i means ha he pe o mance o lowe ‐ s a us indi iduals (e.g., women) is usually highly sc u inised because excep ional pe o mance by hem is unex- pec ed, based on hei lowe s a us‐based expec a ions. These deeply ing ained cul u al belie s abou compe ence in luence e e yday in e ac ions, policies, and job e alua ions, mos ly disad an aging women (Ridgeway, 2011; T e iño e al., 2018; Webbe & Giu e, 2019). To e ec i ely coun e hese cul u al belie s abou compe ence, we posi ha women mus coo dina e hei social ela ions wi h o he s by s a egically engaging in ei he compe i ion o coope a ion, o bo h, wi h hei colleagues (Ridgeway, 2011,2019). 2.2 | Coope a i e and compe i i e in e pe sonal dynamics The compe i ion‐coope a ion in e dependence e lec s a undamen al ension in human socie y and in he wo kplace, whe e people need o coope a e wi h o he s o gain access o esou ces necessa y o su i al, while simul aneously compe ing wi h hem o maximise wha hey can ob ain om hese coope a i e endea ou s (Ridgeway, 2019; Ridgeway & Ma kus, 2022). In he wo kplace, compe i i e in e dependence e e s o indi iduals engaging in con lic o e ini e esou ces o ewa ds, mani es ing as a d i e o ou pe o m o he s o secu e indi idual bene i s. In con as , coope a i e in e dependence mani es s in indi iduals wo king oge he ha moniously o a ain sha ed goals. This in ol es mu ual assis ance, in o ma ion sha ing, and coo dina ed e o s o maximise join ou comes, mi o ing women's communal gende ed expec a ions (Eagly & Wood, 2012). These compe i ion e sus coope a ion social si - ua ions ep esen a con ex in which he gende game ubiqui ously comes in o play (Ridgeway, 2011). 6 - TERPSTRA‐TONG ET AL. 17488583, 0, Downloaded om h ps://onlinelib a y.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/1748-8583.12570 by Tomas Ba a Uni e si y in Zlin, Wiley Online Lib a y on [16/12/2024]. See he Te ms and Condi ions (h ps://onlinelib a y.wiley.com/ e ms-and-condi ions) on Wiley Online Lib a y o ules o use; OA a icles a e go e ned by he applicable C ea i e Commons License The compe i ion‐coope a ion pa adox is complex and can lead o a ious ou comes, as coope a i e si ua ions can gene a e p omo i e in e ac ion h ough which membe s achie e posi i e ou comes a g oup and indi idual le els (Tjos old & Johnson, 2013). As de ailed by Tjos old and Johnson (2013, pp. 418–420), p omo i e in e ac ion in ol es a mu ual exchange o help and suppo , bo h in e ms o ask accomplishmen and he sha ing o alued esou ces and in o ma ion, and in e ms o ecip ocal c i ique and ein o cemen o each o he 's wo k and collabo a i e e o s. The la e s imula es bo h pa ies o engage in c i ical hinking, and mu ually mo i a es hem o s i e owa ds highe accomplishmen s. These mul i‐dimensional in e ac ions no only ad ance he accom- plishmen o collec i e goals bu also enhance pe sonal de elopmen , job sa is ac ion, and ca ee sa is ac ion o he indi idual (Tjos old & Johnson, 2013). Con e sely, a compe i i e si ua ion could be a double‐edged swo d, as compe i ion can mo i a e people o engage mo e a wo k, bu i can also lead o bu nou , wi h a nega i e ne e ec on ca ee sa is ac ion (Spu k e al., 2021). En e ing a compe i ion is a na u al esponse o sca ci y o alued esou ces, especially when indi iduals' s a us is a isk. Indeed, s a us wi hin an o ganisa ion is o en a ze o‐sum esou ce, as F ank (1985) desc ibed, and he e o e, employees equen ly e alua e whe he hei s a us is h ea ened (Ande son e al., 2006). When a h ea is pe cei ed, heigh ened compe i ion is likely o ensue. The e alua ion can be guided by he pe cei ed dis ance o a s a us gap ha in ol es social compa ison. Following he cen al idea p oposed by Reh e al. (2022), social com- pa ison ha is ela ed o p oximal s a us gaps (e.g., among pee s) as opposed o dis al s a us gaps (e.g., be ween employees o di e en hie a chical le els), can igge a s a us h ea . Con e sely, when indi iduals pe cei e dis al s a us gaps wi h hose wi h whom hey in e ac , hey a e likely o see hese gaps as inspi a ional, a he han h ea ening, and o espond wi h sel ‐imp o emen beha iou s, such as he pu sui o g ow h. In addi ion, women end o shy away om compe i ion (Niede le & Ves e lund, 2007), and hey compe e agains women mo e o en han agains men (Buunk e al., 2011). Fu he , hei app oach o compe i ion dis inc i ely di e ges om ha o men, in luenced by physiological and sa e y conside a ions ha lead o an inna e inclina ion owa ds a oiding di ec compe i ion (Vaillancou & K ems, 2018). When engaging in compe i i e be- ha iou s, women a e mo e likely o adop low‐ isk, indi ec s a egies, in con as o he di ec and o e ac ics ypically employed by men. The compe i i e manoeu es o women o en mani es h ough nuanced social dy- namics, including social exclusion, unde mining, and he o ma ion o alliances (Ma in e al., 2014; Vaillancou & K ems, 2018). These s a egies aim o sub ly diminish a i al's s a us wi hou engaging in open con lic , e lec ing a sophis ica ed applica ion o social ne wo ks and a conce n o main aining communal ha mony while pu suing compe i i e ad an age. This complex in e play be ween compe i ion and social in e ac ion highligh s he unique ways in which women na iga e compe i i e en i onmen s, employing s a egies ha le e age social in elligence and ela ional acumen o achie e hei objec i es in social ela ions. Wi h he backg ound in o ma ion on he p e alence o compe i ion and coope a ion in he wo kplace, he in isible bu dens women bea , hei p e e ence o a oiding compe i ion, and hei inclina ion owa ds indi ec compe i i e s a egies, we will u he elabo a e in he nex sec ion on how hese ac o s a ec he impac o he h ee di e en gende composi ions on women's ca ee sa is ac ion. The na u e o compe i i e en i onmen s, coupled wi h women's dis inc i e app oaches o compe i ion and coope a ion, signi ican ly impac s hei ca ee sa is ac ion. This impac likely leads o educed sa is ac ion in highly compe i i e se ings whe e hei indi ec s a egies and communal expec a ions may be unde alued o mispe cei ed. 3 | HYPOTHESES DEVELOPMENT 3.1 | In e pe sonal dynamics wi h a emale supe iso The ela ionship be ween a supe iso and a subo dina e usually in ol es bo h coope a i e and compe i i e in e dependence. Howe e , we a gue ha in emale‐ emale supe iso ‐subo dina e dyads, he in e pe sonal TERPSTRA‐TONG ET AL. - 7 17488583, 0, Downloaded om h ps://onlinelib a y.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/1748-8583.12570 by Tomas Ba a Uni e si y in Zlin, Wiley Online Lib a y on [16/12/2024]. See he Te ms and Condi ions (h ps://onlinelib a y.wiley.com/ e ms-and-condi ions) on Wiley Online Lib a y o ules o use; OA a icles a e go e ned by he applicable C ea i e Commons License dynamics likely exhibi mo e compe i ion han coope a ion han in male‐male dyads o in mixed‐gende dyads. We posi so based on he di use gende s a us cha ac e is ics ha ad an age men in he wo kplace, and he associa ed queen bee and upwa d challenge e ec s o which we now u n. Due o uni e sal gende s a us belie s, e e y woman en e s he wo kplace unde he weigh o in isible bu dens. As socie y ends o iew women h ough a communal lens due o s a us belie s, he quali ies o ca ing and nu u ing a e emphasised (Conway e al., 1996; Zheng e al., 2018). This places women in a lowe ‐s a us posi ion in he co po a e domain because he ideal, p omo able wo ke is ypically po ayed as male, cha ac e ised by quali ies such as d i enness, dominance, and asse i eness (Ridgeway & Ma kus, 2022). In mos wo kplaces, masculini y, adi ionally associa ed wi h men, is s ill highly alued and ewa ded, whe eas eminini y, ypically associa ed wi h women, is s ill unde alued (Ca lsson, 2020; Hecha a ia & Ing am, 2016). When women a ain supe iso y oles, hei supe iso s a us does no elimina e hei di use gende s a us; ins ead, hey a e bu dened wi h dual oles (i.e., a double bind)—being a supe iso and being a woman (Bie ema, 2016). Wi h he pe sis ing backg ound e ec s o lowe ‐s a us, emale supe iso s a e o en iewed as less compe en han hei male coun e pa s (Ayalew e al., 2021; Samuel & Mokoaleli, 2017). Thus, while women end o see and ea hei male manage s as ‘manage s’, subo dina e women end o see and ea hei emale manage s as ‘women’ (Ma in, 2006). The e o e, hey a e mo e inclined o exhibi compe i i e beha iou s owa d a emale supe iso han owa d a male supe iso , esul ing in wha we label, an upwa d challenge (c . Ka k, e al., 2023). This hie a chical compe i ion ope a es in bo h di ec ions, and i could be di ec ed downwa ds whe e a emale supe iso exhibi s compe i i e beha iou s owa d subo dina e women, esul ing in he ‘queen bee’ phenomenon (G angei o e al., 2024; S aines e al., 1974). The queen bee phenomenon desc ibes beha iou s exhibi ed by suc- cess ul women leade s in mixed‐gende wo kplaces ha hinde he ad ancemen o hei emale colleagues in lowe ‐le el posi ions. Speci ically, ‘queen bees’ may speak nega i ely abou hei emale subo dina es' leade ship abili ies as hey pe cei e hem as compe i o s o high‐s a us oles (Elleme s e al., 2004; Johnson & Ma hu ‐ Helm, 2011). The queen bee phenomenon e e s o in agende dynamics in ol ing women, bu no men (Ma in e al., 2014). In agende compe i ion is mo e common han in e gende compe i ion o bo h women and men (Sheppa d & Aquino, 2017) because people end o compa e hemsel es wi h simila (e.g., same‐gende ), ins ead o dissimila (e.g., opposi e‐gende ), o he s (Ga cia e al., 2013). Applying he a o emen ioned s a us gap analysis (Reh e al., 2022), he di use s a us be ween women and men se s hem apa , making a male supe iso less likely o be a compe i o o a subo dina e woman. The e o e, we p opose ha he queen bee mindse subconsciously held by emale supe iso s, coupled wi h he compe i i e endency o emale subo dina es, inc ease ension in his dyadic ela ionship. This ension may lead subo dina e women o pe cei e less ca ee suppo om a emale supe iso han hey would pe cei e om a male supe iso . Addi ionally, due o he p oximal dis ance in he dyad, he ension expe ienced may signi ican ly educe ca ee sa is ac ion o women who wo k wi h a emale supe iso compa ed o hose who do no . Thus, we hypo hesise: H1 Wo king wi h a emale supe iso is nega i ely ela ed o women's ca ee sa is ac ion. 3.2 | In e pe sonal dynamics wi h a emale majo i y a he nex highe hie a chical le el In emale‐ emale dyadic ela ionships, we ha e hypo hesised a nega i e impac on subo dina e women's ca ee sa is ac ion. Con e sely, in si ua ions whe e a junio woman in e ac s wi h a emale majo i y a he nex highe hie a chical le el, a scena io no domina ed by a single emale supe iso , we p opose a posi i e e ec on ca ee sa is ac ion. This di e ence s ems om he inc eased numbe o po en ial compe i o s, which likely educes he compe i i eness among junio women. As Ga cia e al. (2013) epo ed, indi iduals exhibi lowe compe i i eness wi h a g ea e numbe o compe i o s, pe cei ing diminished odds o success and a educed mo i a ion o compe e. 8 - TERPSTRA‐TONG ET AL. 17488583, 0, Downloaded om h ps://onlinelib a y.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/1748-8583.12570 by Tomas Ba a Uni e si y in Zlin, Wiley Online Lib a y on [16/12/2024]. See he Te ms and Condi ions (h ps://onlinelib a y.wiley.com/ e ms-and-condi ions) on Wiley Online Lib a y o ules o use; OA a icles a e go e ned by he applicable C ea i e Commons License The e o e, gende composi ion in his con ex implies ha junio women may eel less compe i i e wi h a g oup o highe ‐ anked women han wi h a single emale supe iso . The psychological dis ance a gumen (Libe man & T ope, 2014; Reh e al., 2022) indica es ha junio women eel close o hei immedia e supe iso han o senio women, making he la e less ele an compe i o s. Fu he mo e, highe ‐le el women o en se e as sou ces o inspi a ion and aluable in o ma ion a he han being pe cei ed as di ec compe i o s (Gibson & Law ence, 2010). Wi h a emale majo i y a he nex highe le el, hese women become mo e salien ca ee e e en s (McGinn & Milkman, 2013), po en ially educing compe i i e dy- namics and enhancing coope a ion. Addi ionally, wi h educed upwa d compe i ion, highe ‐ anked women migh mo e eadily emb ace nu u ing oles, aligning wi h gende expec a ions and inc easing hei willingness o men o (c . Ca alys , 2012; Ka k & Shilo, 2007). This nu u ing na u e (Eagly & Wood, 2012), combined wi h hei in luen ial posi ion, likely allows senio women o ad oca e o and implemen policies bene icial o junio women, he eby os e ing an en i onmen conduci e o women's ca ee ad ancemen and sa is ac ion. Mo eo e , o ganisa ions wi h a signi ican p esence o senio women can challenge adi ional biases abou he ‘ideal wo ke ’ (Ridgeway & Ma kus, 2022), po en ially empowe ing lowe ‐ anked women and al e ing pe cep ions o compe ence and eligibili y o ad ancemen . This heo e ical logic is suppo ed by he consis en empi ical indings ha women in mo e senio posi ions posi i ely impac women a lowe le els by al e ing he o ganisa ion's masculine cul u e, educing agg essi eness, cham- pioning e o s o educe inequali y, and se ing as ole models (Bu ke & McKeen, 1996; Ely, 1994; Hu man, 2013; Ka k e al., 2023; Schieman & McMullen, 2008). Gi en hese dynamics, we hypo hesise: H2 A emale majo i y a he nex highe hie a chical le el is posi i ely ela ed o women's ca ee sa is ac ion. 3.3 | In e pe sonal dynamics wi h a emale majo i y a he same hie a chical le el In compe i i e en i onmen s, indi iduals o en compa e hemsel es wi h pee s who a e simila in pe o mance and cha ac e is ics (Ga cia e al., 2013). When applied o gende dynamics, women a e likely o compe e wi h emale pee s a he same hie a chical le el. This compe i ion can be likened o a ou namen whe e indi iduals ie o ini e esou ces and ewa ds (Connelly e al., 2014; Rosenbaum, 1979), and pee s a he same le el (i.e., in he same league) become p ima y compe i o s. Gi en he socialisa ion o women owa ds communal oles and men owa ds asse i eness (Eagly & Wood, 2012), women may nei he enjoy (Benenson & Abadzi, 2020) no endo se compe- i ion (Kesebi e al., 2019) as much as men do and o en p e e collabo a ion (Boud eau & Kaushik, 2023). They migh also eac mo e nega i ely o compe i ion among hemsel es compa ed o how men eac o male‐male compe i ion (Lee e al., 2016; Ma kowsky & Beblo, 2022). Howe e , wi h a emale majo i y a he same le el, in ensi ied compe i ion due o es ic ed esou ce access (e.g., ad ancemen oppo uni ies) o women (Gab iel e al., 2018; Sheppa d & Aquino, 2017) could educe women's ca ee sa is ac ion, as e idenced by obse ed inci ili y among emale colleagues (Gab iel e al., 2018). In addi ion, i is impo an o acknowledge ha inc eased emale ep esen a ion has been linked o educed u no e (El i a & Cohen, 2001), indica ing po en ial bene i s o a majo i y‐women en i onmen , such as enhanced sa e y and s abili y (Kunze & Mille , 2017; S ainback e al., 2011). Addi ionally, women may compe e mo e on me i in emale‐majo i y con ex s, leading o a ‘seg ega ed me i oc acy’ (T e iño e al., 2018), and homophily— he phenomenon o simila i y a ac s (c ., Campe o & Kacpe czyk, 2020)—could os e a mo e ha monious wo k en i onmen , suppo ing ca ee sa is ac ion. Ou easoning is no o sugges ha women a e any less inclined owa d achie emen han men. Ra he , we a gue ha women end o engage in ‘sc amble compe i ions’, whe e hey a emp o ob ain dispe sed esou ces on hei own (Benenson & Abadzi, 2020), and o en by social exclusion (Benenson & Abadzi, 2020), sel ‐p omo ion and indi ec agg ession agains same‐sex o he s (Vaillancou & K ems, 2018). Such in agende compe i ion may TERPSTRA‐TONG ET AL. - 9 17488583, 0, Downloaded om h ps://onlinelib a y.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/1748-8583.12570 by Tomas Ba a Uni e si y in Zlin, Wiley Online Lib a y on [16/12/2024]. See he Te ms and Condi ions (h ps://onlinelib a y.wiley.com/ e ms-and-condi ions) on Wiley Online Lib a y o ules o use; OA a icles a e go e ned by he applicable C ea i e Commons License 4.2.3 | Socie y‐le el a iables We assessed socie ies' gende ‐ ela ed o mal ins i u ions wi h he Women, Business and he Law Index compiled by he Wo ld Bank (Wo ld Bank, 2015). This index measu es how laws and egula ions a ec women's economic oppo uni ies. The o e all sco e was he a e age o eigh ace s o women's igh s (mobili y, wo kplace, pay, ma iage, pa en hood, en ep eneu ship, asse s, and pension). The possible sco es ange om 1 o 100. In ou sample, I an sco ed he lowes , a 31.3, and F ance sco ed he highes , a 100. We assessed he in o mal (cul u al) en i onmen wi h gende ‐egali a ian alues om he GLOBE s udy (Em ich e al., 2004); he highe he sco e, he highe he GE alues a socie y emb aces. The o iginal a ing was a i e‐poin scale (1–5) wi h ‘5’ indica ing he highes impo ance. In addi ional analyses, we eplaced he GLOBE ‘ alue’ sco es wi h ‘p ac ice’ sco es bu he esul s we e essen ially he same. Table 1p o ides he ull lis o bo h indices. 4.2.4 | Con ol a iables We con olled o i e demog aphic a iables: age, educa ion a ainmen , o ganisa ional enu e, company size, and indus y. Such a iables ypically appea in ca ee sa is ac ion esea ch (Ng & Feldman, 2014). Age and enu e we e measu ed in yea s. Educa ion was measu ed om 1 =p ima y school o 6 =doc o a e deg ee. Company size was measu ed as 0 =less han 100 employees, and 1 =mo e han 100 employees. The indus y a iable was dummy coded as 1 =se ice indus y, and 0 =o he . 4.3 | Analy ical s a egy We used STATA e sion 17 o all s a is ical compu a ions excep assessing measu emen in a iance o which we used MPlus 8.6. To alida e ou mul i‐i em scale (ca ee sa is ac ion) and assess i s measu emen in a iance ac oss socie ies, we used he alignmen me hod wi h maximum likelihood es ima ion (Aspa ouho & Mu hén, 2014a). The non‐in a iance a e o in e cep s and loading we e 14.3% and 11.4%, espec i ely. Hence, he a e age non‐in a iance was 12.9%, a less han he cu ‐o poin o 25% sugges ed by Mu hén and Aspa ouho (see 2014, pp. 3–4). Thus, we ha e secu ed us wo hy alignmen esul s o he uni ac o ial scale, ca ee sa is ac ion. We epo he de ails o he alignmen me hod and he esul s in he Suppo ing In o ma ion S1. To es ou hypo heses, we analysed ou wo‐le el da a wi h hie a chical linea modelling (HLM) and ol- lowed he s anda d p ocedu es (Raudenbush & B yk, 2002). Fi s , we compu ed he in aclass co ela ion co- e icien s (ICCs) o he null model o ca ee sa is ac ion, o assess whe he he e was su icien be ween‐g oup a iance o jus i y HLM analyses. The ICCs indica ed ha 15.0% o a iance o ca ee sa is ac ion could be explained by ac o s a he socie al le el, which signalled a la ge‐sized g oup e ec (Hox e al., 2017). Then, we g and‐mean cen ed he socie al a iables p io o en e ing hem in o he HLM eg essions. A e es ima ing a model wi h only co a ia es a he indi idual le el, we an a se ies o mixed e ec andom in e cep s models (Rabe‐Heske h e al., 2005). We i s es ed he di ec e ec o he gende composi ion a iables, which was hen ollowed by models ha es ed each o he hypo hesised c oss‐le el mode a ing e ec s. Finally, we assessed successi e model i by he educ ion in de iance (i.e., he di e ence o log likelihood imes minus wo) o he nes ed HLM models. Be e model i s a e indica ed by smalle de iance alues wi h signi ican di e ences in de iance alues be ween nes ed models. 16 - TERPSTRA‐TONG ET AL. 17488583, 0, Downloaded om h ps://onlinelib a y.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/1748-8583.12570 by Tomas Ba a Uni e si y in Zlin, Wiley Online Lib a y on [16/12/2024]. See he Te ms and Condi ions (h ps://onlinelib a y.wiley.com/ e ms-and-condi ions) on Wiley Online Lib a y o ules o use; OA a icles a e go e ned by he applicable C ea i e Commons License 5 | RESULTS Table 2shows he desc ip i e s a is ics and co ela ions o he indi idual‐le el and socie al‐le el a iables o he pooled sample. Table 3p esen s all HLM esul s. Hypo hesis 1, which s a ed ha wo king wi h a emale supe iso would be nega i ely ela ed o women's ca ee sa is ac ion, was suppo ed (γ= −0.154, p<0.05, Model 2). A emale majo i y a he nex hie a chical le el was ound o be posi i ely ela ed o ca ee sa is ac ion (γ=0.225, p<0.05, Model 2), suppo ing Hypo hesis 2. Hypo hesis 3, which s a ed ha wo king wi h a emale majo i y a he same hie a chical le el would be nega i ely ela ed o women's ca ee sa is ac ion, was also suppo ed (γ= −0.319, p<0.001, Model 2). Hypo heses 4a,4b, and 4c s a ed ha laws and egula ions ha aim o p o ec GE would weaken he hypo hesised ela ionships be ween ca ee sa is ac ion and he gende composi ion a iables ( emale supe iso , a emale majo i y a he nex hie a chical le el, and a emale majo i y a he same hie a chical le el). Model 3 shows ha he mode a ing e ec o o mal ins i u ions on he ela ionship be ween ha ing a emale supe iso and women's ca ee sa is ac ion was no s a is ically signi ican (γ=0.002, p=0.776). Hence, H4a was no suppo ed. TABLE 2Desc ip i e s a is ics o s udy a iables. Indi idual‐le el a iable Mean S.D. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 1. Ca ee sa is ac ion 6.20 1.74 2. Female supe iso 0.41 0.49 −0.014 3. Female majo i y (nex highe le el) 0.27 0.44 0.023 0.423*** 4. Female majo i y (same le el) 0.55 0.50 −0.048* 0.335*** 0.401*** 5. Age (yea s) 36.79 10.42 0.106*** −0.015 0.023 0.012 6. Educa ion 4.0 0.93 0.076*** −0.048* −0.070*** −0.057** −0.034 7. O ganisa ional enu e (yea s) 7.53 7.38 0.048* −0.028 0.016 −0.001 0.622*** −0.105*** 8. Company size 0.64 0.48 −0.028 −0.013 −0.108*** −0.114*** −0.039 0.099*** 0.019 9. Se ice indus y 0.59 0.64 −0.002 0.105*** 0.098*** 0.099*** −0.010 0.004 −0.004 −0.003 Socie y‐le el a iable Mean S.D. 1. Gende equali y ins i u ions 83.65 17.21 2. Gende egali a ianism alues 4.54 0.47 0.670*** No e:N=2291 a he indi idual le el and 35 a he socie al le el. *p<0.05; **p <0.01; ***p <0.001. TERPSTRA‐TONG ET AL. - 17 17488583, 0, Downloaded om h ps://onlinelib a y.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/1748-8583.12570 by Tomas Ba a Uni e si y in Zlin, Wiley Online Lib a y on [16/12/2024]. See he Te ms and Condi ions (h ps://onlinelib a y.wiley.com/ e ms-and-condi ions) on Wiley Online Lib a y o ules o use; OA a icles a e go e ned by he applicable C ea i e Commons License TABLE 3Resul s o hie a chical linea models. Null model Model 1 Model 2 Model 3 Model 4 Model 5 Model 6 Model 7 Model 8 Indi idual‐le el a iable In e cep 6.306*** 5.320*** 5.500*** 5.492*** 5.473*** 5.460*** 5.507*** 5.503*** 5.506*** Age 0.013** 0.013** 0.013** 0.013** 0.014** 0.013** 0.013** 0.013** Educa ion 0.124** 0.114** 0.115** 0.110** 0.110** 0.114** 0.114** 0.112** O ganisa ional enu e 0.098 0.009 0.009 0.009 0.009 0.009 0.009 0.009 Company size −0.063 −0.074 −0.073 −0.066 −0.080 −0.074 −0.074 −0.072 Se ice indus y −0.059 −0.033 −0.033 −0.025 −0.025 −0.029 −0.031 −0.031 Female supe iso −0.154* −0.164* −0.137 −0.136 −0.171* −0.156* −0.156* Female majo i y (nex highe le el) 0.225* 0.225* 0.310** 0.219* 0.227* 0.230* 0.231* Female majo i y (same le el) −0.319*** −0.321*** −0.320*** −0.220*** −0.319*** −0.314*** −0.319*** Socie al‐le el a iable Gende equali y (GE) ins i u ions 0.004 0.008 0.010 Gende egali a ianism (GEG) alues 0.413 0.542* 0.507* C oss‐le el in e ac ion e ec GE ins i u ions � emale supe iso 0.002 GE ins i u ions � emale majo i y (nex highe le el) −0.017** GE ins i u ions � emale majo i y (same le el) −0.018*** GEG alues � emale supe iso 0.222 GEG alues � emale majo i y (same le el) −0.139 GEG alues � emale majo i y (nex highe le el) −0.086 De iance (−2�log likelihood) 8648.768 8611.328 8586.55 8586.076 8577.226 8571.924 8580.77 8581.846 8582.472 ΔDeg ee o eedom 5 3 2 2 2 2 2 2 De iance di e ence ( s. Model 1) 24.78*** 25.25*** 39.40*** 34.10*** 30.56*** 29.48*** 28.86*** No e: Indi idual‐le el N=2291; Socie al‐le el N=35; *p<0.05 **p<0.0; ***p<0.001. 18 - TERPSTRA‐TONG ET AL. 17488583, 0, Downloaded om h ps://onlinelib a y.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/1748-8583.12570 by Tomas Ba a Uni e si y in Zlin, Wiley Online Lib a y on [16/12/2024]. See he Te ms and Condi ions (h ps://onlinelib a y.wiley.com/ e ms-and-condi ions) on Wiley Online Lib a y o ules o use; OA a icles a e go e ned by he applicable C ea i e Commons License Howe e , he e was a signi ican c oss‐le el in e ac ion be ween gende ‐equali y laws and egula ions and he gende wo k con ex wi h a emale majo i y a he nex hie a chical le el (γ= −0.017, p<0.01, Model 4), and he mode a ing e ec was weakening. Hence, H4b was suppo ed. H4c was no suppo ed as we ound a signi ican magni ying e ec (ins ead o a weakening e ec as hypo hesised) on he nega i e ela ionship be ween a emale majo i y a he same hie a chical le el and women's ca ee sa is ac ion (γ= −0.018, p<0.001, Model 5). To isualise he in e ac ion e ec s, we c ea ed wo mode a ion plo s. Figu e 2shows ha he slopes o he eg ession lines we e less s eep a s onge gende ‐equali y ins i u ional en i onmen s, signalling a weakening e ec . Figu e 3 shows ha he slope was s eepe o socie ies wi h s onge gende ‐equali y laws and egula ions han o socie ies wi h weake laws and egula ions, indica ing a magni ying e ec . FIGURE 2 Mode a ing e ec o gende ‐equali y ins i u ions on he ela ionship be ween a emale majo i y a he nex highe hie a chical le el and women's ca ee sa is ac ion. FIGURE 3 Mode a ing e ec o gende ‐equali y ins i u ions on he ela ionship be ween a emale majo i y a he same hie a chical le el and women's ca ee sa is ac ion. TERPSTRA‐TONG ET AL. - 19 17488583, 0, Downloaded om h ps://onlinelib a y.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/1748-8583.12570 by Tomas Ba a Uni e si y in Zlin, Wiley Online Lib a y on [16/12/2024]. See he Te ms and Condi ions (h ps://onlinelib a y.wiley.com/ e ms-and-condi ions) on Wiley Online Lib a y o ules o use; OA a icles a e go e ned by he applicable C ea i e Commons License Las ly, Models 6–8 p esen he esul s ega ding he mode a ing e ec s o gende ‐egali a ian alues. None o he c oss‐le el in e ac ion e ms we e signi ican , indica ing no mode a ing e ec by cul u al alues. Hence, no elemen o Hypo hesis 5was suppo ed. 6 | DISCUSSION We adop ed a no el heo e ical app oach by concep ualising he ole ha s a us cha ac e is ics play in in e pe - sonal dynamics. This enabled us o disen angle and explica e how hese dynamics impac women's ca ee sa is- ac ion a he indi idual and o ganisa ional le els, while nes ed in a c oss‐cul u al socie al con ex . Using a 35‐ socie y da ase and a mul ile el esea ch design, we demons a e empi ically ha women's ca ee sa is ac ion is nega i ely a ec ed by a emale supe iso , posi i ely in luenced by a emale majo i y a he nex highe hie a chical le el, and nega i ely impac ed by a emale majo i y a he same hie a chical le el. We also ound ha gende ‐ equali y laws and egula ions weaken he posi i e ela ionship be ween a majo i y o women a he nex highe hie a chical le el and women's ca ee sa is ac ion bu ampli y he nega i e ela ionship be ween a majo i y o women a he same job le el and women's ca ee sa is ac ion. The e o e, ou indings iden i y a a he limi ed socie al impac ( o mal ins i u ions) on hese di ec ela ionships, wi h wo o he six mode a ing hypo heses suppo ed. These esul s p o ide one o he i s se s o c oss‐cul u al e idence on he likely uni e sal in luence o gende dynamics on women's ca ee sa is ac ion. 6.1 | Theo e ical implica ions Ou inqui y, using a pa adoxical compe i ion‐coope a ion amewo k o explain he complexi y inhe en in he h ee in agende ela ionships, iden i ied an in iguing pa adox: women's ca ee sa is ac ion is lowe when wo king wi h a emale supe iso , ye highe in en i onmen s wi h a emale majo i y a he nex hie a chical le el. By applying s a us cha ac e is ics heo y, we disen angled he unde lying compe i ion and coope a ion dynamics o econcile hese seemingly con lic ing indings. Schad e al. (2016, p. 10) de ine a pa adox as a ‘pe sis en con a- dic ion be ween in e dependen elemen s’. D awing on his, ou esea ch conside ed he pa adoxical, consensual and implici expec a ions shaping wo king women's exis ence: being communal a wo k and non‐wo k si ua ions e sus being agen ic o quali y o ad ancemen , and being a ‘woman’ e sus being a ‘manage ’ ( o manage ial women); in addi ion o exhibi ing compe i i e e sus coope a i e beha iou s in an accep able eminine way. This ocus on pa adoxes enabled us o unco e nuances and complexi ies wi hin he h ee in e pe sonal con ex s in ou s udy, he eby con i ming he hypo hesised pa adox while de eloping a deepe unde s anding o he con ex ual d i e s o ca ee sa is ac ion ac oss socie ies. In ou s udy, gende composi ion is mo e han he nume ic ep e- sen a ions o women. Ra he , i en ails a na u al o ganisa ional se ing whe e women play ou hei social games, o using Ridgeway's e m (2011, p. 34, 35 & 56), whe e hey coo dina e hei ‘dance’ among a ious ongoing social ela ions. By neglec ing he dynamics inhe en in hese pa adoxes, esea che s could easily o e look he ‘pe sis- ence o he ensions and he associa ed i uous and icious cycles’ (Smi h & Lewis, 2011, p. 391), leading o o e simpli ying eali ies while losing an oppo uni y o build a mo e comp ehensi e, ye e ined model. One example would be s udies on he queen bee phenomenon. We ag ee wi h Ka k e al. (2023) ha he conclusion o some queen bee s udies implica ing women being he culp i o no ha ing mo e women a he op could ha e o e looked a ious mechanisms embedded in in agende ela ions, and he posi i e e ec s emming om ha ing mo e women a he nex highe le el. The second heo e ical implica ion s ems om ou applica ion o a s a us lens in examining gende composi ion e ec s. Ou s udy explici ly embedded s a us cha ac e is ics heo y in o he ounda ion o ou heo e ical amewo k, which we en iched by in eg a ing o he ela ed pe spec i es commonly used in gende s udies. This 20 - TERPSTRA‐TONG ET AL. 17488583, 0, Downloaded om h ps://onlinelib a y.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/1748-8583.12570 by Tomas Ba a Uni e si y in Zlin, Wiley Online Lib a y on [16/12/2024]. See he Te ms and Condi ions (h ps://onlinelib a y.wiley.com/ e ms-and-condi ions) on Wiley Online Lib a y o ules o use; OA a icles a e go e ned by he applicable C ea i e Commons License heo e ical sca olding de ia es om he adi ional masculine gende bias app oach upon which many s udies we e de eloped (e.g., A a e e al., 2018; Bo n, e al., 2022; See Kossek e al., 2017 o a e iew). The bias app oach ocuses on o he s' pe cep ions o women and how biases a e o med, cen ing on he pe cei e s and e alua o s. In con as , he s a us pe spec i e we adop ed akes a mo e balanced app oach by conside ing he pe cep ions o bo h subo dina e women and o he women in he o ganisa ional hie a chy wi h whom hey in e ac . Al hough we did no di ec ly measu e women's assessmen o he deg ee o compe i ion and coope a ion in he s udied in agende ela ional se ings, we o e a plausible heo e ical a ionale o es ablish he hypo hesised ela ionships. Consequen ly, ou app oach can help in he examina ion o in e pe sonal dynamics and implici mechanisms ha unde pin in agende in e ac ions (Co ell & Ridgeway, 2006; Ridgeway, 1997; Ridgeway & Ma kus, 2022). The s a us app oach can also be ins umen al in gaining insigh s in o a ious gende di e si y issues in he wo kplace, such as how o p omo e he igh s o gende mino i ies and o he mino i ies who do no sha e he same cha ac- e is ics as he dominan majo i y. Fu he mo e, gende di e si y issues can be amed as inequali y and hence, a s a us p oblem (Ridgeway & Ma kus, 2022). Acco ding o Ridgeway e al. (2022), s a us unc ions as a social s uc u e, se ing a dual pu pose. On one hand, i ac s as a cul u al schema, in luencing and shaping he expec- a ions o bo h indi iduals and o he s ega ding app op ia e beha iou s. On he o he hand, i plays a c ucial ole in de e mining he p ac ical alloca ion o o ganisa ional esou ces, he eby in luencing ca ee sa is ac ion. In essence, he s a us app oach p o ides a aluable amewo k o unde s anding how cul u al no ms and esou ce dis ibu ion mechanisms in e ac o shape he dynamics o gende di e si y in he wo kplace. The hi d heo e ical implica ion o ou indings is ha hey suppo he plausible uni e sali y o s ained emale‐ emale dyadic ela ionship. Based on ou 2291 obse a ions om 35 socie ies, we ound ha wo king wi h a emale supe iso was nega i ely ela ed o women's ca ee sa is ac ion, and his nega i e ela ionship was no mode a ed by socie ies' o mal o in o mal ins i u ions ela ed o GE. Al hough we did no di ec ly measu e su- pe iso beha iou s, ou sizable sample p o ides s ong e idence o he nega i e associa ion be ween wo king wi h a emale supe iso and women's ca ee sa is ac ion. As ou mul ile el model con olled o he gende composi ions, wi h a emale majo i y a he same and he nex highe hie a chical le els, ou inding sugges s he queen bee phenomenon could exis beyond con ex s in which senio women a e okens (c . Duguid, 2011; Duguid e al., 2012). Ou indings indica e u he esea ch is necessa y o cla i y he p edic o s o in e pe sonal ela ions in emale‐ emale dyads. Las ly, we iden i ied wo signi ican mode a ing e ec s o he ins i u ional en i onmen bu none o he cul u al en i onmen . These indings lead us o in e ha , due o hei coe ci e na u e, he o mal ins i u ional en i onmen , as ep esen ed by gende ‐equali y laws and egula ions, is mo e e ec i e han he cul u al en i onmen in eshaping he indi idual‐le el impac o gende composi ion. In e es ingly, ins i u ions played a complemen a y ole by weakening he posi i e impac o a emale majo i y a he nex highe hie a chical le el, bu a supplemen a y ole by s eng hening he nega i e impac o a emale majo i y a he same hie a chical le el. This inding sugges s ha u u e esea ch should be disce ning in heo ising he socie al e ec s on indi idual‐le el phenomena and ela ionships. 6.2 | Limi a ions and u u e esea ch Despi e he mul i‐socie y design o ou s udy, he e a e some limi a ions ha could be add essed in u u e esea ch. Fi s , we collec ed c oss‐sec ional da a, limi ing he causali y o he in es iga ed ela ionships. Fu u e esea ch could conside using ield expe imen s (e.g., Bo n e al., 2022) o complemen su ey esea ch indings, such as ou s. Gi en global In e ne connec i i y, esea che s could o m o le e age hei exis ing in e na ional esea ch ne wo k o conduc expe imen s on a global scale. While he challenges o o ming a wo ldwide lab a e conside able, such an ini ia i e would likely yield gene alisable indings. Second, we used dummy a iables o he gende composi ions in ou models. Fu u e esea ch could conside using con inuous measu es (i.e., he pe cen age o a gende a a job TERPSTRA‐TONG ET AL. - 21 17488583, 0, Downloaded om h ps://onlinelib a y.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/1748-8583.12570 by Tomas Ba a Uni e si y in Zlin, Wiley Online Lib a y on [16/12/2024]. See he Te ms and Condi ions (h ps://onlinelib a y.wiley.com/ e ms-and-condi ions) on Wiley Online Lib a y o ules o use; OA a icles a e go e ned by he applicable C ea i e Commons License le el) o deli e mo e e ined s a is ical esul s (e.g., Qian & Fan, 2019). Thi d, we did no inco po a e any lowe ‐ le el media ing a iable o mode a ing a iables. Fu u e esea ch could conside adding ei he one o bo h in building a mo e comp ehensi e model. Howe e , we acknowledge ha a mul ile el model like ou s is al eady complex, and u he complexi y could pose a challenge o s a is ical analysis (Vandenbe g, 2020). To build a media ion model, one possibili y could be o de elop a measu e o coope i ion, as p oposed by Ka k e al. (2023) o assess he ex en o coope a ion and compe i ion be ween co‐wo ke s o di e en hie a chical le els. Using he example o emale‐ emale supe iso ‐subo dina e dyads, esea che s can concep ualise hei ela ionships along a con inuum o coope a ion and compe i ion. Fou h, ou mul ile el models may no ha e cap u ed some con ounding a iables, such as he nuance bego by he p o essional labou ma ke 's demand and supply in he sampled coun ies. This could ha e been help ul in explaining he inding ha uns con a y o expec a ions, namely ha an en i onmen wi h s onge gende ‐ equali y laws and egula ions was ound o s eng hen (ins ead o weakening) he nega i e ela ionship o a e- male majo i y a he same le el wi h women's ca ee sa is ac ion. I could be ha he expanded pool o emale compe i o s inc eases he in ensi y o compe i ion among pee s, explaining he ampli ying mode a ion e ec . Fi h, ou indings sugges a uni e sali y o ension be ween emale supe iso and emale subo dina e, ep esen ing a di e en conclusion om he sys ema ic e iew o Ka k e al. (2023). As he ex an esea ch on emale‐ emale supe iso ‐subo dina e ela ionships is mos ly quali a i e o expe imen al using s uden samples (Bo n e al., 2022; Ka k e al., 2023; Webbe & Giu e, 2019), u u e esea ch could conside applying su ey me hod- ologies in wo kplace se ings and he new cons uc , coope i ion, o examine he leade ‐membe ension o same‐ sex dyads (simila o B oue & Ha is, 2007). Six h, socie al gende ‐egali a ian alues had no mode a ing e ec s in ou s udy, which was su p ising. Fu u e esea ch could also explo e ha mode a ing e ec using o he cul u al cons uc s (e.g., he business alues di- mensions om Rals on, Russell and Eg i (2018)) on he pa adoxical ela ionship be ween gende composi ion and ca ee sa is ac ion. Las ly, desc ibing p ecisely when and why women engage in compe i ion o coope a ion is beyond he scope o his s udy. Al hough ou indings imply ha emale‐ emale subo dina e‐supe iso dyads and a emale majo i y a he pee le el a e cha ac e ised by compe i ion, u he s udies a e needed o iden i y which pe sonal, in e pe sonal, eam, leade ship, o en i onmen al ac o s suppo women's coope a ion o e compe i ion, and ice e sa. Las ly, i is impo an o acknowledge ha he explana ions p o ided in his pape ep esen only one o he possible lines o easoning abou how in agende con ex s may a ec women's ca ee sa is ac ion. Addi ionally, ou s udy did no explici ly measu e he in e pe sonal dynamics p oposed in ou concep ualisa ion. These limi a- ions highligh he necessi y o u he esea ch o unde s and why hese ela ionships occu . We encou age u u e s udies o collec mo e di ec da a on he expe iences o women who a e led by o he women, employing quali a i e me hods o longi udinal designs. Such esea ch could p o ide deepe insigh s in o he dynamics o emale‐ emale supe iso ‐subo dina e in e ac ions, he impac o ha ing a emale majo i y a he nex highe le el, and he e ec s o pee dynamics in emale‐majo i y g oups. Explo ing hese al e na i e explana ions wi h mo e nuanced da a would en ich ou unde s anding o he phenomena and in o m in e en ions aimed a imp o ing ca ee sa is ac ion among women in di e se o ganisa ional con ex s. 6.3 | Manage ial implica ions On one hand, he absence o c oss‐socie al di e ences o ce ain ela ionships sugges s he po en ial o policies wi h uni e sal applicabili y. On he o he hand, ou inding ha he p esence o gende ‐equali y laws and egula ions mode a es issues o ca ee sa is ac ion in wo ou o h ee main e ec s sugges s he need o (mul ina ional en e - p ises) MNEs o ailo hei gende di e si y s a egies o he dis inc legal en i onmen s o hei hos coun ies. 22 - TERPSTRA‐TONG ET AL. 17488583, 0, Downloaded om h ps://onlinelib a y.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/1748-8583.12570 by Tomas Ba a Uni e si y in Zlin, Wiley Online Lib a y on [16/12/2024]. See he Te ms and Condi ions (h ps://onlinelib a y.wiley.com/ e ms-and-condi ions) on Wiley Online Lib a y o ules o use; OA a icles a e go e ned by he applicable C ea i e Commons License Ou indings sugges ha emale‐ emale supe iso /subo dina e dyads a e de imen al o women's ca ee sa is ac ion, and his is possibly a global phenomenon. This means ha MNEs, ega dless o he coun y in which hey ope a e, should iden i y he challenges aced by emale‐ emale dyads and, as app op ia e, de elop ac ics o educe ensions he ein. One po en ial in e en ion ac ic would be o ain supe iso s o p o ide men o ship o hei subo dina es (e.g., o e ing emo ional suppo , counselling, ca ee de elopmen ad ice, and ole modelling) ha has been p o en o imp o e subo dina es' ca ee sa is ac ion (Pan e al., 2011). Indeed, encou aging women o men o hei emale subo dina es as pa o an in o mal men o ing cul u e o a o mal men o ing p og am can help o alle ia e o e en e e se he de imen al e ec o ha ing a emale supe iso on women's ca ee sa is ac ion. Conside ing ha men o ing deli e s ca ee bene i s ac oss cul u es (Bozionelos e al., 2016), his can be a ealis ic human esou ce in e en ion ha MNEs can u ilise ac oss he boa d. The obse ed associa ion be ween wo king wi h a emale supe iso and lowe ca ee sa is ac ion among women highligh s complex dynamics wi hin wo kplace gende ela ions, a he han a ibu ing blame o women o pe pe ua ing gende inequali y. This phenomenon unde sco es he in ica e ways in which socie al no ms and s uc u al inequali ies a e e lec ed wi hin o ganisa ional con ex s. I sugges s ha he challenges aced by women in leade ship oles, including na iga ing gende ed expec a ions and biases, can ha e ipple e ec s on hei sub- o dina es' expe iences and pe cep ions o ca ee p og ession. The e o e, add essing hese issues equi es changes in o ganisa ional cul u e o suppo women a all le els o he o ganisa ion, encou aging a cul u e o mu ual suppo , men o ship, and ecogni ion o di e se leade ship s yles. By ocussing on s uc u al solu ions and os e ing an en i onmen ha alues di e si y and inclusion, o ganisa ions can wo k owa ds dissol ing he ba ie s ha con ibu e o gende inequali y in he wo kplace. Se e al s udies ha e indica ed ha highe women's ep esen a ion a an ea lie ime ( ime 1) likely leads o inc eased o e all women's ep esen a ion a a la e ime ( ime 2) (e.g., Cohen & B oschak, 2013). Ou s udy builds on his inding and demons a es ha ha ing a signi ican p opo ion o women a he nex hie a chical le el is associa ed wi h highe ca ee sa is ac ion. This sugges s ha i an MNE plans o inc ease women's ep esen a ion, i should s i e o ensu e a subs an ial p esence o women a senio le els, a he han a oken pe cen age. Addi ionally, hese e ec s a e con ingen on he socie al laws and egula ions ega ding GE. The e o e, o design he mos e ec i e gende ‐ ocused policies and p ac ices, MNEs mus pay a en ion o he legal en i onmen o hei subsidia ies'socie ies. Gi en ha he posi i e e ec is weake in socie ies wi h s onge gende ‐equali y laws and egula ions, MNEs should ensu e ha women a e well‐ ep esen ed a highe le els, pa icula ly in subsidia ies loca ed in socie ies wi h weake gende ‐equali y ins i u ional en i onmen s. In addi ion, hei in es men in GE should be g ea e in subsidia ies loca ed in weake ins i u ional en i onmen s han in hose loca ed in socie ies wi h s onge ins i u ional en i onmen s. Fu he mo e, as discussed, MNEs need o be awa e ha women may expe ience highe compe i i e s ess and less ca ee sa is ac ion in a emale‐majo i y pee le el. This e ec is ampli ied in subsidia ies loca ed in socie ies wi h s onge gende ‐equali y laws and egula ions. As such, MNEs may wan o alloca e mo e unds o add ess employees' well‐being and ca ee needs in socie ies wi h s onge legal p o ec ion o women. Finally, seen h ough he lens o s a us, gende di e si y can be iewed as an inequali y p oblem, as explained abo e. By aming di e si y issues as inequali y, MNEs' di e si y manage s may become mo e sensi i e o o gan- isa ional no ms and he di e en s a us belie s ha indi iduals b ing o he o ganisa ion, as well as o how socie ies in which subsidia ies a e embedded impac in e pe sonal dynamics. MNEs ope a ing in di e en cul u al en i- onmen s should ecognise ha he implici and unspoken na u e o cul u al p og amming, especially ha asso- cia ed wi h s a us, adds a nuanced laye o complexi y o he company's di e si y objec i es. This is especially pe inen in a mul i‐cul u al, mul i‐ ai h wo k o ce, whe e unde s anding and na iga ing hese sub le ies becomes c i ical. The e o e, a s ong op managemen commi men o di e si y alues (Kelan & W a il, 2021) is also essen ial o implemen ing e ec i e, b oad‐based di e si y ini ia i es in MNEs. TERPSTRA‐TONG ET AL. - 23 17488583, 0, Downloaded om h ps://onlinelib a y.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/1748-8583.12570 by Tomas Ba a Uni e si y in Zlin, Wiley Online Lib a y on [16/12/2024]. See he Te ms and Condi ions (h ps://onlinelib a y.wiley.com/ e ms-and-condi ions) on Wiley Online Lib a y o ules o use; OA a icles a e go e ned by he applicable C ea i e Commons License 7 | CONCLUSION Unde s anding how gende composi ion in he wo kplace leads o women's ca ee sa is ac ion is an impo an esea ch agenda, no only because o he impac i has on indi idual emale employees' ca ee s, bu also because o i s aspi a ional impac on o he emale employees embedded in he o ganisa ional s uc u e. Ou indings con i m a pa adoxical ou come, namely ha women's ca ee sa is ac ion is lowe when wo king wi h a emale supe iso bu highe when wo king wi h a majo i y o women a he nex highe le el. This ex ends he compe i ion‐coope a ion amewo k by no only delinea ing he con ex wi hin which women manage how and when o coope a e and/o compe e o ad ance hei own ca ee s bu also hose o o he emale employees in lowe le els o he o ganisa ion. O e all, ou no el heo e ical app oach and indings lay he g oundwo k o u u e esea ch in o gende composi ion and in agende wo k dynamics, while ad oca ing o a pa adoxical amewo k suppo ed by a mul i‐socie y da ase . AFFILIATIONS 1 Monash Uni e si y, Kuala Lumpu , Malaysia 2 Flo ida A lan ic Uni e si y, Boca Ra on, Flo ida, USA 3 Uni e si y o Goe ingen, Goe ingen, Ge many 4 Leeds Uni e si y Business School, Uni e si y o Leeds, Leeds, UK 5 Uni e si y Fellows In e na ional Resea ch Conso ium, F Mye s, Flo ida, USA 6 Emlyon Business School, Lyon, F ance 7 Uni e si é de F ibou g, F ibou g, Swi ze land 8 V ije Uni e si ei Ams e dam, Ams e dam, Ne he lands 9 Uni e si a de València, Valencia, Spain 10 Chinese Academy o Sciences, Beijing, China 11 No ingham Uni e si y Business School China, Ningbo, China 12 Uni e si à Ca olica del Sac o Cuo e, Milan, I aly 13 RMIT Uni e si y, Melbou ne, Vic o ia, Aus alia 14 Tomas Ba a Uni e si y, Zlin, Czech 15 Johannes Keple Uni e si y, Linz, Aus ia 16 Uni e sidade do Po o, Po o, Po ugal 17 Ko ea Uni e si y, Seoul, Ko ea 18 Tecnológico Nacional de México, Celaya, Mexico 19 Hi o subashi Uni e si y, Tokyo, Japan 20 Uni e si y o Connec icu , S o s, Connec icu , USA 21 Uni e sidad de los Andes, Bogo a, Colombia 22 Aix Ma seille Uni e si y, Ma seille, F ance 23 Uni e si é de Toulon, Toulon, F ance 24 Co inus Uni e si y o Budapes , Budapes , Hunga y 25 Uni e sidad Cen occiden al Lisand o Al a ado, Ba quisime o, Venezuela 26 Uni e si y o Sydney, Sydney, New Sou h Wales, Aus alia 27 Sou h‐Eas e n Finland Uni e si y, Mikkeli, Finland 28 Uni e si y o Texas a Dallas, Richa dson, Texas, USA 29 Uni e si y o Ma ibo , Ma ibo , Slo enia 30 Uni e si y o Canbe a, Canbe a, Aus alian Capi al Te i o y, Aus alia 31 Uni e si y o S a hclyde, Glasgow, UK 24 - TERPSTRA‐TONG ET AL. 17488583, 0, Downloaded om h ps://onlinelib a y.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/1748-8583.12570 by Tomas Ba a Uni e si y in Zlin, Wiley Online Lib a y on [16/12/2024]. See he Te ms and Condi ions (h ps://onlinelib a y.wiley.com/ e ms-and-condi ions) on Wiley Online Lib a y o ules o use; OA a icles a e go e ned by he applicable C ea i e Commons License 32 Maynoo h Uni e si y, Maynoo h, I eland 33 ESPOL‐ESPAE G adua e School o Managemen , Escuela Supe io Poli écnica del Li o al, Guayaquil, Ecuado 34 The Uni e si y Queensland, S Lucia, Queensland, Aus alia 35 Uni e si y o No ingham Business School China, Ningbo, China 36 College o Business Adminis a ion, Kuwai Uni e si y, Kuwai , Kuwai 37 Asian Ins i u e o Managemen , Maka i, Philippines ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS We would like o exp ess ou since e g a i ude o he edi o s, Mila Laza o a, Ka ha ina Bade , Lena Knappe , Eddy Ng and he anonymous e iewe s o hei in aluable guidance and cons uc i e commen s h oughou he e iew p ocess. Thei insigh ul eedback g ea ly enhanced he quali y o ou wo k. Open Access unding enabled and o ganized by P ojek DEAL. DATA AVAILABILITY STATEMENT The da a ha suppo he indings o his s udy a e a ailable on eques om he i s au ho . The da a a e no publicly a ailable due o p i acy o e hical es ic ions. ORCID Fabian Jin ae F oese h ps://o cid.o g/0000-0003-2220-4250 Da id A. Rals on h ps://o cid.o g/0000-0001-6003-2184 Nikos Bozionelos h ps://o cid.o g/0000-0002-5644-8109 Vik Naidoo h ps://o cid.o g/0000-0002-4889-0730 And e Peke i h ps://o cid.o g/0000-0001-5863-2500 REFERENCES Abele, A. E., & Spu k, D. (2009). The longi udinal impac o sel ‐e icacy and ca ee goals on objec i e and subjec i e ca ee success. Jou nal o Voca ional Beha io ,74(1), 53–62. h ps://doi.o g/10.1016/j.j b.2008.10.005 Ahmed, A., & A i , M. (2021). Boa d gende composi ion and deb inancing. In e na ional Jou nal o Finance & Economics, 26(2), 3075–3092. h ps://doi.o g/10.1002/ij e.1951 Ande son, C., Hild e h, J. A. D., & Howland, L. (2015). Is he desi e o s a us a undamen al human mo i e? A e iew o he empi ical li e a u e. Psychological Bulle in,141(3), 574–601. h ps://doi.o g/10.1037/a0038781 Ande son, C., S i as a a, S., Bee , J. S., Spa a o, S. E., & Cha man, J. A. (2006). Knowing you place: Sel ‐pe cep ions o s a us in ace‐ o‐ ace g oups. Jou nal o Pe sonali y and Social Psychology,91(6), 1094–1110. h ps://doi.o g/10.1037/ 0022‐3514.91.6.1094 Apicella, C. L., Demi al, E. E., & Molle s om, J. (2017). No gende di e ence in willingness o compe e when compe ing agains sel . The Ame ican Economic Re iew,107(5), 136–140. h ps://doi.o g/10.1257/ae .p20171019 A a e, P. R., Galilea, G. W., & Todesca , I. (2018). The queen bee: A my h? The e ec o op‐le el emale leade ship on subo dina e emales. The Leade ship Qua e ly,29(5), 533–548. h ps://doi.o g/10.1016/j.leaqua.2018.03.002 Aspa ouho , T., & Mu hén, B. (2014a). Mul iple‐g oup ac o analysis alignmen . S uc u al Equa ion Modeling: A Mul idis- ciplina y Jou nal,21(4), 495–508. h ps://doi.o g/10.1080/10705511.2014.919210 Ayalew, S., Manian, S., & She h, K. (2021). Disc imina ion om below: Expe imen al e idence om E hiopia. Jou nal o De elopmen Economics,151, 102653. h ps://doi.o g/10.1016/j.jde eco.2021.102653 Ba uch, Y. (2015). O ganiza ional and labo ma ke s as ca ee eco‐sys em. In A. De Vos & B. Van de Heijden (Eds.), Handbook o esea ch on sus ainable ca ee s (pp. 164–180). Edwa d Elga . Belaounia, S., Tao, R., & Zhao, H. (2020). Gende equali y's impac on emale di ec o s’ e icacy: A mul i‐coun y s udy. In e na ional Business Re iew,29(5), 101737. h ps://doi.o g/10.1016/j.ibus e .2020.101737 Benenson, J. F., & Abadzi, H. (2020). Con es e sus sc amble compe i ion: Sex di e ences in he ques o s a us. Cu en Opinion in Psychology,33, 62–68. h ps://doi.o g/10.1016/j.copsyc.2019.07.013 Be ge , J., Fisek, H., No man, R., & Zeldi ch, M. (1977). S a us cha ac e is ics and social in e ac ion: An expec a ion s a es app oach. G eenwood Publishing. TERPSTRA‐TONG ET AL. - 25 17488583, 0, Downloaded om h ps://onlinelib a y.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/1748-8583.12570 by Tomas Ba a Uni e si y in Zlin, Wiley Online Lib a y on [16/12/2024]. See he Te ms and Condi ions (h ps://onlinelib a y.wiley.com/ e ms-and-condi ions) on Wiley Online Lib a y o ules o use; OA a icles a e go e ned by he applicable C ea i e Commons License