Composites in ballistic applications focused on ballistic vests—A review

Ci a ion: Ka hanko a, M.; Adamek, M.; K s ulo i´c-Opa a, L.; Mach, V.; Baga ac, P.; S oklasek, P.; Mize a, A. Composi es in Ballis ic Applica ions Focused on Ballis ic Ves s—A Re iew. J. Compos. Sci. 2024,8, 415. h ps:// doi.o g/10.3390/jcs8100415 Recei ed: 3 Sep embe 2024 Re ised: 30 Sep embe 2024 Accep ed: 5 Oc obe 2024 Published: 9 Oc obe 2024 Copy igh : © 2024 by he au ho s. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Swi ze land. This a icle is an open access a icle dis ibu ed unde he e ms and condi ions o he C ea i e Commons A ibu ion (CC BY) license (h ps:// c ea i ecommons.o g/licenses/by/ 4.0/). Re iew Composi es in Ballis ic Applica ions Focused on Ballis ic Ves s—A Re iew Michaela Ka hanko a 1, Milan Adamek 1, Lo e K s ulo i´c-Opa a 2, Vacla Mach 1, Pe a Baga ac 2, Pa el S oklasek 1and Ales Mize a 1,* 1Facul y o Applied In o ma ics, Tomas Ba a Uni e si y in Zlin, Nad S anemi 4511, 760 05 Zlin, Czech Republic; [email p o ec ed] (M.K.); [email p o ec ed] (M.A.); [email p o ec ed] (V.M.); [email p o ec ed] (P.S.) 2Facul y o Elec ical Enginee ing, Mechanical Enginee ing and Na al A chi ec u e, Uni e si y o Spli , R. Bosko ica 32, HR-21000 Spli , C oa ia; lo [email p o ec ed] (L.K.-O.); [email p o ec ed] (P.B.) *Co espondence: [email p o ec ed]; Tel.: +420-576-035-636 Abs ac : The de elopmen o ballis ic ma e ials has imp o ed e y apidly in he las ew yea s. Body a mo plays an impo an ole in p o ec ing indi iduals du ing mili a y h ea s. Body a mo can be di ided in o ha d and so a ian s depending on he ade-o s be ween p o ec ion le els and wea e agili y. Cu en esea ch aims o op imize s eng h- o-weigh a ios by using di e en combina ions o syn he ic o na u al ibe s o hei combina ions o achie e inc easingly demanding equi emen s o ballis ic ma e ials. Mo eo e , i examines he a ious ypes o ibe s u ilized in he cons uc ion o body a mo , anging om adi ional ma e ials like me al and ce amic o syn he ic and na u al ibe s. This pape discusses ongoing esea ch e o s aimed a u he enhancing he pe o mance o hese ma e ials, such as he inco po a ion o modi ied na u al ibe s in o ad anced composi e sys ems. The e iew p o ides a comp ehensi e analysis o he cu en s a e o he ma e ials u ilized in ballis ic p o ec ion. Keywo ds: composi e ma e ials; ballis ics; na u al ibe s; nanoma e ials 1. In oduc ion Body a mo is used o p o ec people, mainly du ing mili a y io s and e o is a acks. In he pas , adi ional body a mo , including es s, was hea y and uncom o able o wea , and i also a ec ed he mobili y o soldie s. Con empo a y body a mo includes ballis ic es s, helme s, leg o g oin p o ec ion, and e en speci ic pla es used o p o ide addi ional p o ec ion. Ballis ic es s a e an impo an pa o body a mo because wo ldwide con lic s and iolence a e cu en ly on he ise [1–8]. Body a mo can be mainly classi ied in o wo ca ego ies, ha d body a mo and so body a mo . Ha d body a mo gua an ees p o ec ion le els III and IV, acco ding o he Na ional Ins i u e o Jus ice (NIJ). I is mainly ein o ced wi h me al, ce amic, o ibe - based composi e pla es wi hin laye s o ab ic. This ype o body a mo p o ec s agains high-speed bulle s o p ojec iles i ed om anged weapons and i is used especially by mili a y pe sonnel in high- isk ope a ions. I s disad an age is hea iness and igidi y; hus, i es ic s he wea e ’s mo emen [6,9,10]. On he o he hand, so body a mo is p ima ily made o mul iple laye s o high- pe o mance ab ics. These ypes o ab ics make his ype o body a mo ligh e and mo e lexible han ma e ials such as me al o ce amic used in ha d body a mo . So body a mo has lowe p o ec ion le els—II-A, II, and III-A (acco ding o he NIJ), and i is mainly used by he police, secu i y pe sonnel, io o ice s, e c. Howe e , so body a mo is hea y enough o es ic he wea e ’s agili y. Nowadays, hese limi a ions b ing se e al challenges when i comes o he educ ion in weigh and imp o emen in he e iciency o handling J. Compos. Sci. 2024,8, 415. h ps://doi.o g/10.3390/jcs8100415 h ps://www.mdpi.com/jou nal/jcs J. Compos. Sci. 2024,8, 415 2 o 17 mul iple ballis ic sho s. Simul aneously, in e ms o mo emen and com o , lexibili y is also a e y impo an pa when i comes o body a mo [11–16]. Body a mo ma e ials ha e a long his o y ha da es o he beginning o human ci iliza ion. Al eady in he medie al ages, he Japanese de eloped a so body a mo made om silk. A he end o he 19 h and he beginning o he 20 h cen u y, he US mili a y conside ed he possibili y o using so body a mo made o silk. Howe e , i was ound ha such a mo is only e ec i e agains low- eloci y p ojec iles (up o app ox. 120 m/s) and did no o e p o ec ion agains newly in oduced ypes o ammuni ion back hen, which eached he speed o app ox. 180 m/s. Du ing he Second Wo ld Wa , so-called “ lak jacke s” we e de eloped, which we e ligh a mo ha did no o e enough p o ec ion agains di ec i e om a i le o machine gun bu we e designed o p o ec agains lying deb is and shell agmen s. The i s lak jacke s con ained manganese s eel pla es, he la e gene a ion o lak jacke s eplaced manganese s eel wi h o he ma e ials, such as nylon o ibe glass pla es. In he 1960s, high-pe o mance pa a-a amid ibe s (Ke la ® ) by DuPon we e in en ed and e en ually used in so body a mo . This ype o ibe p o ec s agains bulle s, hand g enades, and kni e a acks. Nowadays, high-pe o mance ibe s, including pa a-a amid (Ke la ® , Techno a ® , Twa on ® ), poly p-phenylene benzo-isoxazole—PBO (Zylon ® ), ul a-high-molecula -weigh polye hylene—UHMWPE (Dyneema ® , Spec a ® ), o composi es wi h na u al ibe s, a e used in body a mo [14]. Cu en ly, esea che s a e looking o ways o de elop a ballis ic ma e ial wi h he highes s eng h and minimum weigh . The men ioned p ope ies a e essen ial because he wea e s o body a mo a e o en on he mo e, and ligh weigh body a mo ensu es be e mo emen capabili ies. Ano he essen ial p ope y o body a mo is good ene gy- abso p ion capabili y; o he imp o emen he eo , shea - hickening luid was es ed. The new gene a ion o ballis ic es s also ends o ha e se e al ad anced ea u es ha can moni o he wea e ’s li e condi ion in ha sh en i onmen s. These ea u es can be used o heal h moni o ing like hea a e o body empe a u e [17–24]. This e iew is ocused on he cu en de elopmen o he ibe s used in ballis ic p o- ec ion, mainly aimed a ibe s (especially na u al and syn he ic) o composi e ma e ials in ballis ic es s. The main goal o his e iew a icle is o ocus on a clea and comp ehensi e ea men o he cu en s a e o ma e ials sui able o ballis ic p o ec i e elemen s, such as a ballis ic es . I is impo an o e iew wha mechanical p ope ies each ma e ial has. E en he excellen p ope ies o cu en ly used syn he ic ibe s such as Ke la and Spec a o composi e sys ems may no be able o ul ill he inc easingly sophis ica ed equi emen s o an i-impac pe o mance ela i e o he weigh o olume o he ma e ial used. Using modi ied na u al ibe s in high- ech ballis ic composi e sys ems is becoming inc easingly impo an , and he usage he eo is gaining g owing a en ion om esea ch o ganiza ions dealing wi h ballis ic p o ec ion o he human body. 2. Na u al Fibe s in Body A mo Na u al ibe s ha e become an ecological and economical al e na i e o exis ing composi es no only in ballis ic applica ions. The a o emen ioned na u al ibe s come om a ious ma e ials, including plan s, animals, and o he esou ces. Plan -based ibe s a e ob ained om a ious ypes o ege a ion, such as lea s ems (e.g., bagasse, amie, banana, abaca, bamboo, pineapple), ui s (e.g., co on and coi ibe s), bas (e.g., lax, hemp, kena , ju e), g ass (e.g., bamboo, Indiang ass, swi chg ass), s aw (e.g., co n, ice), o wood pulp. The samples o plan -based ibe s a e shown in Figu e 1. Animal-based ibe s, such as a ian ibe , goa hai , ho sehai , and wool, consis o bones, shells, ea he s, and u s. These biological ibe s mus be biodeg adable and non-ha m ul o he human body when hey mee human skin. Na u al ibe s used o nowadays ballis ic and bulle p oo applica ions a e mainly sisal, cu aua, mallow ibe s and coi , amie, ju e, gian bamboo, wool, and suga cane bagasse was e [25–28]. Na u al ibe s, in common, ha e many a o able p ope ies and a e an a ac i e al e na i e o syn he ic ibe s because o hei low cos , ligh weigh , minimal heal h haza ds J. Compos. Sci. 2024,8, 415 3 o 17 du ing p ocessing, biodeg adabili y, easonably good speci ic s eng h and elas ic modulus, good he mal and acous ic insula ion cha ac e is ics, ease o a ailabili y, e c. Howe e , in hei aw s a e, hey ha e high wa e /mois u e abso p ion o may con ain dead cells, wax, and oil. The highe mois u e abso p ion o hese ibe s causes hei lowe mechanical p ope ies. The e o e, i is necessa y o modi y he ibe ´ s su ace. Me hods include adding coupling agen s, chemical ea men , enzyma ic ea men , and co ona/plasma ea men . This imp o es he connec ion be ween he ma ix (polyme ) and he ein o cemen (na u al ibe ), which inc eases he s eng h o he composi e ab ica ed. To achie e a educ ion in mois u e con en , a low cellulose con en is needed, hus esul ing in a weakening o he bonds be ween adjacen ibe s and enhanced in e acial adhesion be ween pa s. The modi ica ions o na u al ibe s imp o e hei o e all applicabili y o high-end ballis ic applica ions [29–38]. J. Compos. Sci. 2024, 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 o 18 Figu e 1. Samples o plan -based ibe s. Na u al ibe s, in common, ha e many a o able p ope ies and a e an a ac i e al- e na i e o syn he ic ibe s because o hei low cos , ligh weigh , minimal heal h haza ds du ing p ocessing, biodeg adabili y, easonably good speci ic s eng h and elas ic modu- lus, good he mal and acous ic insula ion cha ac e is ics, ease o a ailabili y, e c. How- e e , in hei aw s a e, hey ha e high wa e /mois u e abso p ion o may con ain dead cells, wax, and oil. The highe mois u e abso p ion o hese ibe s causes hei lowe me- chanical p ope ies. The e o e, i is necessa y o modi y he ibe ´s su ace. Me hods in- clude adding coupling agen s, chemical ea men , enzyma ic ea men , and co- ona/plasma ea men . This imp o es he connec ion be ween he ma ix (polyme ) and he ein o cemen (na u al ibe ), which inc eases he s eng h o he composi e ab ica ed. To achie e a educ ion in mois u e con en , a low cellulose con en is needed, hus esul - ing in a weakening o he bonds be ween adjacen ibe s and enhanced in e acial adhe- sion be ween pa s. The modi ica ions o na u al ibe s imp o e hei o e all applicabili y o high-end ballis ic applica ions [29–38]. Table 1 p esen s he physical p ope ies o a ious na u al ibe s commonly used in ex ile and composi e applica ions. The p ope ies included a e elonga ion a b eak (%), ensile s eng h (MPa), ensile elas ic modulus (GPa), densi y (g/cm3), mois u e con en (%), and diame e (μm). These p ope ies a e c ucial in assessing he sui abili y o each ibe o speci ic applica ions, including ballis ic p o ec ion. Se e al ma e ials ha e a g ea p ope y o ballis ic es s. The ne le ibe has excep ional ensile s eng h and high en- sile elas ic modulus. Sisal ibe o e s a good balance o s eng h and weigh o ballis ic p o ec ion. Spide silk possesses ema kable ensile s eng h and elas ici y, which make his ibe a p omising candida e o enhancing he du abili y and lexibili y o ballis ic es s while main aining ligh weigh p o ec ion. Due o he ela i ely low densi y, ne le ibe , amie ibe , coconu ibe , and sisal a e ligh weigh , which makes his ibe sui able o ballis ic es s. Table 1. Physical p ope ies o selec ed na u al ibe s [24,25,39–50]. Fibe Elonga ion a B eak (%) Tensile S eng h (MPa) Tensile Modulus (Gpa) Densi y (g/cm3) Mois u e (%) Diame e (μm) Bas Flax 1.2–1.6 345–1035 28–80 1.2–1.5 8–12 12–20 Hemp 1.0–4.0 300–700 20–70 1.3–1.5 6.2–12.0 25–600 Ne le 2.3–2.6 1594 87 0.72 - 19–47 Ju e 1.3–3.0 350–780 20–30 1.3–1.5 12.6–13.7 25–250 Kena 2.7–6.9 150–250 10–20 1.1–1.2 9.0–12.0 30–40 Lea Sisal 2.0–14.0 350–840 9.0–38 0.7–1.5 10–22 50–200 Figu e 1. Samples o plan -based ibe s. Table 1p esen s he physical p ope ies o a ious na u al ibe s commonly used in ex ile and composi e applica ions. The p ope ies included a e elonga ion a b eak (%), ensile s eng h (MPa), ensile elas ic modulus (GPa), densi y (g/cm 3 ), mois u e con en (%), and diame e ( µ m). These p ope ies a e c ucial in assessing he sui abili y o each ibe o speci ic applica ions, including ballis ic p o ec ion. Se e al ma e ials ha e a g ea p ope y o ballis ic es s. The ne le ibe has excep ional ensile s eng h and high ensile elas ic modulus. Sisal ibe o e s a good balance o s eng h and weigh o ballis ic p o ec ion. Spide silk possesses ema kable ensile s eng h and elas ici y, which make his ibe a p omising candida e o enhancing he du abili y and lexibili y o ballis ic es s while main aining ligh weigh p o ec ion. Due o he ela i ely low densi y, ne le ibe , amie ibe , coconu ibe , and sisal a e ligh weigh , which makes his ibe sui able o ballis ic es s. Table 1. Physical p ope ies o selec ed na u al ibe s [24,25,39–50]. Fibe Elonga ion a B eak (%) Tensile S eng h (MPa) Tensile Modulus (Gpa) Densi y (g/cm3) Mois u e (%) Diame e (µm) Bas Flax 1.2–1.6 345–1035 28–80 1.2–1.5 8–12 12–20 Hemp 1.0–4.0 300–700 20–70 1.3–1.5 6.2–12.0 25–600 Ne le 2.3–2.6 1594 87 0.72 - 19–47 Ju e 1.3–3.0 350–780 20–30 1.3–1.5 12.6–13.7 25–250 Kena 2.7–6.9 150–250 10–20 1.1–1.2 9.0–12.0 30–40 Lea Sisal 2.0–14.0 350–840 9.0–38 0.7–1.5 10–22 50–200 Abaca 2.0–14.0 350–840 9.0–38 0.7–1.5 10–22 50–200 Henequen 3.00–4.7 4.30–5.8 0.7–2 1.1–1.4 25 25 Palm 0.8–14.5 148.4 10.5 0.8–1.6 14.0 50 Banana 1.0–9.0 54–914 7.7–32.0 0.7–1.4 8–10 100–250 Ramie 2.5–3.8 400–560 1.24–5 1.5–1.5 12 25–30 Da e Palm 3–17 300 2–12 0.6 25 19–29 J. Compos. Sci. 2024,8, 415 4 o 17 Table 1. Con . Fibe Elonga ion a B eak (%) Tensile S eng h (MPa) Tensile Modulus (Gpa) Densi y (g/cm3) Mois u e (%) Diame e (µm) F ui /Seed Coconu 15–21 140–225 3–5 1.2 15 50–300 Oil palm 3.6 30 1–5.7 0.9 9.3 150–700 Sponge gou d - 140 28 0.71 11 75–200 Kapok 1.8–4.2 45–64 1.7–1.6 0.29 8.5 20 Co on 7.9 410 5–13 1.5 6.5–8 8–20 G asses S aw-whea 18 21–31 1.4 0.2 10 5.7 S aw- ice 2.3 30 2.6 0.3–0.4 15–18 250 S aw- ye 2.5–5 16–33 250 0.56 17–18 20–30 Bamboo 1.3–7.0 140–800 11–35 0.6–1.1 11–17 88–125 Husk/Hull Rice husk 8 14–54 0.3–2.9 0.9–1.5 10–15 14 Suga Suga cane bagasse 0.9–3.8 20–350 0.5–27.1 0.6–1.3 45–55 10–25 Mine als Basal 3.15 2.8–3.1 89 2.8–3 5–15 10–20 Animal Spide silk 30 2000 30 1.3 - 3 Wool 35–45 1–1.7 2.3–3.4 1.3 16–18 10–24 3. Syn he ic Fibe s in Body A mo S anda d ma e ials, such as ce amic o s eel, ha e ecen ly been eplaced by syn- he ic ibe ma e ials. Syn he ic ibe s a e he op imal choice o ligh weigh and lexible body a mo because hey can be high s eng h, lexible, s e chy, igid, and ha e a wa e abso bency acco ding o equi emen s. Mos o hese ma e ials a e also cha ac e ized by high- empe a u e s abili y and s eng h- o-weigh a io. Ligh weigh ballis ic es s a e cons uc ed p ima ily om Ke la , A amid, Twa on, Ul a-High-Molecula -Weigh Polye hylene (UHMWPE), o nylon ibe s because hose ibe s p o ide high elas ic modulus and impac s eng h [21,47]. The main ad an age o syn he ic ibe s is hei inc eased esis ance o wa e , s ains, hea , and chemical damage, compa ed o na u al ibe s. Syn he ic ibe s a e also mo e esis an o chemical decomposi ion because hey a e no suscep ible o biodeg adabili y, and hey canno be dis up ed by a ious bac e ia and ungi [ 51 ]. The chemical p ope ies o hese ibe s and ab ics can be con e ed o modi ied o ob ain he needed ea u es o he manu ac u e [52]. The disad an age o syn he ic ibe s is ha hey a e no easily deg adable, which makes hem an ecological bu den [ 53 ]. O he disad an ages o some syn he ic ibe s, such as polyp opylene, polyes e , o nylon, a e lowe mel ing poin s and chemical composi ion. Some o hese ibe s a e mo e sensi i e o hea damage when washed in ho wa e , and hey may also ha e an inc eased endency o gene a e elec os a ic cha ges [ 54 ]. Howe e , he main disad an ages o syn he ic ma e ials a e ha hey can be ha m ul o human skin and can cause alle gic eac ions. Mo eo e , some o hese ibe s, such as polyes e and nylon, canno d ain pe spi a ion as e icien ly o quickly as na u al ibe s. Tha is why hese ibe s a e combined wi h na u al ibe s (co on o wool) o achie e equi ed p ope ies like s eng h and elas ici y, w inkle, and ea esis ance [55,56]. Apa om p ope ies such as he ype o pe o mance o he ibe s used, he mos impo an ea u e o ballis ic p o ec ion depends on he na u e o he ya n, he ab ic cons uc ion, he numbe o laye s, and he ype o laye s used in he s uc u e [57–60]. Syn he ic ibe s ha e a wide ange o p ope ies, especially in e ms o hei elas ici y modulus, which is a c ucial cha ac e is ic when using ibe s o c ea e composi e ma e ials. The mac oscopically symme ical, elas ic ma e ial known as syn he ic ibe has a low c oss-sec ion and a high leng h- o- hickness a io. The chemical and physical p ope ies o syn he ic ibe s a e de e mined by he s uc u e o a polyme ma ix in a h ee-dimensional space. When i comes o syn he ic ibe s, he p e e ed con igu a ion is achie ed by using mechanical d awing ope a ions, whe e he ibe is s e ched ou o mul iple imes i s o iginal leng h sho ly a e ex usion. This p oduces he p e e ed o ien a ion [ 51 , 53 ]. The J. Compos. Sci. 2024,8, 415 5 o 17 mos popula me hods o p oducing syn he ic ibe s a e mel ing, d ying, and we spinning (Figu e 2) [56,61,62]. J. Compos. Sci. 2024, 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW 5 o 18 c oss-sec ion and a high leng h- o- hickness a io. The chemical and physical p ope ies o syn he ic ibe s a e de e mined by he s uc u e o a polyme ma ix in a h ee-dimen- sional space. When i comes o syn he ic ibe s, he p e e ed con igu a ion is achie ed by using mechanical d awing ope a ions, whe e he ibe is s e ched ou o mul iple imes i s o iginal leng h sho ly a e ex usion. This p oduces he p e e ed o ien a ion [51,53]. The mos popula me hods o p oducing syn he ic ibe s a e mel ing, d ying, and we spinning (Figu e 2) [56,61,62]. Figu e 2. Diag am o (a) we spinning, (b) d y spinning, and (c) mel spinning. High-pe o mance syn he ic (polyme -based) ibe s include pa a-a amids (Ke la and Twa on), Ul a-High-Molecula -Weigh Polye hylene–UHMWPE (Spec a, Dyneema, Techno a), and liquid-c ys al polyme ibe s (Zylon and Vec an). Polyme ic ma e ials a e used in ballis ic applica ions because o hei ligh weigh , and high s eng h. On he o he hand, hey also may be ulne able o high empe a u e, UV ligh , adia ion, humidi y, e c. The main p ope ies o a amid ibe s a e ligh weigh , high s eng h, elas ic modulus, good impac s eng h, wea -, chemical-, hea - and co osion- esis ance, cu -, punc u e-, and lame- e a da ion, hyb id ailo ing, and blending abili y, a igue and c eep balance, dimensional s abili y, and high ene gy dissipa ion. A amid ibe is no only used o ballis ic es s bu also o mili a y helme s, i ep oo clo hing, walking boo s, di ing, glo es, cu - esis an glo es, i es, e c. In con as o ce amic, ca bon, glass ibe s, and a a- mid ibe s can be easily wo en in o ex ile looms. Ano he ca ego y o polyme -based high-pe o mance ibe s is UHMWPE ibe s, which can be used in ballis ic applica ions as wo en ab ics and composi es. The di e ence be ween wo en ab ics and composi es is ha wo en ab ics ha e lowe ballis ic pe o mance due o hei low coe icien o ic ion. When manu ac u ed wi h he gel-spun UHMWPE echnology, hose ibe s a e ligh e han wa e , and opes made o such ma e ial loa . UHMWPE gel-spun ibe s made by Spec a a e en imes s onge han s eel, bu he mel ing empe a u e is low wi h a en- dency o c eep a high loads. Usage o UHMWPE has a wide ange o applica ions such as ballis ic es s, helme s, shields, ehicle p o ec ion, e c. Liquid-c ys al polyme ibe is a sub-ca ego y o he moplas ic polyme s p epa ed by mel ing and spinning he c ys al pol- yme a high empe a u es [63–66]. Pa a-a amid, exempli ied by Ke la 129, has an imp essi e combina ion o high en- sile s eng h, subs an ial ensile elas ic modulus, and mode a e densi y. This makes his ma e ial an excellen choice o ballis ic es s equi ing op- ie p o ec ion wi hou sac i- icing lexibili y. Simila o pa a-a amid, UHMWPE, speci ically Spec a 2000, o e s e- ma kable ensile s eng h and an ou s anding ensile elas ic modulus a a ema kably low densi y. This combina ion makes Spec a 2000 ideal o c a ing ligh weigh and obus ballis ic p o ec ion. Liquid-c ys al polyme , ep esen ed by Vec an, is a g ea ma e ial o ballis ic es s equi ing du abili y and lexibili y. In conclusion, hese ibe s s and ou o hei excep ional pe o mance a ibu es, o e ing p omising solu ions o he de elop- men o nex -gene a ion ballis ic es s. The ollowing Table 2 lis s he physical p ope ies o selec ed syn he ic ibe s. Figu e 2. Diag am o (a) we spinning, (b) d y spinning, and (c) mel spinning. High-pe o mance syn he ic (polyme -based) ibe s include pa a-a amids (Ke la and Twa on), Ul a-High-Molecula -Weigh Polye hylene–UHMWPE (Spec a, Dyneema, Techno a), and liquid-c ys al polyme ibe s (Zylon and Vec an). Polyme ic ma e ials a e used in ballis ic applica ions because o hei ligh weigh , and high s eng h. On he o he hand, hey also may be ulne able o high empe a u e, UV ligh , adia ion, humidi y, e c. The main p ope ies o a amid ibe s a e ligh weigh , high s eng h, elas ic modulus, good impac s eng h, wea -, chemical-, hea - and co osion- esis ance, cu -, punc u e-, and lame- e a da ion, hyb id ailo ing, and blending abili y, a igue and c eep balance, dimensional s abili y, and high ene gy dissipa ion. A amid ibe is no only used o ballis ic es s bu also o mili a y helme s, i ep oo clo hing, walking boo s, di ing, glo es, cu - esis an glo es, i es, e c. In con as o ce amic, ca bon, glass ibe s, and a amid ibe s can be easily wo en in o ex ile looms. Ano he ca ego y o polyme -based high-pe o mance ibe s is UHMWPE ibe s, which can be used in ballis ic applica ions as wo en ab ics and composi es. The di e ence be ween wo en ab ics and composi es is ha wo en ab ics ha e lowe ballis ic pe o mance due o hei low coe icien o ic ion. When manu ac u ed wi h he gel-spun UHMWPE echnology, hose ibe s a e ligh e han wa e , and opes made o such ma e ial loa . UHMWPE gel-spun ibe s made by Spec a a e en imes s onge han s eel, bu he mel ing empe a u e is low wi h a endency o c eep a high loads. Usage o UHMWPE has a wide ange o applica ions such as ballis ic es s, helme s, shields, ehicle p o ec ion, e c. Liquid-c ys al polyme ibe is a sub-ca ego y o he moplas ic polyme s p epa ed by mel ing and spinning he c ys al polyme a high empe a u es [63–66]. Pa a-a amid, exempli ied by Ke la 129, has an imp essi e combina ion o high ensile s eng h, subs an ial ensile elas ic modulus, and mode a e densi y. This makes his ma e ial an excellen choice o ballis ic es s equi ing op- ie p o ec ion wi hou sac i icing lexibili y. Simila o pa a-a amid, UHMWPE, speci ically Spec a 2000, o e s e-ma kable ensile s eng h and an ou s anding ensile elas ic modulus a a ema kably low densi y. This combina ion makes Spec a 2000 ideal o c a ing ligh weigh and obus ballis ic p o ec ion. Liquid-c ys al polyme , ep esen ed by Vec an, is a g ea ma e ial o ballis ic es s equi ing du abili y and lexibili y. In conclusion, hese ibe s s and ou o hei excep ional pe o mance a ibu es, o e ing p omising solu ions o he de elopmen o nex -gene a ion ballis ic es s. The ollowing Table 2lis s he physical p ope ies o selec ed syn he ic ibe s. Shi e al. [ 64 ] es ed he impac esis ance o 3D wo en composi es wi h hexagonal binding pa e ns. Composi e specimens made o pa a-a amid/polyu e hane, 3D wo en wi h h ee kinds o ibe olume ac ions, we e p epa ed by comp ession esin ans e molding. The esea ch [ 34 ] ound ha he ibe and esin damage a ea o he impac su ace was abou 1.5 o 3 imes bigge han he a ea o he p ojec ile. Based on he esul s, his s udy p o ed ha 3D wo en composi es o pa a-a amid/polyu e hane a e sui able o ballis ic applica ions. Ano he s udy conduc ed by Chu and Chen [ 65 ] also ocused on pa a-a amid, J. Compos. Sci. 2024,8, 415 6 o 17 namely, Ke la , wi h di e en wea e a chi ec u es. This s udy showed ha plain wea e ab ic has he highes ene gy abso p ion compa ed o will and baske wea es, especially o he low- eloci y impac . I also p o ed ha he es ed Ke la did no ha e enough s eng h o s op 9 mm Pa abellum p ojec iles. Simila esea ch conduc ed by S op o h and Adali [ 66 ] u he in es iga ed he Ke la o body a mo using 9 mm p ojec iles o de e mine he weigh and numbe o laye s o Ke la and ballis ic gel equi ed o s op he p ojec ile. Table 2. Physical p ope ies o selec ed syn he ic ibe s [28,49,50,63,67–72]. Fibe Type Fibe Densi y (g/cm3) Tensile S eng h (GPa) Tensile Modulus (GPa) Nylon Nylon 6 1.14 0.5 3 18–26 Pa a-a amid Techno a, Teijin 1.39 3 70 4.40 Twa on, Teijin 1.45 3.10 121 2 Ke la 29 1.44 2.97 70 4.20 Ke la 129 1.44 3.39 96 3.50 Ke la 49 1.44 2.97 113 2.60 Ke la KM2 1.44 3.30 70 4 UHMWPE Spec a 900 0.97 2.40 73 2.80 Spec a 1000 0.97 2.83 103 2.80 Spec a 2000 0.97 3.34 124 3 Dyneema 0.97 2.60 87 3.50 Liquid-c ys al polyme Vec an 1.47 3.20 91 3 4. Mine al and Ca bon-Based Ma e ials The e m mine al ma e ials e e s o ce amic ma e ials and glass ibe s. Ce amic ma e ials a e di ided in o wo ca ego ies, oxide ce amics (alumina ce amics wi h a ious con en s o Al 2 O 3 ) and non-oxide ce amics (ni ides, ca bides, bo ides, o hei combi- na ion). Alumina is mos ly used as ce amic ma e ial in ballis ic applica ions due o i s high densi y, physical p ope ies, low cos , and easy p oduc ion. O he ypes o non-oxide ce amics ma e ials, such as silicon ca bide (SiC), bo on ca bide (B 4 C), silicon ni ide (SiN), and i anium dibo ide (TiB 2 ), a e mo e expensi e compa ed o alumina [ 73 – 77 ]. Mo eo e , ce amic ma e ials and hei composi es a e ligh weigh ma e ials ha can p o ide a le el o a mo p o ec ion compa able o high-ha dened s eel. Ano he ad an age o ce amic ma e ials is hei high s eng h and high-elas ic modulus p ope ies. These ma e ials also ha e disad an ages, such as b i leness and sensi i i y o c acking due o apid empe a u e changes. Howe e , he ad an ages o hese ma e ials o en ou weigh hei disad an ages, and hey a e o en used in ha d ballis ics. The cos o hese sa e y ea u es is ela i ely high, in compa ison o equally o be e pe o ming bu cheape , ligh e , mo e lexible ma e ials ha a e able o wick swea away om he human body [73,74,77,78]. Ano he g oup o mine al ma e ials is glass ibe s, which a e cha ac e ized by an ou s anding s eng h- o-weigh a io and lexibili y; hus, enabling he manu ac u e o ligh weigh ye highly esilien ballis ic ma e ial ha con ou s he wea e ´ s body. All hese ea u es con ibu e o he wea e ´ s com o and mobili y in demanding si ua ions. Glass ibe s a e also impac - esis an and sui able o abso bing and dispe sing he impac o p ojec iles, which signi ican ly con ibu es o he es s ´ e ec i eness in educing ballis ic auma. Finally, glass ibe s a e cos -e ec i e and eadily a ailable, making he ballis ic gea a o dable p o ec i e equipmen o people wo king in high- isk a eas. The disad- an ages o glass ibe s include hei sensibili y o mois u e and ce ain chemicals, which can damage hei s uc u al in eg i y o e ime. The impac esis ance and s eng h o glass ibe s a e limi ed in compa ison o some o he high-pe o mance ibe s, such as pa a- a amid o ul a-high-molecula -weigh polye hylene. Glass ibe s a e, in compa ison o he a o emen ioned high- ech ma e ials, gene ally mo e b i le, which nega i ely a ec s hei abili y o wi hs and epea ed impac s. These cha ac e is ics equi e p ope handling and J. Compos. Sci. 2024,8, 415 7 o 17 main enance o glass ibe ballis ic gea o keep hei long- e m du abili y and e iciency while p o iding eliable p o ec ion [29,63,71]. Ca bon-based ibe s a e a supe b op ion o ballis ic es s because hey o e excellen p o ec ion agains mos p ojec iles and ye a e ligh weigh and lexible, hus enhancing he com o and agili y o he use . Ca bon ibe s a e cha ac e ized by excep ional s eng h- o-weigh a io, high ensile s eng h, and impac esis ance. Ballis ic gea made o ca bon ibe s is a he du able enabling hei long- e m use wi hou a ec ing hei de ensi e capabili ies. The p ima y disad an age o ca bon ibe s is hei high p ice, which makes hem ela i ely expensi e o manu ac u e and, in ce ain ways, limi s hei widesp ead a o dabili y. Like glass ibe s, ca bon ibe s a e sensi i e o damage om high- eloci y impac s due o hei b i leness. In addi ion, ca bon ibe s a e ulne able o damage om ce ain chemicals, equi ing cau ion in hei s o age and handling o main ain hei long- e m usabili y and e ec i e p o ec ion in ballis ic applica ions [76–78]. Glass ibe s, pa icula ly S-Glass, o e high ensile s eng h, elas ic modulus, and s ain- o- ailu e a ios, making hem sui able o ballis ic es s. Silicon ca bide ce amic ibe s excel in s eng h and elas ic modulus, ideal o ex eme impac esilience. Ca bon ibe s like Celion p o ide a ligh weigh s ong op ion, ensu ing com o and p o ec ion in ballis ic applica ions. The ollowing Table 3p esen s he mos -used ypes o mine al and ca bon ibe s in ballis ic es s. Table 3. Physical p ope ies o mine al and ca bon ibe s [49,79–87]. Fibe Type Densi y (g/cm3) Tensile S eng h (GPa) Tensile Modulus (GPa) S ain o Failu e (%) Glass S-Glass 2.48 4.40 90 5.70 E-Glass 2.63 3.50 68.50 4 Ce amic Fibe s Alumina 250 1.72 152 2 Silicon Ca bide 280 4 420 0.60 Ca bon Fibe S anda d 1.75–2 3.65 33.50 1.50 Celion 1.80 4 230 1.80 Aksaca 1.78 4.20 240 1.80 5. Composi e Ma e ials in Ballis ic Ves s Composi es consis o di e en ma e ials ha ha e di e en chemical o physical p ope ies. Depending on wha p ope ies a e equi ed o he applica ion, a speci ic composi e is p epa ed. Composi e ma e ials a e o en di ided in o ca ego ies ha a e me al composi es, ce amic composi es, polyme composi e ma e ials, composi es wi h na u al ibe s, o combina ions. A amid, ca bon, and glass ibe composi es a e widely used in ballis ic applica ions such as ballis ic es s because o hei excellen p ope ies including low weigh , oughness, and high ensile elas ic modulus [88]. Polyme composi es gained high demand due o hei ligh weigh , high s eng h, and good mechanical p ope ies, oge he wi h chemical and co osion esis ance. Apa om a g ea weigh - o-s eng h a io, hese composi es ha e o he ad an ages like high igidi y and high design eedom. The e o e, he use o polyme composi es is g owing apidly in many applica ions, such as ballis ics, ca in e io s, ai planes, spacec a , ships, ci il cons uc ion, packaging, and spo s equipmen [26–28,30–32]. Polyme composi es ein o ced wi h syn he ic o mine al ma e ials a e widely used and s udied. The scien i ic communi y is e u ning o na u al ma e ials added o hese composi e sys ems. Na u al ibe - ein o ced polyme composi es a e o en made by egula manu ac u ing me hods used in he moplas ics and con en ional ibe - ein o ced polyme composi es. These me hods include comp ession molding, injec ion molding, ex usion, esin ans e molding, acuum in usion, hand lay-up, and ilamen winding. The manu ac- u ing echnology can signi ican ly a ec he mechanical load esis ance o he composi e sys em. One way o u he inc ease he impac esis ance o he composi e is by coa ing, which can p o ide high p o ec ion by abso bing high ene gy in a e y hin laye [89,90]. J. Compos. Sci. 2024,8, 415 8 o 17 In he las ew yea s, ma e ials such as na u al la ex, g aphi e oxide, shape memo y alloys, and shea hickening luid (STF) we e explo ed o imp o e he ballis ic pe o mance o wo en ab ics [ 61 , 90 – 92 ]. STF is non- oxic and has g ea he mal s abili y. I is a luid o gel composed o highly concen a ed small pa icles such as silica o calcium ca bona e dispe sed in hyg oscopic liquid polyme s like polye hylene, glycol, o e hanol. The iscosi y o his luid is based on he apid esponse o i s shea a e o shea s ess. S udies ha e shown ha he applica ion o STF on ibe s, such as Ke la o UHMWPE, has inc eased hei ene gy abso p ion capabili y compa ed o hose wi hou STF (Figu e 3). By imp egna ing he ibe s wi h STF, he ic ion be ween he ya ns limi s he ension on hese ya ns du ing impac [ 92 – 96 ]. I was also ound ha adding a small amoun o silicone ca bide, as a dispe san phase, in o STF inc eases he s ab esis ance o STF-imp egna ed a amid ab ic [70,90,93,97]. J. Compos. Sci. 2024, 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 o 18 apidly in many applica ions, such as ballis ics, ca in e io s, ai planes, spacec a , ships, ci il cons uc ion, packaging, and spo s equipmen [26–28,30–32]. Polyme composi es ein o ced wi h syn he ic o mine al ma e ials a e widely used and s udied. The scien i ic communi y is e u ning o na u al ma e ials added o hese composi e sys ems. Na u al ibe - ein o ced polyme composi es a e o en made by eg- ula manu ac u ing me hods used in he moplas ics and con en ional ibe - ein o ced polyme composi es. These me hods include comp ession molding, injec ion molding, ex- usion, esin ans e molding, acuum in usion, hand lay-up, and ilamen winding. The manu ac u ing echnology can signi ican ly a ec he mechanical load esis ance o he composi e sys em. One way o u he inc ease he impac esis ance o he composi e is by coa ing, which can p o ide high p o ec ion by abso bing high ene gy in a e y hin laye [89,90]. In he las ew yea s, ma e ials such as na u al la ex, g aphi e oxide, shape memo y alloys, and shea hickening luid (STF) we e explo ed o imp o e he ballis ic pe o - mance o wo en ab ics [61,90–92]. STF is non- oxic and has g ea he mal s abili y. I is a luid o gel composed o highly concen a ed small pa icles such as silica o calcium ca - bona e dispe sed in hyg oscopic liquid polyme s like polye hylene, glycol, o e hanol. The iscosi y o his luid is based on he apid esponse o i s shea a e o shea s ess. S udies ha e shown ha he applica ion o STF on ibe s, such as Ke la o UHMWPE, has in- c eased hei ene gy abso p ion capabili y compa ed o hose wi hou STF (Figu e 3). By imp egna ing he ibe s wi h STF, he ic ion be ween he ya ns limi s he ension on hese ya ns du ing impac [92–96]. I was also ound ha adding a small amoun o silicone ca bide, as a dispe san phase, in o STF inc eases he s ab esis ance o STF-imp egna ed a amid ab ic [70,90,93,97]. Figu e 3. SEM images o he (a,b) Nea Ke la pla es; (c,d) STF/Ke la pla es; (e, ) Epoxy/Ke la pla es; (g,h) Polyu ea Elas ome s/Ke la pla es [97]. Rajole, Ra ishanka , and Kulka ni [ 98 ] s udied he ballis ic pe o mance o ju e/ ubbe and glass/epoxy sandwiches. Ene gy abso p ion es s showed ha he c ea ed sandwiches o ju e/ ubbe and glass/epoxy can be used as low-cos p o ec i e ma e ials o ballis ic es s. The hyb idiza ion me hod o ca bon/a amid ibe , conduc ed by Xu e al. [ 99 ], was used o imp o e he oughness o composi e ma e ials in ballis ic applica ions. This me hod o e s be e ea u es in e ms o mechanical s eng h in compa ison o non-hyb id com- posi es. Ano he s udy, conduc ed by Dewap iya and Meguid [ 100 ], deals wi h he impac esis ance o mul ilaye g aphene/polye hylene composi es. The esul s showed ha he ballis ic impac esis ance o polye hylene co e ed by one laye o g aphene memb ane is in- c eased by o e eigh imes. Mo eo e , he mul ilaye ed g aphene/polye hylene nanocom- J. Compos. Sci. 2024,8, 415 9 o 17 posi es could po en ially p o ide e en be e p o ec ion agains hype eloci y impac s. Wu, Sikda , and Bha [ 101 ] s udied he ballis ic impac esis ance o Twa on/g aphene oxide wice- il a ed panels. I was ound ha hese panels abso bed 50% mo e ene gy han he plain ab ics. Besides a amid i sel , he g a ing wi h g aphene oxide inc eased he in e acial shea s eng h by 210%. 6. Nanoma e ials in Ballis ic Applica ions Al hough nanoma e ials and nano ibe s a e a ely used o he ab ica ion o ballis ic ma e ials, hey can be used o me ging wi h composi es o c ea e nanocomposi es. These nanocomposi es a e used and s udied as a bulle - esis ance ma e ial [ 101 , 102 ]. The uni size o nanoma e ials is app oxima ely be ween 1 and 100 nm. Nanoma e ials a e g ouped in o se e al dimensions, which a e 0D such as ulle enes; 1D such as ca bon nano ubes (CNTs); 2D such as g aphene nanopla ele s (GNPs); and 3D such as nano g aphi e [103]. The su ace o ca bon nano ubes is made om pen agonal and hexagonal pa e ns bonded wi h ca bon a oms. This s uc u e is a hollow cylind ical ube o med by olling 2D g aphene shee s [ 103 ]. This ma e ial is conside ed a 1D nanoma e ial because he diame e o he ubes is in he nanoscale wi h a leng h o 1 mm. The main p ope ies o ca bon nano ubes (CNTs) a e excellen mechanical s eng h and high he mal conduc i i y h ough ca bon a om ib a ions. I is one o he s onges nanoma e ials wi h a ensile s eng h o up o 200 GPa, ela i ely low densi y, and modulus highe han 1 TPa [ 102 , 103 ]. Such ad an ages make his ma e ial a o able o c ea ing high-pe o mance nanocomposi es. Ghosh and Ramajeya hilagam [ 104 ] es ed a composi e ma e ial made o mul i-walled ca bon nano ubes and alumina nanopa icles o de e mine he impac esis ance o he me ged ma e ial. The s udy ound ha he addi ion o nano ille s posi i ely a ec ed he ma e ial in e ms o enhancing impac esis ance. G aphene as a 2D nanoma e ial is cons i u ed o a single laye o ca bon a oms a - anged in a hexagonal pa e n wi h a ca bon a om hickness o ~0.335 nm (Figu e 4) [ 87 , 105 ]. G aphene possesses unique p ope ies such as a high ensile s eng h o 130 GPa, and a high elas ic modulus o 1 TPa. I also has excep ional elec ical conduc i i y and good he mal conduc i i y [ 106 ]. G aphene has pene a ion ene gy a ound 10 imes highe han mic oscopic s eel shee s. Due o he men ioned p ope ies, his nanoma e ial is widely explo ed in nanocomposi es o ballis ic impac applica ions. Vignesh, Su end an, Seka , and Rajeswa i [ 107 ] s udied he e ec o ballis ic impac on Ke la -29 ein o ced wi h g aphene nanolaye s. The en laye s o g aphene nanoshee s we e inse ed be ween he Ke la -29 ibe laye s. I was ound ha his app oach signi ican ly imp o es he ballis ic esis ance o he men ioned ma e ial [108–115]. Nanoclay is composed o mine al silica e laye s ha a e s acked oge he by weak physical bonding. This ma e ial has a shee s uc u e and a high aspec a io wi h a 1 nm hickness. I can be ca ego ized in o se e al g oups such as hec o i e, ben oni e, kaolini e, mon mo illoni e, and halloysi e. Nanoclay is o en embedded in o ibe -based polyme composi es due o i s an i-impac enhancemen unc ion and cos -e iciency, making i a g ea al e na i e o o ganic nano ille s o mechanical and ballis ic pe o mance enhance- men [101,103,116]. Se e al au ho s [ 117 – 119 ] deal wi h he impac esis ance o composi e ma e ials wi h nano ille s. They ound ha adding nano ille s imp o es he impac esis ance o he used ma e ial. Dass, Chauhan, and Gau [ 117 ] es ed he low- eloci y impac beha io o nano ille s dispe sed in epoxy esin o ca bon ibe - ein o ced polyme , o e ing be e impac esis ance. Kaybal, Ulus, Demi , Sahin, and A ci [ 119 ] es ed he impac esis ance o glass/epoxy lamina es ein o ced wi h nanoclay and g aphene nanoshee s. The impac esis ance p ope ies o he men ioned ma e ial we e imp o ed compa ed o he un ein- o ced ma e ial. I was ound by Pol and Liagha [ 120 ] ha he glass ibe /epoxy/nanoclay composi e may, due o adding he nanoclay, achie e a highe ballis ic limi han he nea composi e (42% highe ). This ma e ial also educes he a e age damaged a ea unde bal- lis ic impac . Mo eo e , added nanoclay can change mechanical pe o mance and c ack J. Compos. Sci. 2024,8, 415 16 o 17 95. Hasanzadeh, M.; Mo aghi alab, V.; Rezaei, M.; Babaei, H. 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