Examining the impact of COVID-19 on entrepreneurial intention through a stimulus–organism–response perspective

Ci a ion: Çe a, Gen jan, Ma ga i a Ndoka, Ines Dika, and Edmond Çe a. 2022. Examining he Impac o COVID-19 on En ep eneu ial In en ion h ough a S imulus– O ganism–Response Pe spec i e. Adminis a i e Sciences 12: 184. h ps://doi.o g/10.3390/ admsci12040184 Recei ed: 30 Oc obe 2022 Accep ed: 1 Decembe 2022 Published: 5 Decembe 2022 Publishe ’s No e: MDPI s ays neu al wi h ega d o ju isdic ional claims in published maps and ins i u ional a il- ia ions. Copy igh : © 2022 by he au ho s. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Swi ze land. This a icle is an open access a icle dis ibu ed unde he e ms and condi ions o he C ea i e Commons A ibu ion (CC BY) license (h ps:// c ea i ecommons.o g/licenses/by/ 4.0/). adminis a i e sciences A icle Examining he Impac o COVID-19 on En ep eneu ial In en ion h ough a S imulus–O ganism–Response Pe spec i e Gen jan Çe a 1,* , Ma ga i a Ndoka 2, Ines Dika 3and Edmond Çe a 4 1Facul y o Economics and Ag ibusiness, Ag icul u al Uni e si y o Ti ana, 1001 Ti ana, Albania 2Facul y o Economy, Eu opean Uni e si y o Ti ana, 1001 Ti ana, Albania 3Facul y o Economics, Uni e si y o Ti ana, 1001 Ti ana, Albania 4Facul y o Managemen and Economics, Tomas Ba a Uni e si y in Zlin, 760 01 Zlín, Czech Republic *Co espondence: [email p o ec ed] Abs ac : Among schola s, he e is an in e es in unde s anding how en ep eneu ial beha io is in luenced by he consequences o c ises. The COVID-19 pandemic may nega i ely o posi i ely a ec indi iduals’ beha io , including en ep eneu ial in en ion. Thus, his pape seeks o s udy whe he o no he economic shock caused by he pandemic ein o ces he in en ion o s a a business. The esea ch was adminis e ed a he indi idual le el by dis ibu ing a s uc u ed su ey. The hypo heses we e de eloped based on a unique concep ual amewo k in eg a ing he planned beha io heo y and a s imulus–o ganism– esponse pe spec i e. The ela ionships we e es ed using he s uc u al equa ion modeling me hod wi h an o iginal da ase o mo e han 800 esponden s om h ee pos - communis ansi ion coun ies. The esul s indica e ha he COVID-19 pandemic, seen as an oppo uni y, posi i ely in luences bo h he an eceden s o en ep eneu ial in en ion and indi iduals’ in en ion o s a a business. The message ha hese indings con ey is ha , e en in c ises, he e a e oppo uni ies om which one can bene i , including he indi idual’s p opensi y o engage in s a up ac i i ies. By examining he impac o he COVID-19 c isis on en ep eneu ial beha io , educa ional ins i u ions and policymake s can design e ec i e policies o os e en ep eneu ship and educe unemploymen , pa icula ly among he you h. Keywo ds: COVID-19; en ep eneu ial in en ion; PLS-SEM; heo y o planned beha io ; Albania; Koso o; No h Macedonia 1. In oduc ion I is gene ally accep ed among schola s ha disas e s and c ises lead o economic and socie al changes in people’s beha io and li es yles (Men e 2022;Raybu n e al. 2022). Such changes can mani es as nega i e and posi i e in luences on en ep eneu ial ac i i y (K ichen and Chaabouni 2021;Meahjohn and Pe sad 2020). The e o e, an exogenous shock no only poses addi ional challenges o indi iduals, o ganiza ions, and economies, bu can also o e hem new oppo uni ies o business inno a ion (B own and Rocha 2020). Acco ding o Aly (2022), en ep eneu ship is seen as a i al ac o in achie ing a esilien economy in imes o c isis. En ep eneu ial ac i i y can be ed by encou aging and mo i a ing indi iduals o c ea e new businesses. P io esea ch has shown ha in o de o a oid ailu e and o ensu e sus ainabili y, indi iduals and o ganiza ions mus be p o ided wi h suppo du ing c ises (Noelia and Rosalia 2020;Ra inho e al. 2020;Çe a e al. 2019; D o skýe al. 2019;Alshebami and Se aj 2022b). The COVID-19 pandemic is an unp eceden ed e en ha sp ead quickly wo ldwide. Being a highly in ec ious illness, i has impac ed global public heal h because o i s high le el o ansmission and inc eased dea h a e—mos ly among he elde ly, people wi h impai ed immune sys ems, and hose wi h unde lying medical condi ions (Muelle e al. 2020). Today, e en hough mos o he go e nmen al measu es ha e been emo ed globally, Adm. Sci. 2022,12, 184. h ps://doi.o g/10.3390/admsci12040184 h ps://www.mdpi.com/jou nal/admsci Adm. Sci. 2022,12, 184 2 o 18 he in ec ion is s ill p esen (Ou Wo ld in Da a n.d.). This c isis has de ini ely changed he beha io in e ms o how indi iduals wo k and li e (Hale e al. 2021;Ra en 2021). Gene ally, p ac i ione s and academics belie e ha os e ing en ep eneu ship in imes o c isis and economic ecession is an adequa e esponse (Capella-Pe is e al. 2020;Meahjohn and Pe sad 2020). The COVID-19 pandemic has h ea ened public heal h by pu ing i unde p essu e and o cing go e nmen s o implemen measu es such as lockdowns. Ne e heless, his pandemic has c ea ed new oppo uni ies o en ep eneu s (Ke chen and C aighead 2020;McGee and Te y 2022;Usman and Sun 2022), and his may ep esen he igh momen o indi iduals who wan o ca y on hei ca ee in en ep eneu ship (Godswill e al. 2021;K ichen and Chaabouni 2021;Ruiz-Rosa e al. 2020). Conside ing he bene i s p o ided by en ep eneu ial ac i i y—including social and economic aspec s (dec easing he unemploymen a e), especially o young adul s— esea che s, educa ional ins i u ions, and public o icials (i.e., go e nmen s) a e pa ic- ula ly in e es ed in ha ing a be e iew o he impac o a ious ac o s on indi iduals’ en ep eneu ial beha io , including he in en ion o s a a business. Such in e es is mo e p esen in imes o c isis, including he COVID-19 pandemic. A be e unde s anding o hese de e minan s (pa icula ly du ing a c isis) would make i possible o design new policies o adjus exis ing ones o boos en ep eneu ial ac i i y. Acco ding o Ra en (2021), he pandemic should be seen no only as a cause o conside able ha oc, bu also as a c isis ha c ea ed an en i onmen sui able o new en ep eneu ial oppo uni ies o lou ish. Hence, he ad e si y o COVID-19 may lead o a new way o doing business (Usman and Sun 2022). The e o e, i would be in e es ing o see he ac ual e ec o he COVID-19 c isis on indi iduals’ in en ion o s a a business. E en hough he e a e a conside able numbe o pape s co e ing en ep eneu ial in en ion (Abebe and Al a ado 2018;Ba ba-Sánchez and A ienza-Sahuquillo 2018;Belas e al. 2017; Neneh 2019;Palali´c e al. 2017;Pe ez-Quin ana e al. 2017;Za nadze e al. 2022;Çe a e al. 2021), minimal esea ch has ocused on he ole o he COVID-19 pandemic on inc easing indi iduals’ in en ion o s a up a business (Godswill e al. 2021;He nández-Sánchez e al. 2020;Li e al. 2022;Ra en 2021;T i e al. 2022). The e o e, his pape seeks o shed ligh on he ela ionship men ioned abo e by in oducing an in eg a ion o wo heo ies: he heo y o planned beha io (Ajzen 1991), and he s imulus–o ganism– esponse pe spec i e (Meh abian and Russell 1974). Such esea ch will p o ide use ul insigh s o he en ep eneu ship li e a u e and policymake s. The es o his pape is o ganized as ollows: The a icle’s nex sec ion is dedica ed o heo e ical lenses and he de elopmen o hypo heses. Then, he esul s a e in e p e ed a e he desc ip ion o he me hodological p ocedu es. The i h sec ion o he a icle consis s o a discussion o he indings, ollowed by he sec ion dedica ed o he conclusion. 2. Li e a u e Re iew 2.1. Theo e ical Lenses The p esen s udy uses wo heo e ical lenses: he heo y o planned beha io (Ajzen 1991), and a s imulus–o ganism– esponse amewo k (Meh abian and Russell 1974). The li e a u e on hese heo e ical iews in he con ex o en ep eneu ial in en ion is dis- cussed below. Schola s conside indi iduals’ in en ions owa ds s a ups o be a di icul opic o s udy (Liñán and Fayolle 2015;Maheshwa i e al. 2022). The complexi y o his opic lies in he ac ha indi iduals’ in en ion is a ec ed by se e al ac o s (Shane e al. 2003;Mu nieks e al. 2020; Lü hje and F anke 2003), including he men al p ocess ha unde lies he in en ional ac ions (En ialgo and Iglesias 2020) and he sophis ica ed p ocess based on pe cep ion (K uege and Ca s ud 1993;K uege e al. 2000). One o he p edominan models used o s udy his opic is he heo y o planned beha io (Maheshwa i e al. 2022), in oduced by Ajzen (1991), which p oposes ha a i udes, subjec i e no ms, and pe cei ed beha io al con ol a e h ee key de e mining ac o s o one’s in en ion owa ds a pa icula ac ion and, in u n, leading o ha pe son’s ac ual ac ion o beha io . The e icacy o his heo y has been es ed, showing ha he model wo ks (K uege and Ca s ud 1993;Kau onen e al. 2015;Muni e al. 2019; Adm. Sci. 2022,12, 184 3 o 18 an Gelde en e al. 2008;Zampe akis e al. 2017). The majo i y o he pape s ha used his heo y applied he model wi hou he ela ionship be ween in en ion and ac ion/beha io . Howe e , he e is e idence o a s ong co ela ion be ween an indi idual’s in en ion and hei ac ual beha io owa d s a ing a business (Neneh 2019). In a me a-analysis, A mi age and Conne (2001) ound ha he in en ion–beha io co ela ion was s a is ically signi ican , e lec ing a medium-sized e ec ( = 0.47). The e o e, s udying en ep eneu ial in en ion may p o ide insigh s in o he ac ual beha io owa ds s a ing a business. Mo eo e , his model has been used in he con ex o he COVID-19 pandemic (Ruiz-Rosa e al. 2020;Godswill e al. 2021;K ichen and Chaabouni 2021). As men ioned ea lie , in his pape , a di e en heo y is applied ha complies wi h he heo y o planned beha io : he s imulus–o ganism– esponse pe spec i e. This heo y was in oduced by Meh abian and Russell (1974), consis ing o h ee elemen s: s imulus, o ganism, and esponse. In his amewo k, s imuli e e o a se o ac o s, including he en i onmen and in o ma ion load. The o ganism is he second elemen o his amewo k, and i e e s o he o ganism’s condi ions, which consis o emo ional eac ions o en i on- men al s imuli. The hi d and inal elemen o his amewo k is labeled as “ esponse”, which ep esen s an app oach o a oidance ac ion o beha io . These wo heo e ical pe spec i es can be me ged o p o ide a be e iew o he con ex o he p esen s udy. Hence, he COVID-19 pandemic is seen as a s imulus coming om he ex e nal en i onmen , a ec ing an indi idual’s o ganism condi ions. In his s udy, he o ganism is ep esen ed by de e minan s o en ep eneu ial in en ion (i.e., a i ude, subjec i e no ms, and pe cei ed beha io al con ol). Las ly, en ep eneu ial in en ion co e s he esponse componen o he s imulus–o ganism– esponse pe spec i e. 2.2. De elopmen o Hypo heses 2.2.1. A i udes owa ds Beha io and En ep eneu ial In en ion Once he heo e ical lenses used in his s udy we e se , he de elopmen o he hypo h- esis could p oceed. The ollowing pa ag aphs discuss he ela ionships based on he wo men ioned heo ies. The i s ou hypo heses deal wi h he heo y o planned beha io , while he las se ep esen s he ela ionships be ween COVID-19 and o he ac o s. An indi idual’s a i ude owa ds en ep eneu ship is de ined as he ex en o which a pe son holds a nega i e o posi i e a i ude owa ds becoming an en ep eneu (Liñán and Chen 2009). F om his de ini ion, one can say ha people wi h a posi i e pe cep ion o being an en ep eneu a e mo e likely o ha e a i m in e es in engaging in s a up ac i i y, whe eas people wi h a nega i e pe cep ion a e mo e likely o ha e no in e es in such ac i i y. P io esea ch demons a es ha he e is a posi i e associa ion be ween a i ude and en ep eneu ial in en ion (Joensuu-Salo e al. 2015;Feola e al. 2019;Maes e al. 2014; Haus e al. 2013;Liñán and Chen 2009), including limi ed esea ch co e ing he ime o he COVID-19 pandemic (Ruiz-Rosa e al. 2020). Ne e heless, some s udies do no epo a signi ican in luence o a i udes on en ep eneu ial in en ion, e en du ing COVID-19 (Godswill e al. 2021;Nguyen e al. 2020). Thus, i is no clea whe he a i ude’s e ec on en ep eneu ial in en ion is posi i e. The e o e, he e is a need o s udy his ela ionship. Thus, ou i s hypo hesis is as ollows: Hypo hesis 1 (H1). Pe sonal a i ude owa ds en ep eneu ship posi i ely in luences en ep eneu ial in en ion. 2.2.2. Subjec i e No ms and En ep eneu ial In en ion Acco ding o he heo y o planned beha io , he second de e minan o a pe son’s in en ion is he subjec i e no m, which is known as he social in luence on an indi idual o pe o m (o no ) a pa icula beha io (Ajzen 1991). This is ela ed o he belie ha an impo an pe son, ela i es, iends, o o he s will endo se (o no ) a speci ic beha io , e.g., a decision o s a up a business. P io s udies show a posi i e e ec o subjec i e no ms on en ep eneu ial in en ion (Mo iano e al. 2012;Ran anen and Toikko 2017;Mi jana e al. Adm. Sci. 2022,12, 184 4 o 18 2018;Ma esch e al. 2016;Misoska e al. 2016). Mo eo e , i is di icul o ind a pape epo ing an insigni ican ela ionship— o example, he s udy o Godswill e al. (2021), which was conduc ed in he con ex o he COVID-19 pandemic. The p esen s udy may o e addi ional e idence abou his ela ionship in he con ex o he pandemic. Thus, subjec i e no ms (i.e., social in luence) a e expec ed o posi i ely p edic one’s in en ion o s a a business. The e o e, ou second hypo hesis is as ollows: Hypo hesis 2 (H2). An indi idual’s en ep eneu ial in en ion is posi i ely in luenced by subjec i e no ms. 2.2.3. Pe cei ed Beha io al Con ol and En ep eneu ial In en ion Based on he heo y o planned beha io , pe cei ed beha io al con ol is he hi d main de e minan o an indi idual’s in en ion (Ajzen 1991). In he con ex o en ep eneu ship, his is seen as he belie and con idence ha a pe son has in ca ying ou business ac i i ies as an en ep eneu . Based on his logic, he mo e oppo uni ies and esou ces a pe son belie es hey ha e and he ewe cons ain s hey o esee, he g ea e hei pe cei ed con ol o e a pa icula ac ion is expec ed o be, including s a up ac i i y. P e ious s udies con i m he posi i e e ec o pe cei ed beha io al con ol on en ep eneu ial in en ion (Al-Juba i 2019;Joensuu-Salo e al. 2015;Kau onen e al. 2015;Liñán and Chen 2009;Nguyen e al. 2020), including hose conduc ed du ing he COVID-19 pandemic (Ruiz-Rosa e al. 2020;Godswill e al. 2021). Al hough he e is such e idence, he e is a need o s udy his ela ionship in he con ex o COVID-19 in pos -communis coun ies. Thus, ou hi d hypo hesis is as ollows: Hypo hesis 3 (H3). Pe cei ed beha io al con ol posi i ely in luences en ep eneu ial in en ion. 2.2.4. The Role o COVID-19 P e ious s udies ha e ied o shed ligh on he impac o COVID-19 on di e en aspec s o en ep eneu ship, including he in en ion o s a a business (Lopes e al. 2021; Bo eza e al. 2022). A e e al. (2022) conduc ed an expe imen and ound ha he ma- jo i y o p ospec i e en ep eneu s ei he canceled o pos poned hei p ojec s du ing he i s mon hs o he pandemic. Ne e heless, some s udies see his c isis as a chance o implemen a business idea by es ablishing a i m. Resea ch ound ha mos o he s uden s om E asmus Uni e si y Ro e dam did no change hei en ep eneu ial in en ion due o COVID-19 (Wismans e al. 2022). In addi ion, he la e s udy demons a ed ha he sha e o s uden s who inc eased hei en ep eneu ial in en ion (19%) was highe han hose who dec eased such in en ion (16%). Hence, e idence suppo s he claim ha COVID-19 o e s new chances o en ep eneu ship. Mo eo e , seeing COVID-19 as an oppo u- ni y o engage in en ep eneu ial ac i i y is mo e common han pe cei ing i as a h ea (Lungu e al. 2021). This inding is suppo ed by a p io s udy conduc ed in a wa se ing, which sugges s ha e en unde condi ions o wa , people de elop en ep eneu ial in en- ions in case hey can g ow om ad e si y and belie e in hei abili ies (Bullough e al. 2014). Thus, one can say ha c isis may c ea e a sui able en i onmen o indi iduals o see en ep eneu ial oppo uni ies. Acco ding o K ichen and Chaabouni’s (2021) esea ch, he e is a posi i e and s a is ically signi ican impac o COVID-19 seen as an oppo uni y on s uden s’ likelihood o s a a business. This inding is consis en wi h o he esea ch ha highligh s he pandemic’s po en ial bene icial e ec s on en ep eneu ship (Bo eza e al. 2022;Lungu e al. 2021). Consequen ly, a posi i e e ec o COVID-19 on en ep eneu ial in en ion was also expec ed o be p esen in his s udy. Adm. Sci. 2022,12, 184 5 o 18 Recen ly published pape s ha e u ilized he heo y o planned beha io o explo e he impac o COVID-19 on beha io al changes, including he e ec s o COVID-19 on he de e minan s o beha io al in en ion (i.e., a i ude, subjec i e no ms, and pe cei ed beha io al con ol) (S isa han and Na ue ha adhol 2022;P ase yo e al. 2020;Han e al. 2020;Luca elli e al. 2020). I is gene ally known ha ex e nal ac o s in luence indi iduals’ a i udes owa ds pa icula ac ions. In his con ex , acco ding o Raybu n e al. (2022), in esponse o he COVID-19 pandemic, indi iduals mo ed om ea o ugali y, ei he by ollowing new beha io s o ced by he c isis, o by going back o hei beha io p io o he c isis. Hence, a i udes owa ds di e en aspec s change in a c isis se ing, such as a i udes owa ds en ep eneu ship in gene al and s a ing up a business. In he con ex o he COVID-19 pandemic, Gomes e al. (2021) demons a ed ha he posi i e and signi ican in luence o a i udes owa d beha io and en ep eneu ial in en ion was p esen in bo h si ua ions: be o e and du ing he pandemic. Mo eo e , he la e s udy shows a sligh ly mo e signi ican e ec du ing he COVID-19 pandemic han be o e i . Simila o a i udes, e idence shows ha subjec i e no ms and pe cei ed beha io al con ol inc eased due o COVID-19 (Bo eza e al. 2022). Acco ding o p io esea ch, people’s li es yles ha e changed due o COVID-19 (Raybu n e al. 2022;Ra en 2021). A he communi y le el, o a oid he ansmission o illness, indi iduals we e ecommended o ake addi ional hygienic measu es. Indi iduals a e pu suing digi iza ion mo e agg essi ely han e e be o e in o de o espec social dis ancing no ms, emb acing new ac i i ies and in e ac ions—including elewo king—and adjus ing e e yday habi s o i a new eali y (S isa han and Na ue ha adhol 2022). The e o e, a pe son’s iends and ela i es may push hem o ake ac ion o s a a business, meaning ha subjec i e no ms a e in luenced by COVID-19. Indeed, p e ious esea ch suppo s such an associa ion (P ase yo e al. 2020; S isa han and Na ue ha adhol 2022;Han e al. 2020). Ve y ew pape s ha e discussed he impac o COVID-19 on pe cei ed beha io al con ol. By de ini ion, pe cei ed beha io al con ol is he com o le el o a pe son in pe o ming any pa icula beha io (Ajzen 1991). I s de e minan s a e assumed o be he se o accessible con ol belie s, such as belie s abou he p esence o ac o s ha can enable o cons ain a ce ain beha io . This easoning leads o he concep o esilience, which e e s o he abili y ha a pe son has o eco e om o adjus easily o change o mis o une (Sinclai and Walls on 2004;Alshebami and Se aj 2022a). S udies ha e shown ha esilience is an impo an ac o in c isis se ings, including in en ep eneu ship (A e e al. 2022; Bullough e al. 2014;Sha ma and Rau ela 2021;Schepe s e al. 2021;Alshebami 2022). P io esea ch has ound ha pe cei ed beha io al con ol is a ec ed by c ises, including COVID-19, suppo ing he exis ence o his associa ion (P ase yo e al. 2020;S isa han and Na ue ha adhol 2022). Based on he abo e discussion, one can conclude ha COVID-19 in luences a i udes owa d en ep eneu ship, subjec i e no ms, and pe cei ed beha io al con ol. Thus, ou ou h hypo hesis is as ollows: Hypo hesis 4a–c (H4a–c). The COVID-19 pandemic has a posi i e e ec on a i udes o s a a business (H4a), subjec i e no ms (H4b), and pe cei ed beha io al con ol (H4c). Hypo hesis 4d (H4d). En ep eneu ial in en ion is posi i ely a ec ed by he COVID-19 pandemic. The in eg a ion o he heo y o planned beha io and he s imulus–o ganism– esponse pe spec i e is illus a ed in Figu e 1. Addi ionally, he igu e also shows he p oposed linkages (i.e., hypo heses). Adm. Sci. 2022,12, 184 6 o 18 Adm. Sci. 2022, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 o 19 Figu e 1. Concep ual amewo k and hypo heses. 3. Me hod and P ocedu es 3.1. Resea ch Ins umen and Sample In o de o mee he goals o his esea ch, a su ey was conduc ed o es he e- sea ch model and indica e he signi icance o he ela ionships. The use o su eys is a quan i a i e me hod ha can in e he popula ion by s udying a sample (C eswell and C eswell 2017). This ype o me hod implies he need o p ima y da a collec ion. Hence, a ques ionnai e was de eloped based on he li e a u e e iew. The esea ch co e ed h ee coun ies: Albania, Koso o, and No h Macedonia. A e he alida ion o he ques ionnai e, i was ansla ed in o he Albanian and Macedonian languages. The da a we e collec ed du ing he COVID-19 pandemic a he end o 2021. The esponden s we e selec ed by ollowing a wo-s age sampling p ocedu e: (i) selec ion o p ima y sampling uni , and (ii) selec ion o he esponden s. The i s s age was ul illed by andomly selec ing pa icipan s om among he o ing cen e s. The second s age consis ed o selec ing he esponden s ollowing a me hodology o s a ing om he o ing cen e and hen mo ing clockwise, always ge ing u he om he s a ing poin . Mo e han 800 alid esponses we e collec ed, wi h mo e han 200 e- sponden s om each coun y. Such a sample size is well abo e he ecommenda ion o Hai e al. (2010). Table 1 shows he sample p o ile (o e all and pe coun y). Fo he mos pa , he pa e n o he subsample p o iles e lec s one o he o e all samples. Th ee ou o i e esponden s we e 24 yea s old o less. The majo i y o he esponden s we e emale. Almos 70% o he esponden s we e se led in u ban a eas (i.e., ci ies). Figu e 1. Concep ual amewo k and hypo heses. 3. Me hod and P ocedu es 3.1. Resea ch Ins umen and Sample In o de o mee he goals o his esea ch, a su ey was conduc ed o es he esea ch model and indica e he signi icance o he ela ionships. The use o su eys is a quan i a i e me hod ha can in e he popula ion by s udying a sample (C eswell and C eswell 2017). This ype o me hod implies he need o p ima y da a collec ion. Hence, a ques ionnai e was de eloped based on he li e a u e e iew. The esea ch co e ed h ee coun ies: Albania, Koso o, and No h Macedonia. A e he alida ion o he ques ionnai e, i was ansla ed in o he Albanian and Macedonian languages. The da a we e collec ed du ing he COVID-19 pandemic a he end o 2021. The esponden s we e selec ed by ollowing a wo-s age sampling p ocedu e: (i) se- lec ion o p ima y sampling uni , and (ii) selec ion o he esponden s. The i s s age was ul illed by andomly selec ing pa icipan s om among he o ing cen e s. The second s age consis ed o selec ing he esponden s ollowing a me hodology o s a ing om he o ing cen e and hen mo ing clockwise, always ge ing u he om he s a ing poin . Mo e han 800 alid esponses we e collec ed, wi h mo e han 200 esponden s om each coun y. Such a sample size is well abo e he ecommenda ion o Hai e al. (2010). Table 1shows he sample p o ile (o e all and pe coun y). Fo he mos pa , he pa e n o he subsample p o iles e lec s one o he o e all samples. Th ee ou o i e esponden s we e 24 yea s old o less. The majo i y o he esponden s we e emale. Almos 70% o he esponden s we e se led in u ban a eas (i.e., ci ies). 3.2. Measu emen o Va iables The a iables o his esea ch we e measu ed as p oposed in he li e a u e, wi h mino changes, including wo ding o adap a ion o he con ex . The dependen a iable in his pape is en ep eneu ial in en ion. The e a e di e en ways in which his a iable has been measu ed in he li e a u e (A mi age and Conne 2001;Çe a and Çe a 2020;F anke and Lü hje 2004;K uege and Ca s ud 1993;Lim e al. 2016;Çe a e al. 2020). Howe e , as claimed by Thompson (2009), an indi idual’s in en ion canno be cap u ed by conside ing only one i em/s a emen ; he e o e, en ep eneu ial in en ion in his wo k is measu ed Adm. Sci. 2022,12, 184 7 o 18 by ou i ems/s a emen s, which can be ound in he Appendix A. The sou ce o his measu emen was he wo k published by Liñán and Chen (2006). Table 1. Sample p o ile. Va iable Ca ego y Coun y Albania Koso o No h Macedonia To al n = 412 n = 207 n = 203 N = 822 Se lemen Ci y 87.9% 48.8% 49.3% 68.5% Village 12.1% 51.2% 50.7% 31.5% To al 100% 100% 100% 100% Gende Male 26.7% 29.0% 25.1% 26.9% Female 73.3% 71.0% 74.9% 73.1% To al 100% 100% 100% 100% Age 18–24 yea s old 66.5% 46.4% 58.1% 59.4% 25–35 yea s old 33.5% 53.6% 41.9% 40.6% To al 100% 100% 100% 100% Rega ding he independen a iables, excluding he COVID-19 a iable, all o he o he s we e measu ed simila ly o he app oach o Ga cía-Rod íguez e al. (2017). A single-i em a iable was used o measu e he impac o COVID-19 on he an eceden s o he indi iduals’ in en o ac and hei in en ions hemsel es. The s a emen eads “ he COVID- 19 pandemic si ua ion has made me op imis ic abou s a ing a business”. The esponden s we e asked o indica e hei le el o ag eemen wi h he s a emen (1 = s ongly disag ee, 5 = s ongly ag ee ). A simila ype o measu emen was used in a p io s udy (K ichen and Chaabouni 2021). Appendix A(Table A1) summa izes he lis o i ems/indica o s used o measu e each a iable included in his esea ch. 3.3. Me hod The pa ial leas squa es s uc u al equa ion modelling (PLS-SEM) me hod was used o es he p oposed concep ual amewo k. PLS-SEM was pe o med using Sma PLS 3.0 (Ringle e al. 2015) compu e so wa e. The PLS app oach is a a iance-based s uc u al equa ion modeling (SEM) me hod (Hai e al. 2017). This app oach enables assessmen o he measu emen model, including he eliabili y and alidi y o he cons uc s and he s uc u al model. The e o e, i can es he o mula ed hypo heses by examining he s anda dized pa h coe icien s. As ecommended by he li e a u e, he s anda dized coe i- cien s we e es ima ed using he boo s ap p ocedu e, wi h 5000 i e a ions o esampling (Hai e al. 2019). Since he h ee coun ies sha e simila cul u es and le els o economic de elopmen , ou analysis conside ed one da ase a he han h ee sub-da ase s (one pe coun y). Ac- co ding o Ho s ede (2011), hese coun ies sha e e y simila cul u al alues (see Figu e 2). Un o una ely, he e a e no epo s o Koso o. Howe e , Koso o is inhabi ed by Albanians and has many hings in common no only wi h Albania, bu also wi h No h Macedonia. As he g aph depic s, he e a e ew di e ences be ween Albania and No h Macedonia. The e o e, he h ee coun ies sha e simila cul u al alues. This leads o he sugges ion o analyzing he da a as a whole, a he han sepa a ely. 3.4. Checking Assump ions A PLS-SEM me hod is an app oach based on assump ions. Thei iola ion (indi idu- ally o collec i ely) leads o p oblems in he in e p e a ion o he esul s ha his me hod gene a es. The e o e, he iola ion o any o his app oach’s assump ions is an indica ion ha i s ou pu is misleading. To a oid such issues he e is a need o check some assump- ions, which a e mos ly ela ed o he measu emen model, including he eliabili y and alidi y o he i ems and scales. Adm. Sci. 2022,12, 184 8 o 18 Adm. Sci. 2022, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 o 19 Figu e 2. Ho s ede’s cul u al dimensions o Albania and No h Macedonia. Sou ce: Ho s ede In- sigh s: h ps://www.ho s ede-insigh s.com/ (accessed on 22 Oc obe 2022). 3.4. Checking Assump ions A PLS-SEM me hod is an app oach based on assump ions. Thei iola ion (indi- idually o collec i ely) leads o p oblems in he in e p e a ion o he esul s ha his me hod gene a es. The e o e, he iola ion o any o his app oach’s assump ions is an indica ion ha i s ou pu is misleading. To a oid such issues he e is a need o check some assump ions, which a e mos ly ela ed o he measu emen model, including he eliabili y and alidi y o he i ems and scales. In o de o assess he i ness o he model, a lis o me ics can be examined. In his con ex , C onbach’s alpha, composi e eliabili y (CR), and ho alpha p o ide in o ma ion abou scale eliabili y, while a e age a iance ex ac ed (AVE) epo s he ex en o which he scale eliabili y and con e gen alidi y a e sa is ac o y. These me ics a e assessed and epo ed in Table 2. Since he alues o C onbach’s alpha (abo e 0.70), composi e e- liabili y (abo e 0.60), and ho alpha a e abo e he h esholds o all scales (Hai e al. 2019), i can be said ha he da a show sa is ac o y eliabili y and con e gen alidi y o he cons uc s. In addi ion, i em eliabili y can be assessed by examining he ac o load- ings, which should be abo e 0.708 (Hai e al. 2019). Indeed, as epo ed in Table 2, all loadings a e abo e his h eshold, leading o he conclusion ha all cons uc s explain mo e han hal o he indica o ’s a iance, p o iding e idence o accep indica o elia- bili y. Mo eo e , Table 2 shows he a iance in luence ac o (VIF) o each indica o . In gene al, VIF indica es he p esence o mul icollinea i y in a ela ionship. Howe e , since he da a show ha he VIF alues a e below 5 (Hai e al. 2019), one can say ha he e is no mul icollinea i y issue wi hin he measu emen model. Table 2. Desc ip i e s a is ics and measu emen model quali y a ibu es. Va iable Mean S anda d De ia ion Loadings VIF CA ho_A CR AVE COVID-19 2.20 1.21 1 1 1 1 1 1 EI - - - - 0.9079 0.9104 0.9354 0.7837 ei1 3.19 1.26 0.8639 2.4197 ei2 3.25 1.22 0.8979 2.8824 ei3 3.48 1.30 0.9018 3.1293 ei4 3.50 1.28 0.8768 2.7662 ATT - - - - 0.9349 0.9357 0.9535 0.8367 a 1 3.29 1.27 0.8976 3.0892 a 2 3.40 1.32 0.9270 4.0227 a 3 3.56 1.35 0.9140 3.5009 a 5 3.28 1.30 0.9199 3.7092 SN - - - - 0.8739 0.8919 0.9215 0.7966 sn1 3.74 1.22 0.8783 1.8999 sn2 3.59 1.22 0.9223 3.4762 sn3 3.33 1.21 0.8762 2.9185 PBC - - - - 0.9047 0.9067 0.9265 0.6777 90 20 61 90 22 62 Powe dis ance Indi idualism Long e m o ien a ion No h Macedonia Albania Figu e 2. Ho s ede’s cul u al dimensions o Albania and No h Macedonia. Sou ce: Ho s ede Insigh s: h ps://www.ho s ede-insigh s.com/ (accessed on 22 Oc obe 2022). In o de o assess he i ness o he model, a lis o me ics can be examined. In his con ex , C onbach’s alpha, composi e eliabili y (CR), and ho alpha p o ide in o ma ion abou scale eliabili y, while a e age a iance ex ac ed (AVE) epo s he ex en o which he scale eliabili y and con e gen alidi y a e sa is ac o y. These me ics a e assessed and epo ed in Table 2. Since he alues o C onbach’s alpha (abo e 0.70), composi e eliabili y (abo e 0.60), and ho alpha a e abo e he h esholds o all scales (Hai e al. 2019), i can be said ha he da a show sa is ac o y eliabili y and con e gen alidi y o he cons uc s. In addi ion, i em eliabili y can be assessed by examining he ac o loadings, which should be abo e 0.708 (Hai e al. 2019). Indeed, as epo ed in Table 2, all loadings a e abo e his h eshold, leading o he conclusion ha all cons uc s explain mo e han hal o he indica o ’s a iance, p o iding e idence o accep indica o eliabili y. Table 2. Desc ip i e s a is ics and measu emen model quali y a ibu es. Va iable Mean S anda d De ia ion Loadings VIF CA ho_A CR AVE COVID-19 2.20 1.21 1 1 1 1 1 1 EI - - - - 0.9079 0.9104 0.9354 0.7837 ei1 3.19 1.26 0.8639 2.4197 ei2 3.25 1.22 0.8979 2.8824 ei3 3.48 1.30 0.9018 3.1293 ei4 3.50 1.28 0.8768 2.7662 ATT - - - - 0.9349 0.9357 0.9535 0.8367 a 1 3.29 1.27 0.8976 3.0892 a 2 3.40 1.32 0.9270 4.0227 a 3 3.56 1.35 0.9140 3.5009 a 5 3.28 1.30 0.9199 3.7092 SN - - - - 0.8739 0.8919 0.9215 0.7966 sn1 3.74 1.22 0.8783 1.8999 sn2 3.59 1.22 0.9223 3.4762 sn3 3.33 1.21 0.8762 2.9185 PBC - - - - 0.9047 0.9067 0.9265 0.6777 pbc1 3.62 1.18 0.8193 2.3296 pbc2 3.53 1.11 0.8517 2.5354 pbc3 3.68 1.14 0.8589 2.7262 pbc5 3.33 1.17 0.7913 2.0059 pbc6 3.37 1.12 0.7983 2.1293 pbc7 3.28 1.12 0.8175 2.2221 No e: VIF, a iance in luence ac o ; CA, C onbach’s alpha; CR, composi e eliabili y; AVE, a e age a iance ex ac ed; ATT, a i ude; EI, en ep eneu ial in en ion; PBC, pe cei ed beha io al con ol; SN, subjec i e no ms; COVID-19, he COVID-19 pandemic. Mo eo e , Table 2shows he a iance in luence ac o (VIF) o each indica o . In gene al, VIF indica es he p esence o mul icollinea i y in a ela ionship. Howe e , since Adm. Sci. 2022,12, 184 9 o 18 he da a show ha he VIF alues a e below 5 (Hai e al. 2019), one can say ha he e is no mul icollinea i y issue wi hin he measu emen model. Ano he c ucial issue o conside in PLS-SEM deals wi h he disc iminan alidi y, which indica es how dis inc one cons uc is om o he s. Table 3p o ides in o ma ion on his issue, since i epo s he co ela ions’ he e o ai –mono ai a io (HTMT). I is ecommended o examine HTMT coe icien s when using PLS-SEM as a measu e o dis- c iminan alidi y (Hensele e al. 2015). The ule o humb is ha he HTMT alues should be below 0.85. In Table 3, all o he coe icien s sa is y his ule. This es esul indica es ha he disc iminan alidi y is se in his pape . Addi ionally, Table 3 epo s he co ela ion coe icien s among he measu ed cons uc s. Table 3. Co ela ion ma ix and disc iminan alidi y—HTMT. ATT COVID-19 EI PBC SN ATT 0.2598 0.5888 0.6382 0.4566 COVID-19 0.2687 0.2196 0.2225 0.1657 EI 0.6370 0.2297 0.4711 0.3801 PBC 0.6918 0.2353 0.5186 0.5778 SN 0.4936 0.1717 0.4172 0.6374 No e: Co ela ion coe icien s a e abo e he diagonal, while HTMT coe icien s a e below i . ATT, a i ude; EI, en ep eneu ial in en ion; PBC, pe cei ed beha io al con ol; SN, subjec i e no ms; COVID-19, he COVID-19 pandemic. Figu e 3g aphically illus a es he main esul s o he measu emen model, as gene - a ed by Sma PLS 3.0. Adm. Sci. 2022, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 9 o 19 pbc1 3.62 1.18 0.8193 2.3296 pbc2 3.53 1.11 0.8517 2.5354 pbc3 3.68 1.14 0.8589 2.7262 pbc5 3.33 1.17 0.7913 2.0059 pbc6 3.37 1.12 0.7983 2.1293 pbc7 3.28 1.12 0.8175 2.2221 No e: VIF, a iance in luence ac o ; CA, C onbach’s alpha; CR, composi e eliabili y; AVE, a e age a iance ex ac ed; ATT, a i ude; EI, en ep eneu ial in en ion; PBC, pe cei ed beha io al con ol; SN, subjec i e no ms; COVID-19, he COVID-19 pandemic. Ano he c ucial issue o conside in PLS-SEM deals wi h he disc iminan alidi y, which indica es how dis inc one cons uc is om o he s. Table 3 p o ides in o ma ion on his issue, since i epo s he co ela ions’ he e o ai –mono ai a io (HTMT). I is ecommended o examine HTMT coe icien s when using PLS-SEM as a measu e o dis- c iminan alidi y (Hensele e al. 2015). The ule o humb is ha he HTMT alues should be below 0.85. In Table 3, all o he coe icien s sa is y his ule. This es esul indica es ha he disc iminan alidi y is se in his pape . Addi ionally, Table 3 epo s he co ela ion coe icien s among he measu ed cons uc s. Table 3. Co ela ion ma ix and disc iminan alidi y—HTMT. ATT COVID-19 EI PBC SN ATT 0.2598 0.5888 0.6382 0.4566 COVID-19 0.2687 0.2196 0.2225 0.1657 EI 0.6370 0.2297 0.4711 0.3801 PBC 0.6918 0.2353 0.5186 0.5778 SN 0.4936 0.1717 0.4172 0.6374 No e: Co ela ion coe icien s a e abo e he diagonal, while HTMT coe icien s a e below i . ATT, a i ude; EI, en ep eneu ial in en ion; PBC, pe cei ed beha io al con ol; SN, subjec i e no ms; COVID-19, he COVID-19 pandemic. Figu e 3 g aphically illus a es he main esul s o he measu emen model, as gen- e a ed by Sma PLS 3.0. Figu e 3. Measu emen model. No e: ATT, a i ude; EI, en ep eneu ial in en ion; PBC, pe cei ed beha io al con ol; SN, subjec i e no ms; COVID-19, he COVID-19 pandemic. Figu e 3. Measu emen model. No e: ATT, a i ude; EI, en ep eneu ial in en ion; PBC, pe cei ed beha io al con ol; SN, subjec i e no ms; COVID-19, he COVID-19 pandemic. 4. 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