Life cycle assessment of lithium-based batteries: Review of sustainability dimensions

Li e cycle assessmen o li hium-based ba e ies: Re iew o sus ainabili y dimensions Debash i Paul a,* , Vie a Pechanco ´ a b , Nabani a Saha a,b , D ahomí a Pa elko ´ a c , Nibedi a Saha b , Ma jan Mo iei a , Thaiskang Jama ia a , Mainak Chaudhu i a , Anna I anichenko b , Ma iana Venhe b , Lucie H b´ aˇ cko ´ a c , Pe S´ aha a,b a Cen e o Polyme Sys ems, Uni e si y Ins i u e, Tomas Ba a Uni e si y in Zlín, T . T. Ba i 5678, 760 01, Zlín, Czech Republic b Uni e si y Ins i u e, Tomas Ba a Uni e si y in Zlín, Nad O ˇ cí nou IV 3685, 760 01, Zlín, Czech Republic c Facul y o Managemen and Economics, Tomas Ba a Uni e si y in Zlín, Mos ní 5139, 760 01, Zlín, Czech Republic ARTICLE INFO Keywo ds: Li e cycle assessmen Li-based ba e y En i onmen al impac Economic impac Social impac Sus ainabili y ABSTRACT Li hium-based ba e ies a e essen ial because o hei inc easing impo ance ac oss se e al indus ies, pa icu- la ly when i comes o elec ic ehicles and enewable ene gy s o age. Sus ainable ba e ies h oughou hei en i e li e cycle ep esen a key enabling echnology o he ze o pollu ion objec i es o he Eu opean G een Deal. The EU’s (Eu opean Union) new egula o y amewo k o ba e ies is se ing sus ainabili y equi emen s along he whole ba e y, including alue chains. Fo a comp ehensi e assessmen o ba e y echnologies, i is necessa y o include a li e cycle hinking app oach in o conside a ion om he beginning. This e iew o e s a comp ehensi e s udy o En i onmen al Li e Cycle Assessmen (E-LCA), Li e Cycle Cos ing (LCC), Social Li e Cycle Assessmen (S-LCA), and Li e Cycle Sus ainabili y Assessmen (LCSA) me hodologies in he con ex o li hium-based ba e ies. No ably, he s udy dis inguishes i sel by in eg a ing no only en i on- men al conside a ions bu also social and economic dimensions, encapsula ing he holis ic concep o sus ain- abili y. Challenges unique o each assessmen me hod a e ou lined, including da a a ailabili y (wi h 35 % o he e iewed s udies ha ing openly accessible in en o y da a), me hodological inconsis encies, unce ain y a ound u u e cos s and social impac s. Di icul ies such as da a unce ain y, challenges in cos compa ison, and he lack o s anda dized measu es a e unde sco ed. The esea ch iden i ies c i ical u u e di ec ions o LCA, including he need o be e da a quali y, adap a ion o new echnologies, and alignmen wi h Sus ainable De elopmen Goals (SDGs). Fu u e esea ch di ec ions a e sugges ed -including he s anda diza ion o me hodologies, and os e ing in e disciplina y collabo a ion. O e coming hese challenges holds he po en ial o ad ance sus ainable p ac ices in he ba e y indus y and con ibu e o a cleane ene gy u u e. Abb e ia ion BESS Ba e y Ene gy S o age Sys ems CAPEX Capi al Expendi u es E-LCA En i onmen al Li e Cycle Assessmen ELCD Eu opean Re e ence Li e Cycle Da abase EOL End-o -li e EOLEX End-o -li e Expenses EUR Eu o EV Elec ic Vehicle GHG G eenhouse Gases GREET G eenhouse Gases, Regula ed Emissions, and Ene gy use in Technologies ISO In e na ional S anda d o O ganiza ion (con inued on nex column) (con inued) LCA Li e Cycle Assessmen LCC Li e Cycle Cos ing LCSA Li e Cycle Sus ainabili y Assessmen LCI Li e Cycle In en o y LCIA Li e Cycle In en o y Analysis LCOE Le elized Cos o Ene gy LFP Li hium i on phospha e LIBs Li hium-ion ba e ies MCA Mul i C i e ia Analysis OPEX Ope a ional Expenses SDG Sus ainable De elopmen Goal S-LCA Social-Li e Cycle Cos ing (con inued on nex page) * Co esponding au ho . E-mail add ess: [email p o ec ed] (D. Paul). Con en s lis s a ailable a ScienceDi ec Renewable and Sus ainable Ene gy Re iews jou nal homepage: www.else ie .com/loca e/ se h ps://doi.o g/10.1016/j. se .2024.114860 Recei ed 29 Sep embe 2023; Recei ed in e ised o m 17 June 2024; Accep ed 21 Augus 2024 Renewable and Sus ainable Ene gy Re iews 206 (2024) 114860 A ailable online 30 Augus 2024 1364-0321/© 2024 Published by Else ie L d. (con inued) SRHRM Socially Responsible Human Resou ces Managemen TOPSIS Technique o O de o P e e ence by Simila i y o Ideal Solu ion 1. In oduc ion Wi hin he ield o ene gy s o age echnologies, li hium-based ba - e y ene gy s o age sys ems play a i al ole as hey o e high lexibili y in sizing and co esponding echnology cha ac e is ics (high e iciency, long se ice li e, high ene gy densi y) making hem ideal o s o ing local enewable ene gy. As hose a ailable ba e y ene gy s o age echnologies a e s ill oo expensi e, he de elopmen and in oduc ion o new s o age echnologies a e necessa y o inc ease ma ke up ake. Mo eo e , he e is a need o concen a e he majo i y o he ba e y manu ac u ing echnology and know-how in Eu ope and be less elian on o he coun ies, which cu en ly a e domina ed by he Asian ma ke . Addi ionally, he e is a d i e o imp o e ene gy densi y and sa e y wi hou comp omising on cos o sus ainabili y. Wi h he policymake s in Eu ope wo king owa ds deca boniza ion o he au omobile indus y, an an icipa ed g ow h in elec ic ehicle (EV) p oduc ion is expec ed. The ansi ion o EVs om an in e nal combus ion engine ehicle, p o iding an al e na i e o he exis ing ossil-based ehicles, could signi ican ly educe global g eenhouse gas (GHG) emissions ac oss he globe. Thus, a su ge in sales o elec ic ehicles is an icipa ed in Eu ope and wo ldwide. Wi h his, he demand o ma e ial esou ces and hei consump ion by he ca manu ac u ing indus ies a e on he ise. Howe e , mining, p ocessing, p oduc ion, use-phase, and ba e y ecy- cling a e ene gy-in ensi e p ocesses and he e a ises a need o sys em- a ically quan i y and e alua e each phase o ba e y p oduc ion [1,2]. The li e cycle assessmen s udy e alua es he po en ial en i onmen al impac s o a p oduc wi hin a sys em bounda y. In iew o ha , se e al li e cycle assessmen (LCA) p ac i ione s ha e used he LCA ool o e alua e he en i onmen al impac o Li-ion ba e y (LIB) p oduc ion [3–7]. The echnological, cos and social aspec s conside ed illus a e an ex ensi e and a comp ehensi e pic u e ha is c ucial o designing sus ainable ba e y supply chains. Hoogma ens e al. [8], epo ed ha hese h ee sus ainable assessmen me hodology ools we e comple- men a y o each o he . Fu he , li e cycle sus ainabili y assessmen (LCSA) conside s hese h ee pilla s and p o ides a pla o m o assess sus ainabili y s udies as one en i y. Due o he inc easing ecen end in he de elopmen o low-cos and en i onmen ally iendly ma e ials, he li e cycle hinking pe spec i e has gained a lo o a en ion as well. En i onmen al li e cycle assessmen (E-LCA) o ba e y echnologies can co e he en i e li e cycle o a p oduc , including aw ma e ial ex ac ion and p ocessing, ab i- ca ion o ele an componen s, he use phase, and, as a as possible, he end-o -li e phase/ ecycling (c adle o g a e/c adle o c adle). These me hods should be applied al eady, s a ing wi h low echnology ead- iness le els, o enable he analysis and compa ison o adi ional and eme ging p oduc s. This app oach also p o ides de elope s, manu ac- u e s o decision-make s wi h in o ma ion abou he speci ic en i on- men al impac s o ho spo s o a new p oduc sys em. They allow o he iden i ica ion o po en ial sus ainabili y ho spo s and o a oid unin- ended consequences ha migh hinde ma ke in oduc ion. In li e cycle cos ing (LCC), he me hodology assesses he cos in ol ed in ba e y p oduc ion, main enance, and end-o -li e phase. This gi es a comp ehensi e o e iew o echno-economic iabili y and can be a use ul ool in es ablishing a ba e y choice. Fo example, one s udy conduc ed an LCC e alua ion o elec ic ehicles was conduc ed on he angible and non- angible cos s ela ed o he economic and non- economic e ec s espec i ely [9]. The LCC analysis delinea es he angible and in angible cos s associa ed wi h li hium-based ba e ies, o e ing c i ical insigh s in o hei economic iabili y and he b oade economic implica ions o hei adop ion. This analysis is i al o s akeholde s o comp ehend he ull cos spec um and make in o med decisions ha accoun o long- e m economic impac s. In ano he s udy, a s uc u e o he LCC o elec ic ehicles was es ablished based on he acquisi ion phase, ope a ing phase and disposal phase [10]. Social conside a ions, o en unde ep esen ed in adi ional en i onmen al assessmen s, a e b ough o he o e on h ough he inco po a ion o social li e cycle assessmen (S-LCA). This pape illumina es he social consequences o li hium ba e y p oduc ion, highligh ing issues ela ed o labo s anda ds, communi y impac s, and b oade social implica ions, hus illing a c i ical esea ch oid and en iching he discou se on ba - e y sus ainabili y. The S-LCA is one o he h ee pilla s in achie ing sus ainable p oduc de elopmen . I is conside ed he mos e ec i e me hodology o s udy and comp ehend he social impac s o a p oduc , in his con ex , a li hium-ion ba e y, in i s en i e li ecycles [11]. The aim o he e iew wo k is o b ing oge he and in eg a e he h ee pilla s o he sus ainabili y ools in cohe ence, and h ough his wo k a c i ical o e iew o p e ious LCA s udies on Li-based ba e ies is p esen ed. This s udy p esen s a e iew o LCSA o li hium-based ba e ies, in eg a ing E-LCA, LCC, and S-LCA o p o ide a comp ehensi e e alua ion o hei mul i ace ed impac s. The key issues o each pilla we e s udied and analyzed indi idually. O e he yea s, LCA has widened i s ho izon om pu ely en i onmen al assessmen s o include he social and economic aspec s. This comp ehensi e wo k add esses he inc easing a en ion i has ecei ed o e he pas yea s. The challenges in ol ing p ocu ing p ima y da a, socie al issues like labo s anda ds, sa e y and economy- ela ed issues like he cos o aw ma e ials, and p oduc ion echniques we e add essed. The o iginali y o his e iew wo k lies in i s mul idisciplina y app oach o assessing he sus ainabili y o li hium-based ba e ies, in eg a ing en i onmen al, economic, and social aspec s in o a uni ied amewo k. The LCSA amewo k de ailed in his pape is in ended as a ool o decision-make s ac oss a ious sec o s. By p o iding a nuanced unde s anding o he en i onmen al, economic, and social dimensions o li hium-based ba e ies, he amewo k guides policymake s, manu ac- u e s, and consume s owa d mo e in o med and sus ainable choices in ba e y p oduc ion, u iliza ion, and end-o -li e managemen . 2. Me hodology The sea ch s a egy co e s a a ie y o pe inen keywo ds and esea ch publica ions o e he pas ele en yea s. Using h ee signi ican da abases and limi ing he sea ch o English-language a icles should yield su icien esul s ha a e ele an which is desc ibed in Fig. 1. In addi ion, he inclusion o h ee sec o al pe spec i es should aid in cap u ing esea ch on a a ie y o Li-based ba e y applica ions. The e iew sea ch p o ocol o all h ee dimensions o LCA is ocused on conduc ing a li e a u e e iew o esea ch a icles published be ween 2012 and 2023. The sea ch was conduc ed on h ee academic da abases, Web o Science, Scopus and Google Schola . The sec o al pe spec i e o he sea ch is on h ee di e en a eas, including E-mobili y, g id-scale s a iona y applica ions, and po able/wea able elec onics. Fo his ex ensi e sea ch ype, keywo ds ela ed o he speci ic ba e y chemis- ies we e used. Speci ically, he sea ch p o ocol included using he ollowing keywo d sequences used in he i le sea ch ield (Web o Science, Scopus and Google Schola ): "Li e cycle assessmen " “AND Li-me al ba e y” OR “Li-polyme ba e y” OR ”Li-S ba e y” OR “Li-ai ba e y” AND "LCA" AND "Li-based ba e y" OR “Social Li e cycle assessmen ” AND "Social LCA" AND “li hium-based ba e y” OR “Li e cycle assessmen AND "LCC" “li hium-based ba e y” OR "LCSA," AND “li hium-based ba e y”. (The selec ion p ocess was s ic ly - limi ed o esea ch and e iew a icles.) Addi ionally, o he documen ypes like con e ence p oceedings, p ojec epo s and documen s om company indings we e ou o he scope o he selec ion p ocess. Addi ional selec ion c i e ia included ime ange (2012–2023), and he language selec ed was English. A o al o 76 a - icles we e ound: 31 E-LCA a icles, 13 LCC a icles, 12 S-LCA a icles, D. Paul e al. Renewable and Sus ainable Ene gy Re iews 206 (2024) 114860 2 and 6 LCSA a icles. While he pape o e s an unde s anding o sus ainabili y o li hium- based ba e ies, i is c ucial o acknowledge i s po en ial limi a ions and discuss how hese migh a ec he indings and hei in e p e a ion. The comp ehensi eness o he e iew is con ingen upon he ange and dep h o he li e a u e included. E en wi h he sea ch c i e ia ca e ully and sys ema ically chosen, some impo an s udies migh ha e been o e looked as i is limi ed o published esea ch a icles and do no include o he ypes o wo ks, such as con e ence p oceedings o epo s. Addi ionally, he e may be some ele an s udies ha do no use he exac keywo ds included in he sea ch p o ocol, which could esul in missing impo an esul s. The e o e, i may be help ul o include some addi ional keywo ds o conduc a manual sea ch o he li e a u e o ensu e ha all ele an s udies we e cap u ed. Gi en he ela i ely es ablished s a us o Li-ion ba e y echnology compa ed o Li-ai , Li-me al, Li-polyme , o Li-S, ex ensi e LCA wo k has been conduc ed, as e idenced in he web sea ch po al. Speci ically, he sea ch a ge ed he yea s 2020–2023 o E-LCA Li-ion ba e y esea ch and 2012–2023 o Li-ai , Li-me al, Li-polyme , and Li-S. This app oach aimed o p io i ize e iewing ecen wo ks on he E-LCA o Li-ion ba - e ies, conside ing se e al p e ious LCA s udies. The objec i e was o gain insigh s in o he E-LCA o Li-ion ba e ies using ecen and up- o- da e in en o y da ase s. Fo Li-ai , Li-me al, Li-polyme , and Li-S e iew was conduc ed om 2012 o 2023, howe e e y ew E-LCA s udies we e ob ained. The in eg a ion o E-LCA, LCC, and S-LCA in o a uni ied LCSA amewo k p esen s ano he me hodological challenge, pa icula ly in ensu ing consis ency and compa abili y ac oss hese dimensions. Di - e ences in me hodological app oaches, me ics, and da a quali y ac oss he h ee assessmen s could in oduce a iabili y and a ec he in e- g a ion o esul s. The sus ainabili y o li hium-based ba e ies can a y signi ican ly based on empo al and geog aphical con ex s due o di - e ences in ene gy mixes, echnological ad ancemen s, and egula o y en i onmen s. The e iew migh no be easily gene alizable ac oss di e en egions and ime pe iods. The eliabili y o LCSA ou comes hea ily depends on he quali y and a ailabili y o da a. Gaps o inconsis encies in da a, especially in S-LCA and eme ging ba e y ech- nologies, can lead o unce ain ies. 3. Resul s and discussions 3.1. Gene al in o ma ion abou li hium-based ba e ies: wo king P inciple and applica ions Li-based ba e ies a e a class o elec ochemical ene gy s o age de- ices ha ha e been in ensely esea ched since he 1980s. The e ec o cha ge/discha ge a e and p olonged cell cycling on ene gy and powe s o age pe o mance is unclea , bu hey s ongly a ec he li e ime, cos , and o e all quali y o a Li-based de ice [12]. Acco ding o Table 1, he e a e di e en Li-based ba e ies, including Li-ion, Li-me al, Li-ai , Li-polyme , and Li-S. Li-ion ba e ies a e one o he mos popula o ms o ene gy s o age comme cialized due o hei longe cycle li e. Con en ional ba e ies, such as Li-ion ba e ies, usually consis o nega i e (anode) and posi i e (ca hode) elec odes, a liquid elec oly e anspo s Li hium ion be ween he elec odes, and po ous sepa a o unc ions as elec ical insula ion be ween he elec odes, as seen in Fig. 2. Ca bon (g aphi e) and high-capaci y ca bon al e na i es such as silicon, me al oxides, and alloyed me als a e being explo ed as anode ma e ials [13]. The ca hode’s mos c i ical componen o a Li-ion ba e y Fig. 1. Re iew sea ch p o ocol. Table 1 Main ypes and s uc u es o Li-based echa geable ba e ies. Ba e ies Anode Ca hode Elec oly e Li-ion G aphi ic ca bon Li hia ed me al oxide liquid o ganic ca bona es, polyme s, o solids Li-me al Li me al/Li alloy me al Manganese dioxide, Vanadium oxide, Molybdenum disul ide Nonaqueous solu ion Li-ai Li me al Ai Aqueous, ap o ic, o solid Li-S Li me al Elemen al sul u Liquid o ganic elec oly e D. Paul e al. Renewable and Sus ainable Ene gy Re iews 206 (2024) 114860 3 is LiCoO 2 , Li-Mn-O, LiFePO 4 , and Li-laye ed me al oxide [14]. Liquid elec oly es in eg al o cell sa e y a e pu e mol en sal s wi h low mel ing poin s, ypically below 100 ◦C [15]. Sal solubili y, ionic conduc i i y, Li eac i i y, and elec ochemical s abili y a e undamen al elec oly e p ope ies. Elec oly e we ing o he elec ode and sepa a o can also di ec ly impac cell pe o mance [15]. Howe e , he main d awbacks o he con en ional Li-ion ba e y a e he chance o leakage o he elec- oly e and he o ma ion o dend i es o Li, which make i p one o explosion [16]. Va ious applica ions o di e en ype Li-based ba e ies namely Li- ion, Li-me al, Li-ai , Li-polyme and Li-S a e desc ibed in Table 2. 3.2. En i onmen al Li e Cycle Assessmen (E-LCA) o Li- based ba e ies E-LCA is a ime- amed measu emen me hod ha e alua es en i- onmen al pe o mance o e he du a ion o a p oduc ’s li e cycle. Th oughou each s age, calcula ions a e made abou he ex ac ion and use o esou ces (including ene gy), as well as he emissions o ai , wa e , and soil. I is e alua ed and analyzed how much hey migh con ibu e o en i onmen al issues, such as clima e change, human and ecological oxici y, ionizing adia ion, and esou ce base deple ion (such as wa e , non- enewable p ima y ene gy supplies, land, e c.). The de elopmen o he li e cycle assessmen midpoin -damage amewo k, which heo izes he connec ions be ween a p oduc ’s en i onmen al in ol emen s and he conside able ha m i does o human heal h, esou ce deple ion, ecosys em quali y, e c., was g ea ly aided by he Li e Cycle Ini ia i e. Such de ails a e c ucial o making decisions [32]. The main componen s o LCAs a e: (1) iden i ying and quan i ying he en i onmen al loads in ol ed, such as he ene gy and aw ma e ial consump ion, emissions, and was es gene a ed; (2) assessing he po- en ial en i onmen al impac s o hese loads; and (3) e alua ing he op ions a ailable o educing hese en i onmen al impac s [33,34]. The e we e nume ous a emp s o s anda dize he li e-cycle assess- men app oach. Fo he pu pose o gi ing comp ehensi e in o ma ion on he LCA me hodology, he Canadian S anda ds Associa ion published he i s na ional LCA guideline in he wo ld, Z-760 En i onmen al Li e- cycle Assessmen , in 1994. Howe e , he In e na ional S anda ds O - ganiza ion’s (ISO) s anda ds we e he ones ha we e mos widely ecognized [35]. •ISO 14040 En i onmen al managemen , LCA, P inciples and ame- wo k (1997). •ISO 14041 En i onmen al managemen , LCA, Goal de ini ion and in en o y analysis (1998). •ISO 14042 En i onmen al managemen , LCA, Li e-cycle impac assessmen (2000). •ISO 14043 En i onmen al managemen , LCA, Li e-cycle in e p e a- ion (2000). •ISO 14044 En i onmen al managemen , LCA, Requi emen s and Guidelines (2006). •ISO 14045 En i onmen al managemen , LCA, P inciples, Re- qui emen s and Guidelines (2012). •ISO 14046 En i onmen al managemen , LCA, Wa e oo p in — P inciples, equi emen s, and guidelines (2014) Among all he ISO amewo ks epo ed abou En i onmen al man- agemen , ISO 14040:2006 was las e iewed and con i med in 2022. The e o e, his e sion will be conside ed as he cu en ISO no ms o he LCA s udy. The guidelines and amewo k o LCA a e ou lined in ISO 14040:2006. These guidelines and amewo k include he ollowing: he de ini ion o he goal and he scope o he LCA, he li e cycle in- en o y analysis (LCI) phase, he li e cycle impac assessmen (LCIA) phase, he li e cycle in e p e a ion phase, epo ing and c i ical e iew o he LCA, limi a ions o he LCA, he ela ionship be ween he LCA phases, and he ci cums ances o he use o alue choices and op ional elemen s [36]. LCA is an e icien ool gene ally adop ed o ho ough en i onmen al impac assessmen o a p oduc om c adle o g a e [37]. Hence, he e iew o wo k on E-LCA o Li-based ba e ies was conduc ed om 2012 o 2023 and has gi en emphasis on ba e ies o elec ic ehicles. Below is he de ailed E-LCA amewo k. 3.2.1. E-LCA amewo k The indings o he E-LCA analysis a e p esen ed in Table S1 o he supplemen a y in o ma ion. A summa ized o e iew is p o ided below: Li e cycle assessmen is a widely used ool o quan i y he po en ial en i onmen al e ec s o ba e y p oduc ion, usage, and disposal/ ecy- cling. This amewo k o he assessmen o he en i onmen al impac s consis s o ou s ages. Fig. 3 ep esen s he ou s ages o LCA o Li- based ba e y. The mos impo an applica ion o assessing he en i- onmen al impac o he ba e y p oduc o e i s li e cycle lies in dis- sec ing he con ibu ions o indi idual li e cycle s ages. Mo eo e , ba e y p oduc ion includes aw ma e ial ex ac ion mainly in he o m o mining o es, p oduc ion o ba e y componen s, ba e y modules, and ba e y packs assembled wi h a Ba e y managemen sys em (BMS) ollowed by he anspo a ion o he p oduc s, hei usage and end-o - li e o ecycling. The insigh s and me hodologies in oduced by (A shad) [38] ha e been ins umen al in guiding he E-LCA e iew o ba e ies, o e ing a c i ical e alua ion o he en i onmen al impac s s emming om he g owing p oduc ion and applica ion o LIBs. This sys ema ic analysis seeks o examine he s udies and conduc a me a-analysis o LCA o ba e ies, iden i ying he cu en s a e o Fig. 2. A g aphical ep esen a ion o wo king p inciple o Li hium ba e y. Table 2 Applica ion o di e en ypes o Li-based ba e ies. Ba e y Type Applica ions Re e ences Li-ion G id-le el ene gy s o age [17] Po able elec onic de ices [18] Ae ospace applica ions [18] Sa elli e and A ia ion [19] Medical De ices [20] Elec ic Vehicles (EVs) [21] Li-me al Nex -gene a ion ene gy s o age sys ems [22] Medical De ices [23] Li-ai Au omo i e applica ions [24] Sma g id [25] Li-polyme D ones [26] EV and HEV [27] UPS [28] Li-S Elec ic Vehicle [29] Po able elec onic de ice [30] Ae ospace applica ions [31] D. Paul e al. Renewable and Sus ainable Ene gy Re iews 206 (2024) 114860 4 esea ch and p o iding c ucial insigh s in o he li e cycle assessmen s o eme ging echnologies. Goal and scope: The ISO 14000 se ies ha e a s uc u ed and s an- da dized me hod o LCA amewo ks and p inciples, and his calls o smoo h unc ioning o he li e cycle assessmen o a ba e y. Acco d- ingly, he LCA assessmen s a s by de ining he goal and scope o he s udy. In his phase, he objec i es, unc ional uni o a ba e y (e.g., kWh o kg o ba e y), sys em bounda ies (c adle- o-ga e, c adle- o- g a e, c adle- o-c adle) [39], me hodologies, alloca ion p ocedu e and impac ca ego ies a e de ined. This s ep o ms a basis whe e he LCA s udy is gene a ed. In he e iewed a icles gi en in he Supplemen a y ile Table S1, mos o he unc ional uni s conside ed we e ei he 1 kWh o he nominal ene gy capaci y ( o example [40–42]: o one ehicle kilome e ( o example: [43–45]). The de e mina ion o he unc ional uni is guided by he speci ic objec i es o he s udy, including he compa a i e e alua ion o en i onmen al pe o mance ac oss di e en ehicles o di e en ba e y chemis ies, in es ing in he ba e y e i- ciency o examining di e en phases o ba e y p oduc ion. The gene a ion o sys em bounda ies makes LCA o ba e ies a mu ually i e a i e p ocess, as he s udy conduc ed can be modi ied and adjus ed based on he esul s gene a ed. The h ee sys em bounda ies ha we e equen ly used in he e iewed a icles o ep esen he en i e li e cycle o an elec ic ehicle we e c adle- o-ga e, c adle- o-g a e, and c adle- o-c adle. This is explained in de ail in he supplemen a y ile (Sec ion 1.4) Li e Cycle In en o y: In he ollowing s ep, LCI is he da a collec ion s ep, which equi es en e ing da a o all he p ocesses included in he ba e y p oduc ion. The in en o y collec ion is o u mos impo ance in he LCI s udy as i is an exhaus i e phase o LCA. Mo eo e , he LCI in en o y da a collec ion demands comple e and well-g ounded in o - ma ion wi h a be e pic u e o each s ep in he ba e y manu ac u ing and usage phase. As he LCA s udy is dependen on da a a ailabili y, da a collec ion is one o he mos demanding asks. The e a e wo ypes o da a: o eg ound da a and backg ound da a. The o eg ound da a o p ima y da a is p ocu ed di ec ly om a ba e y manu ac u e . This ype o in en o y is highly con iden ial and challenging o acqui e. On he Fig. 3. Li e cycle assessmen o Li-based ba e y. D. Paul e al. Renewable and Sus ainable Ene gy Re iews 206 (2024) 114860 5 con a y, backg ound da a / seconda y da a is mos ly gene a ed by es- ima ions and om he LCA so wa e da abases like EcoIn en , Eu o- pean Re e ence Li e Cycle Da abase (ELCD), GREET, e c., and also includes he da a om he s udies [29,41,42,45–54]. The e iewed a icles on E-LCA e ealed ha only 45 % o hem u ilized a combina ion o p ima y da a (ob ained om labo a o y o indus ial sou ces) and seconda y da a (d awn om da abases/so - wa e). The p ima y da a encompassed a ious aspec s such as ba e y p oduc ion ma e ials, ene gy consump ion du ing p oduc ion and use phases, as well as was e and eco e ed ma e ials. The emaining s udies elied solely on seconda y da a sou ced om exis ing s udies. Addi- ionally, i was ound ha only 35 % o he e iewed s udies had openly accessible in en o y da a, while 38 % lacked open in en o y da a. The emaining a icles p o ided only pa ial in en o y da a. Signi ican challenges may a ise in ensu ing anspa ency, de eloping me hodolo- gies, and alida ing li e cycle assessmen s, pa icula ly when open in- en o y da a is no a ailable. Inconsis en da a sou ces make i di icul o compa e en i onmen al impac s accu a ely and may lead o skewed conclusions. These aspec s a e c ucial o enhancing he eliabili y o such assessmen s. Li e Cycle Impac Assessmen : The LCIA s age assesses he en i- onmen al impac s and pu s in o pe spec i e he con ibu ion om each impac ca ego y. The pu pose o his phase is o p o ide a quan i a i e and compa a i e e alua ion o po en ial en i onmen al impac s based on he insigh s ob ained om he LCI s age. A compa ison o hese im- pac s e ealed signi ican a iabili y, which can be a ibu ed o di e - ences in concep s, da abases, and he ba e y chemis ies ha a e being s udied. Al hough LCIA me hodologies a y, hey aim o p o ide insigh s in o he en i onmen al signi icance o a p oduc o sys em ac oss i s en i e li e cycle. SimaP o modeling so wa e was used in many wo ks o assess and e alua e he en i onmen al impac s o ma e ials and ene gy used in manu ac u ing and assembly p ocesses. This was ollowed by OpenLCA, an open-sou ce LCA so wa e de eloped by G eenDel a. Fig. 4 (b) shows he choice o so wa e o he assessmen by he e iewed a icles. Also, in he a icles he e we e a ious impac assessmen me hods and ools we e used o quan i y and e alua e he en i onmen al impac s associ- a ed wi h ba e y p oduc ion and use. Fig. 4 (a) shows he di e en ools ha we e employed by he s udies in he assessmen . This phase mainly has wo ypes o impac ca ego ies: he midpoin impac ca ego y and he endpoin impac ca ego y. The o me is a pa ame e in a cause-e ec chain be o e he endpoin is eached and he la e is basically he agg ega e om he midpoin ca ego ies. The ReCiPe me hod has been used (15 ou o he 31 case s udies) as he mos common cha ac e iza ion ool. The Du ch Na ional Ins i u e o Public Heal h and he En i onmen (RIVM), CML, PR´ e Consul an s, Radboud Uni e si ei Nijmegen, and CE Del de eloped he ReCiPe app oach o impac assessmen in LCA which is desc ibed by Fig. 5. By con e ing emissions and esou ce ex ac ion in o sco es o he en i onmen al impac , li e cycle impac assessmen (LCIA) aids in he in e p e a ion o LCA s udies [55]. This is done by means o cha ac e - iza ion ac o s. Cha ac e iza ion ac o s indica e he en i onmen al impac pe uni o s esso . In ReCiPe indica o s a e de e mined a 2 le els. They a e: Midpoin le el- I ea u es 18 midpoin indica o s, which a e chal- lenging o in e p e bu ha e low unce ain y. Cha ac e iza ion ac o s a he midpoin le el a e ound be o e he cause-e ec chain, somewhe e along he impac pa hway. Midpoin indica o s concen a e on single en i onmen al issues, such as he global wa ming po en ial o acidi ica ion. Endpoin le el – I has 3 endpoin indica o s which a e easy o unde s and bu mo e unce ain. Endpoin is a measu e o he damage – a he end o he cause-e ec chain – caused by a s esso . Endpoin indica o s show he en i onmen al impac on h ee highe agg ega ion le els, being he 1) e ec on human heal h, 2) ecosys em quali y, and 3) esou ce a ailabili y. In he e iewed wo ks, i was obse ed ha all s udies included in he analysis in eg a ed he calcula ion o Global Wa ming Po en ial (GWP). Following GWP, he nex impac ca ego y examined was esou ce deple ion, succeeded by acidi ica ion, human oxici y, and eu ophica- ion, as seen in Fig. 4 (c). The GWP is signi ican ly in luenced by he ba e y p oduc ion si e [42]. Coa ing and d ying, o ma ion, and d ying ooms accoun o o e 76 % (31.87 kWh/kWh o ba e y cell capaci y) o o al ene gy con- sump ion esul ing in 74 % o all g eenhouse gas emissions [56]. In ano he s udy, i was ound ha he ca hode and he elec ici y needed o ma e ial ans o ma ion and ba e y assembly we e iden i ied as he main con ibu o s o he GWP. These ac o s we e esponsible o 44.5 % and 17.0 % o he o e all impac in his ca ego y, espec i ely [47]. Li-ion ba e ies exhibi highe impac s on ozone laye deple ion and global wa ming, p ima ily due o supply chains in China and eliance on elec ici y om coal- i ed plan s [50]. The nickel cobal aluminum (NCA) LIB demons a es a no able imp o emen o e lead-acid ba e- ies, wi h a educ ion o app oxima ely 45 % in impac o bo h clima e change and ossil esou ce use, and a 52 % dec ease in espi a o y in- o ganics. Simila ly, he nickel manganese cobal (NMC) LIB exhibi s a signi ican enhancemen , being app oxima ely 67 % be e han lead-acid in e ms o acidi ica ion po en ial. Addi ionally, he li hium i on phospha e ba e y (LFP) eme ges as he bes pe o me in he Fig. 4. (a) Impac ca ego y ools implemen ed in he case s udies (b)So wa e u ilized in he case s udies (c)Impac ca ego ies analyses in he case s udies. D. Paul e al. Renewable and Sus ainable Ene gy Re iews 206 (2024) 114860 6 mine als and me als esou ce use ca ego y, boas ing a 94 % educ ion compa ed o lead-acid ba e ies. Consequen ly, LIBs p o e o be supe io o lead-acid ba e ies ac oss a ious c adle- o-g a e impac ca ego ies [57]. In ano he esea ch h ee ypes o ba e ies (LFP, NMC532, and NMC622) we e subjec ed o modeling using p ima y da a, e ealing GWP impac s pe 1 kWh o cell capaci y: 61.9 kg CO 2 eq kWh −1 o LFP cells, 78.4 kg CO 2 eq kWh −1 o NMC532 cells, and 80.4 kg CO 2 eq kWh −1 o NMC622 cells. Inco po a ing End-o -Li e (EoL) conside - a ions in he analyses can signi ican ly educe he pe o mance gap be ween LFP and NMC ba e ies, wi h hese wo ypes bene i ing he mos om ma e ial eco e y p ocesses such as py ome allu gical o hyd ome allu gical me hods [52]. In he case o Li-S ba e ies, he ac i e ma e ial in he ba e y (anode, ca hode, elec oly e) con ibu es o e 70 % o all assessed impac ca - ego ies (excep esou ce deple ion), and elec onics in module pack- aging ep esen he la ges con ibu ion o esou ce deple ion [43]. Also, compa ed o con en ional NCM-G aphi e LIB, Li-S ba e ies a e ound o ha e a ela i ely less en i onmen al impac , exhibi ing 9%–90 % lowe impac s in mos ca ego ies [29]. Li hium me al ba e ies (LMBs) exhibi lowe clima e impac , lowe abio ic deple ion po en ial, and lowe oxici y compa ed o simila ly designed LIBs (NMC- and LFP-based). This is because he highe ene gy densi y in LMBs esul s in lowe ba - e y weigh and elec ici y consump ion in ehicles [58]. Li e cycle assessmen (LCA) o li hium-oxygen Li−O 2 ba e y showed ha he sys em had a lowe en i onmen al impac compa ed o he con en ional NMC-G ba e y, wi h a 9.5 % dec ease in GHG emissions o 149 g CO 2 eq km −1 [44]. Ano he s udy [46] also unde sco ed he po en ial en i- onmen al bene i s o li hium-ai cells o e ime, including 4–9 imes less clima e impac compa ed o oday’s li hium-ion cells, and he po- en ial a oidance o 10–30 % o p oduc ion- ela ed en i onmen al impac h ough ecycling. In summa y, he s udies emphasised he impo ance o conside ing GWP alongside o he en i onmen al impac ca ego ies in assessing ba e y p oduc ion and use. The esul s also showed ha eme ging ba e ies like Li-S, LMBs and Li-O 2 showed p omising en i onmen al bene i s o e cu en LIBs. In e p e a ion o he esul s: Las ly, he inal s age o he LCA s udy is in e p e a ion o da a. Du ing he in e p e a ion phase o LCA, he esul s o he en i onmen al impac assessmen a e me iculously sc u inized o d aw conclusions and p o ide ecommenda ions. This p ocess in ol es iden i ying signi ican en i onmen al ho spo s, unde - s anding he implica ions o a ious li e cycle s ages and decisions, and assessing he o e all en i onmen al pe o mance o he p oduc o p ocess unde s udy. Mo eo e , unce ain ies, limi a ions, and oppo - uni ies o imp o emen in he LCA esul s a e aken in o conside a ion o guide decision-making owa d mo e sus ainable beha iou s and policies. Addi ionally, in eg a ing he indings om impac assessmen s and in en o y assessmen s allows o a comp ehensi e o e iew o ba e ies, aiding in he unde s anding o po en ial en i onmen al issues and ensu ing he en i onmen al sus ainabili y o Li-based ba e y p oduc ion. Th ough he e iew conduc ed, he main con ibu ing ac o s o en i onmen al impac ha e been iden i ied: Ene gy consump ion ac o : Cells, speci ically he ene gy consumed du ing manu ac u ing, ca hode pas e p oduc ion, and cell con aine ab ica ion, cons i u e he p ima y con ibu o s o en i on- men al impac s wi hin he p o o ype ba e y’s li e cycle [58,59]. Vac- uum d ying, coa ing p ocesses, and o he d ying p ocedu es eme ge as he p edominan con ibu o s o ene gy consump ion [53]. Ene gy de- mand du ing he use phase emains a c i ical aspec . Elec ici y usage da a o igina ing om he use phase, especially i i is p ima y, signi i- can ly in luences he de e mina ion o he o e all en i onmen al impac [57]. The di ec ene gy p e equisi es o cell manu ac u ing, encompass- ing ac i i ies such as main aining a clean d y oom and cleaning and condi ioning p ocesses, along wi h he impac s o ba e y assembly p ocedu es, can be subjec o signi ican unce ain y in ba e y LCAs due o he absence o p ima y da a. Challenges pe sis in aligning di ec ene gy p e equisi es ac oss di e en s udies owing o ac o s such as assumed p oduc ion acili y loca ions, annual p oduc ion capaci ies, and yield ac o s. These unce ain ies make i di icul o accu a ely compa e o in eg a e he ene gy equi emen s ou lined in di e en s udies [51]. Ene gy mix ac o : Fu u e esea ch should p io i ize imp o ing p oduc ion p ocesses and in eg a ing inno a i e echnologies o dec ease ene gy consump ion and GHG emissions. T ansi ioning om na u al gas o elec ici y o hea gene a ion may dec ease emissions, bu i s easibili y depends on he elec ici y emissions ac o . Challenges include addi ional in es men s and highe ene gy cos s associa ed wi h Fig. 5. Rela ionship be ween ReCiPe midpoin -endpoin indica o s based on [55]. D. Paul e al. Renewable and Sus ainable Ene gy Re iews 206 (2024) 114860 7 elec ici y. Al e na i e echnologies like lase -based d ying and d y coa ing show po en ial o educing ene gy consump ion, bu u he esea ch is equi ed [56]. Shi ing he manu ac u ing elec ici y mix o enewables has he po en ial o educe impac by up o 53 % o eshwa e eu ophica ion [59]. Inc easing he p opo ion o enewable ene gy sou ces in he elec ici y mix du ing he use phase could aid in mi iga ing en i on- men al impac s [57]. No el ma e ial ac o : The hi d-gene a ion p o o ype ba e y showcases a high- ol age ca hode (NMC622), high-capaci y anode (sil- icon alloy wi h no signi ican en i onmen al impac on any ca ego y), and a s able and sa e elec oly e, o e ing en i onmen al ad an ages compa ed o a g aphi e-based ba e y [59]. The li hium-ion ba e y pack wi h NMC ca hode and li hium me al anode (NMC-Li) is ecognized as he mos en i onmen ally iendly new LIB based on 1 kWh s o age capaci y, wi h a cycle li e app oaching o su passing li hium-ion ba e y pack wi h NMC ca hode and g aphi e anode (NMC-C). Li hium me al anode (Li-A) exhibi s p omise o u u e de elopmen owing o i s high speci ic capaci y, ligh weigh , and en i onmen al bene i s. Due o hese ad an ages, Li-A is an icipa ed o be widely adop ed as an anode ma- e ial in u u e ac ion ba e ies [60]. Ba e y ype ac o : The o e all en i onmen al pe o mance o LFP ba e ies exceeds ha o NMC ba e ies due o lowe en i onmen al and esou ce impac s. Signi ican en i onmen al impac s o NMC ba e ies a e a ibu ed o a e me al ma e ials like nickel and cobal in ca hodes, which a e highe han hose in LFP ba e ies. Howe e , NMC ba e ies exhibi a be e ene gy-sa ing e ec du ing he use phase, sa ing abou 30 % o elec ici y compa ed o LFP ba e ies, pa icula ly in egions wi h coal- i ed powe gene a ion like China [54]. Li-S ba e ies a e ega ded as a sus ainable ene gy s o age al e na i e due o he absence o oxic me als like nickel, cobal , and manganese. The in oduc ion o sul u in ca hode composi ion imp o es he en i- onmen al p o ile o Li-S ba e ies compa ed o Li-ion ba e ies. Li-S ba e ies show po en ial o use in elec ic ehicles, o e ing highe speci ic ene gies han Li-ion and educing aw ma e ial equi emen s. Li- S ba e ies exhibi up o a 31 % educ ion in GHG emissions compa ed o Li-ion ba e ies. The p oduc ion phase, including ma e ial ex ac ion and componen manu ac u e, con ibu es up o 70–90 % o impac ca ego ies like abio ic esou ce deple ion (ADP) and na u al esou ce sca ci y [40]. Ba e y ecycling ac o : The impac educ ion po en ial o ecy- cling a ies; conside ing ecycled ma e ials as a oided p ima y ma e ial could lead o a dec ease in impac s by 25 %–46 % [59]. Recycling o cobal , nickel, and coppe signi ican ly educes o e all ba e y impac s by a oiding he use o i gin aw ma e ials [52]. In gene al, he e a e signi ican unce ain ies in ol ed while e alu- a ing hese s udies o se e al easons like insu icien da a, w ong as- sump ions o insu icien in o ma ion. So, he unce ain ies in he LCA s udy need o be ho oughly iden i ied and analyzed. In addi ion, sensi i i y analysis, like he unce ain y analysis, can also be imple- men ed a se e al LCA s ages o in es iga e he ene gy and esou ce- ela ed en i onmen al impac s o any p oduc [61]. 3.2.2. End o li e (EOL) and ecycling In he ba e y EOL s age, ba e ies no longe ope a e a su icien capaci y due o he ageing ha happens as he elec oly e unde goes decomposi ion o e ime a a gi en empe a u e. The ageing is a ec ed by he deg ada ion a e o he ba e y and ba e y capaci y. The p o- posed EOL op ion o ba e ies could be ecycling, eusing o emanu- ac u ing [62]. Reusing o ba e y is when he EV ba e y a e eaching i s use ul li e can be emo ed and be used as an ene gy s o age sys em. This p o ides g ea e s abili y hus inc easing he in eg a ion a e o enewable ene gy and eliabili y o he g id [63,64]. Ano he way o mi iga e he en i- onmen al impac s o he EOL s age o ba e y is emanu ac u ing which eins a es he p oduc like new condi ion along wi h a wa an y o he buye . This is en i onmen ally iendly and a well-known p ac ice in au o-indus y as 80 % o he componen s a e emanu ac u ed [65]. P ope ecycling is ano he po en ial s a egy o alle ia e en i on- men al pollu ion by inc easing he oppo uni y o seconda y supply, lessens he manu ac u ing cos o LIBs as he p ice luc ua ions o c i ical aw ma e ials is mi iga ed. This is in p inciple wi h he sus- ainable de elopmen s a egy o esou ces and ene gy. The h ee majo echnical means o ecycling a ailable include [63,66]. •The py ome allu gical p ocess (In his s age, he componen me al oxides om li hium-ion ba e ies a e educed in a high- empe a u e u nace o o m an alloy. The p ima y p ocedu es a e oas ing and calcina ion) •The hyd ome allu gical p ocess (This in ol es he dissolu ion o me allic componen s om li hium-ion ba e ies using mine al acids, ollowed by me al sepa a ion h ough p ocesses like sol en ex ac- ion and p ecipi a ion) •Di ec ecycling me hod (This me hod in ends o minimize he numbe o p ocessing s eps equi ed o he e-syn hesis o ca hode ma e ials by eco e ing ca hode ma e ials wi h s ill-useable mo phology, and has a compa a i ely low impac on he en i on- men ) [67]. 3.3. Li e cycle cos ing (LCC) o Li- based ba e ies Ba e y LCC in ol es e alua ing he o al cos o owning and ope - a ing a ba e y sys em o e i s en i e li e ime, including he cos s asso- cia ed wi h p oduc ion, ins alla ion, main enance, and disposal. The o al o a ba e y’s ini ial in es men cos (CAPEX), ope a ing cos (OPEX), and disposal cos (End-o -li e Expendi u es, EOLEX) is he ba e y’s li e cycle cos . The CAPEX, which includes all expenses ela ed o design, enginee ing, p ocu emen , and cons uc ion, is he cos o pu chasing and ins alling he ba e y. O e he cou se o he p oduc ’s li ecycle, all expenses such as hose ela ed o ene gy use, main enance, and epai a e included in he OPEX. The EOLEX is he p ice o disposing o a p oduc a e he end o i s use ul li e. I includes cos s o ans- po a ion, disposal, and emedia ion o he en i onmen [68]. By conside ing he o al li e cycle cos o a p oduc , LCC can help o ganiza ions make mo e in o med decisions abou p oduc selec ion, p ocu emen , and use. Fo example, a p oduc wi h a lowe ini ial cos may ha e a highe li e cycle cos i i has highe ope a ing and disposal cos s. The e o e, LCC can be an oppo uni y o o ganiza ions o educe cos s and imp o e co po a e sus ainabili y by choosing p oduc s wi h lowe li e cycle cos s. An impo an ea u e o some o he LCA s udies is he LCC com- pa ison o di e en ba e y chemis ies and echnologies, such as lead- acid and li hium-ion ba e ies, in s a iona y ene gy s o age applica- ions. Va ia ions in pe o mance cha ac e is ics, li e imes, sa e y con- side a ions, and ecycling/disposal cos s be ween hese di e en ba e y chemis ies, can impac he o al cos o owne ship [69–71]. LCC can be di ided in o con en ional LCC (ac ual cash lows) and en i onmen al LCC (wi h assumed adop ion o addi ional ex e nal cos s and bene i s) [72]. Ca hode ma e ials make up a signi ican po ion o he aw ma e ials needed o , and he expense associa ed wi h, li hium-ion ba e ies (LIBs). The high cos o ca hodes esul s om he use o essen ial elemen s like li hium and cobal . S ill, i ’s impo an o e alua e he supply, demand, and b oade impac s o all he elemen s used in ca hodes o accu a ely o ecas he e ec s o swi elec ic ehicle (EV) adop ion [73]. In addi ion, LCC can be conduc ed om di e en pe spec i es, including ha o he cus ome , he manu ac u e , o a la ge en i y ( om he pe spec i e o public pe cep ion o socie y as a whole). When con- duc ing LCC, di e en scopes can also be conside ed, including con- en ional LCC, en i onmen al LCC, and socie al LCC. D. Paul e al. Renewable and Sus ainable Ene gy Re iews 206 (2024) 114860 8 3.3.1. LCC amewo k The indings o he LCC analysis a e p esen ed in Table S2 o he supplemen a y in o ma ion. A summa ized o e iew is p o ided below: Goal and scope: The goal and scope o LCC s udies di e in he ba e y sys em le el, ie. ba e y cells, ba e y packs, ba e y ene gy s o age sys ems (BESS) o ba e y elec ic ehicles. The e alua ion o he cos s o he ba e y sys em is mos o en iewed om he poin o iew o he p ice o ba e y p oduc ion [10,74–79] o he ope a ion o he use in ela ion o he consump ion o he elec ic ca [75,80]. In he cos exp ession, he unc ional uni is exp essed in he cu ency o he gi en coun y pe kWh o he ba e y o he gi en sys em le el (cell/BESS/- elec ic ehicle) [76–79,81–83]. Mos s udies a e ocused on he sys em bounda y C adle- o-g a e [10,74,80,82–84] o C adle- o-usage [76–79]. In one s udy, he sys em bounda y is C adle- o-ga e [81]. Li e Cycle In en o y: Da a sou ces and hei quali y a e essen ial o he e alua ion o LCC o ba e y sys ems. The men ioned s udies d aw da a mainly om seconda y sou ces in he o m o open access o es ic ed da abases [74,80–82,84] o e iew o a icles [77–79], da a om he ma ke [10,76,83,85], o da a om simula ion analyses [75], and expe analysis [78]. Global o ganiza ions om which he da a was ob ained include he Eu opean Landscape Con ac o s Associa ion, he Wo ld Bank’s and Eu os a ’s and he Uni ed Na ions’ Com ade da abase. Li e Cycle Impac Assessmen : The impac ca ego y wi hin he LCC is always in he a ea o cos s om di e en pe spec i es. S udies mainly men ion con en ional LCC ( a iable and ixed cos s) bu en i onmen al cos s a e also e alua ed, which a e exp essed mainly in he sum o GHG emissions (EUR/ on CO 2 eq) [74]. CAPEX (capi al expendi u es) a e cos s associa ed wi h he acquisi ion o new physical asse s and OPEX (ope a ion and main enance expendi u es) a e cos s associa ed wi h ba e y ope a ion [74,75,83]. The Commodi y -LCC indica o exp esses he sum o he ma ke p ices o he aw ma e ials used excluding cos s such as labo and dep ecia ion [81]. In s udies, he LCC amewo k appea s o e alua e di e en phases - acquisi ion, de elopmen , p o- duc ion, use, main enance phases and liquida ion [10,76,77]. The LCC analysis o EVs a ies by model, size o ba e ies, and egion, wi h spe- ci ic s udies showing ha he BYD e6 BEV had a highe LCC o US$ 2.63 million compa ed o US$ 1.80 million o he BALK EV 200 BEV in China, while in Singapo e, he Mi subishi EV b and eco ded he highes LCC among o he s. S udies also indica ed ha EVs a e no cos -compe i i e when compa ed o con en ional and hyd ogen EVs, despi e incen i es like exemp ions om pu chase and d i ing e- s ic ions in China in luencing he LCC ou comes [10,76,77].The ind- ings [75,80]. indica e ha due o ele a ed ini ial pu chase p ices, hyb id and ba e y elec ic ehicles incu he highes expenses, whe eas ehi- cles powe ed by in e nal combus ion engines a e he leas cos ly. Ye , when i comes o ope a ional cos s, elec ic ehicles a e a ound 37 % cheape han diesel ehicles and 60 % mo e a o dable han hose unning on pe ol. Fo ba e y ene gy s o age sys ems (BESS), he men ioned pa ame e is LCOE (le elized cos o ene gy) which is de ined as he o al li e ime cos o an in es men di ided by he cumula ed gene a ed ene gy by his in es men [86]. The cos model o ba e y cells ep esen s he cos s o ma e ial and sc ap, labo , land, ene gy, machine y and ins alla ion, o e head, buildings, and main enance [79]. In e p e a ion o he esul s: The LCC analysis indica es ha Ba - e y Elec ic Vehicles (BEV) and In e nal Combus ion Engine Vehicles (ICEV) powe ed by diesel a e he mos economical choices, showing o al consume li e cycle cos s ha a e abou 5 % and 15 % lowe han hose o pe ol-powe ed ICEVs and Hyb id Elec ic Vehicles (HEV), espec i ely [75,80]. Mela e al. [81] emphasizes ha ma ke p ices a e no always adequa e o s imula e he sus ainable use o esou ces. The high cos o he ba e y is he eason o he highe cos o p oducing ba e y elec ic ehicles han con en ional combus ion engine ehicles [76,77]. This is ela ed o he s a emen o Maik e al. [78] ha he p e equisi e o he use o li hium-ion ba e ies is hei dec easing p ice and high cycle s abili y. In a s udy o ba e y p ices ac oss di e en coun ies, applying economies o scale o educe he ba e y p ice is e ec i e in o de o use all esou ces in he manu ac u ing plan [79]. The LCC o elec ici y s o age in ba e ies is mainly d i en by he cos o he ba e y sys em i sel . Con e sely, he GHGs om he elec ici y needed o cha ging signi ican ly a ec he addi ional li e cycle emis- sions h ough losses om ound- ip ine iciencies. Thus, he LCE o ba e ies can be signi ican ly dec eased by inc easing he enewable ene gy p opo ion in an elec ici y sys em, which also indi ec ly lowe s emissions associa ed wi h he elec ici y used in p oduc ion [74]. Ano he in luence on he p ice o he ba e y is i s li espan, which is es ima ed o be 8 yea s [10]. Op imum ba e y cos s a e achie ed by adding he mal ene gy s o age o a ela i ely la ge ba e y ins ead o pa ial ba e y eplace- men . Ex ensi e sensi i i y analyses we e conduc ed [75] o ensu e he accu acy o he indings and he selec ed pa ame e s, which e ealed ha he LCC is signi ican ly in luenced by economic ac o s such as uel cos , uel p ice inc ease, and he discoun a e. Inco po a ing PV wi h a diesel gene a o cu s LCC by 9–10 %, and adding ba e ies educes i u he by 14–17 %. Combining ba e y and he mal ene gy s o age o e s 51–77 % uel cos sa ings, su passing ba e y-only sa ings o 39–48 %, bu aises in es men cos s by 27–50 %. Ca s wi h LFP ba - e ies end o use mo e ene gy and emi mo e du ing use han hose wi h Li-NMC ba e ies, which ad e sely a ec s hei o e all g eenhouse gas emissions. Howe e , when conside ing di e en en i onmen al impac me ics, elec ic ehicles equipped wi h LFP ba e ies a e on pa wi h o ou pe o m hose wi h Li-NMC ba e ies, a bene i linked o he lesse emissions om LFP ba e y ma e ials and he p edominan in luence o ehicle manu ac u ing on hese me ics. Li-NMC ba e ies o e g ea e cos -e ec i eness, bene i ing bo h consume s and socie y in e ms o ex e nal expenses [85]. Op imum economic impac on he en i onmen can be ensu ed by educing he cos o ba e ies and pho o ol aics [84]. 3.4. Social li e cycle assessmen (S-LCA) o Li-based ba e ies S-LCA builds he social coun e pa o LCA, sha ing many o i s key me hodological cha ac e is ics. Howe e , assessmen s a e based on he s a us quo o he social en i onmen including ela ed ac o s such as economics, poli ics and social dynamics which a e by na u e subjec o con inuous changes. The esul s a e p o ided in he o m o social ho - spo s o he en i e li e cycle o a p oduc co e ing se e al social in- dica o s (e.g., wo kplace acciden s, child labou , e c.) ela ed o he di e en used cell ma e ials (e.g. mining aw ma e ials) and main s akeholde s (wo ke s, alue chain ac o s, e c.). Special a en ion is usually gi en o supplie coun ies o aw ma e ials used o cell manu ac u ing [87–90]. To add ess mo e i idly he o e iew and me hods o S-LCA o Li- based ba e ies, i is necessa y o men ion ha o do he assessmen o he social aspec s is he leas add essed pilla among he h ee di- mensions o sus ainabili y, namely en i onmen , economy, and social aspec s. In addi ion, S-LCA has also been c ea ed as a ool o e alua e he posi i e o nega i e social and socioeconomic impac s h oughou he p oduc line, such as Li-ba e ies [91–94]. Al hough he e exis se e al ools ocused on assessing social impac s, S-LCA di e s om he o he s by i s objec on p oduc s and se ices, and i s scope conce ns he en i e li e cycle. The ad an ages o adop ing a li e cycle pe spec i e include in o ming mul i-s akeholde s, i.e., e aile s, common people, and end consume s abou he posi i e and nega i e social impac s o he Li-ba e ies hey sell o buy, o hey use in o de o p e en he changing o nega i e social impac s om one li e cycle s age o ano he , o om one social issue o ano he [95–97]. 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