Strategic agility, openness and performance: a mixed method comparative analysis of firms operating in developed and emerging markets

Vol.:(0123456789) Re iew o Manage ial Science h ps://doi.o g/10.1007/s11846-022-00562-4 1 3 ORIGINAL PAPER S a egic agili y, openness andpe o mance: amixed me hod compa a i e analysis o  i ms ope a ing inde eloped andeme ging ma ke s Deme isV on is1· Ja osla Belas2· AlkisTh assou1· Gab ieleSan o o2,3 · MichaelCh is o i4 Recei ed: 25 No embe 2021 / Accep ed: 24 May 2022 © The Au ho (s) 2022 Abs ac This esea ch delinea es he ela ionship be ween s a egic agili y and pe o mance, and p oposes openness as a equisi e means o os e ing agili y and enhancing pe - o mance. Me hodologically, he esea ch ollows he p agma is pa adigm h ough a mixed-me hod esea ch design, inco po a ing h ee sepa a e s udies. These comp ise a CEO-based su ey on o eign i ms ope a ing in eme ging ma ke s, a CEO-based su ey on i ms ope a ing in de eloped coun ies, and CEO in e iews, all o which a e complimen ed by auxilia y ins umen s o seconda y da a and an expe panel. The esea ch inds ha s a egic agili y is i al o i ms’ pe o mance in bo h de el- oped and de eloping ma ke s. Mo eo e , we ound ha while sea ch dep h ampli ies he abo e ela ionship in bo h con ex s, sea ch b ead h does i only in he con ex o o eign i ms ope a ing in eme ging ma ke s. The alue o hese indings s ems om hei elucida ion o he ole o s a egic agili y in eme ging ma ke s and i s compa ison o ha o i ms ope a ing in de eloped coun ies; hei insigh s in o s a- egic agili y’s ela ionship wi h openness; hei schema ic culmina ion in o a sys- emically and con ex ually depic ed amewo k; and hei p esc ip i e manage ial implica ions. Keywo ds Eme ging ma ke s· Ex e nal knowledge sou cing· S a egic agili y· Open inno a ion· Openness· Pe o mance JEL Classi ica ion O31· O36· L10 * Gab iele San o o [email p o ec ed] Ex ended au ho in o ma ion a ailable on he las page o he a icle D.V on is e al. 1 3 1 In oduc ion Amids a as -changing and shape-shi ing globalised business en i onmen , execu i es and schola s alike inc easingly ind ime-honou ed and ene able s a - egies o be incapable o un i o mee he demands o con empo a y i ms’ eali- ies. Ine i ably, pe haps i e ocably, hey u n o new s a egic no ions, be i ing he complex and hype -compe i i e condi ions o oday, in pu sui o new eq- uisi e means o—con a iwise—in e minable ends such as pe o mance, g ow h and compe i eness. This esea ch ollows one such s a egic s and, speci ically, s a egic agili y (Xing e al. 2020), which, as a s eam o esea ch, has heigh ened in e es among bo h schola s and p ac i ione s, owing o i s inc easing pe inence o he a o e- men ioned quali ies o he p esen business con ex (Ja a i-Sadeghi e al. 2022). Fo he pu poses o his esea ch, s a egic agili y is de ined, in mains eam ash- ion, as he abili y o he o ganiza ion o egula ly adap o unce ain and changing en i onmen s (Doz and Kosonen 2008). The concep consis s o h ee me a-capa- bili ies, namely s a egic sensi i i y, esou ce luidi y and leade ship uni y. In his ein, schola s ha e sugges ed ha i ms mus seek new ways o man- aging business and de elop knowledge ans e skills, lea ning me hods and an adap i e co po a e cul u e in o de o be agile and ace changes and dis up ions in he business en i onmen (Liu and Almo 2016). S a egic agili y, hus, con- s i u es a c i ical and co e o ganisa ional compe ence, which is mani es ed in he de elopmen o new business models and s a egies a he han inno a ing exis - ing p oduc s and se ices (Webe and Ta ba 2014; Wilson and Doz 2011). A co e challenge o s a egic agili y ega ds he execu i e compe ency o pu - suing he selec ed s a egy wi h he ap and equisi e esou ces, be hey human esou ces, physical esou ces, in ellec ual p ope y, ad anced manu ac u ing, in o ma ion echnologies o knowledge (Combs e al. 2011; Nadka ni and He - mann 2010). This challenge and i s impo ance a e enhanced o mul ina ional companies, which need o adap o mul i ace ed con ex s (Ahammad e al. 2016; Ilhan-Nas e al. 2018). Adding o he abo e, eme ging ma ke s p esen a pa icu- la ly challenging and idiosync a ic con ex , as he i m he ein needs o ma ch i s s a egy and esou ces wi h he complexi ies o dynamic and challenging ins i u- ional con ex s (Fou né e al. 2014; Ta oglu e al. 2020). And while s a egic agili y has ecei ed well-dese ed ac i e and passi e a en ion ac oss he spec a o heo y, p ac ice, indus y and geog aphy, i is s ill an eme gen s eam o s udies, wi h many heo e ical gaps and a co esponding numbe o p ac icable answe s s ill demanded by schola s and execu i es alike. E en he e y concep o s a egy agili y i sel is s ill conside ed ambiguous and con ex - ela ed, while s udies on an eceden s, mode a o s and ou comes o s a e- gic agili y a e s ill sca ce (Clauss e al. 2019; Junni e al. 2015; Kale e al. 2019). This ep esen s a i s big gap in he li e a u e. Ou heo e ical esea ch has u he shown simila and g ea e sca ci y o s udies on he ela ionship be ween s a egic agili y and di e en ypologies o pe o mance, such as economic, inno a i e and in e na ionaliza ion pe o mance. Fo example, in speci ic ypes o ma ke s, such 1 3 S a egic agili y, openness andpe o mance: amixed me hod… as eme ging ones, a guably, s a egic agili y is e en mo e, o a leas di e en ly, impo an due o he a ied and di e en poli ical, economic and socio-cul u al elemen s (Pe ei a e al. 2020; Sa ala and Vaa a 2010). And ye , he e is a isible lack o empi ical s udies on how s a egic agili y o o eign i ms may os e com- pe i i eness in eme ging ma ke s, which p esen s eady g ow h p ospec s o i ms aiming o g ow in e na ionally. And equally lacking is also ex an knowledge o he condi ions unde which companies a e able o capi alize on s a egic agili y o achie e be e pe o mance. To sum up, gi en he no el y o his opic, he e is a need o empi ical esea ch on he s a egic agili y–pe o mance ela ionship. The esea ch’s o e a ching aim is o ill he abo e-desc ibed gap by delinea - ing he ela ionship be ween s a egic agili y o o eign i ms ope a ing in eme g- ing ma ke s and pe o mance. I u he p oposes openness as a equisi e means o os e ing agili y and enhancing pe o mance. In his ega d, open inno a ion has eme ged as a key app oach o inno a i e i ms ha aim o adap and enew hemsel es quickly and s eadily (Boge s e  al. 2018). In ac , open inno a ion – which ega ds he acquisi ion and ans e o knowledge and echnologies – has become a widesp ead managemen p ac ice (Chesb ough e al. 2006; K aus e al. 2020), wi h a conside able body o li e a u e ad oca ing ha opening o ex e - nal knowledge sou ces, bo h widely and deeply, helps o boos pe o mance (e.g. San o o e al. 2018). Fi s , om a esou ce based iew (RBV) and knowledge based iew (KBV) pe spec i e, ou side-in inno a ion ac i i ies allow i ms o acqui e unique and aluable o ms o knowledge and o he key esou ces om ex e nal coun e - pa s o con ibu e o adap ing o he business en i onmen (Fe e as-Méndez e al. 2015). Second, access o b oad esou ces om ex e nal pa ne s’ acili ies inc eases he unde s anding o new in o ma ion and po en ial changes, enhancing he i m’s abili y o de ec echnological oppo uni ies and bes owing he agili y o adap o unp edic able changes (Robson e al. 2019). This, in u n, acili a es adap a ion o he speci ic condi ions o eme ging ma ke s, and he implemen a- ion o new s a egic app oaches. Thus, wi h his pape we p opose ha openness os e s s a egic agili y o o eign i ms ope a ing in eme ging ma ke s. Agains his backd op, he pape answe s he ollowing esea ch ques ions: (a) Does s a egic agili y con ibu e o imp o ing pe o mance, and wha is he ela ionship be ween s a egic agili y, open inno a ion and pe o mance he ein? (b) Does his ela ionship ake di e en o ms in de eloped e sus eme ging ma - ke s? Me hodologically, he esea ch es s on a ipod o esea ch ounda ions. The i s leg heo e ically iden i ies he gap and de elops hypo heses; he sec- ond leg applies he p incipal ools h ough a mixed quan i a i e–quali a i e me hod esea ch design; and he hi d leg inco po a es he suppo i e and aux- ilia y ins umen s, namely seconda y da a and an expe panel. The no el y o his opic, oge he wi h he appa en lack o s udies on he ela ionship be ween s a egic agili y and pe o mance, as well as on s a egic agili y as a heo e ical D.V on is e al. 1 3 concep , unde lines he need o employ bo h deduc i e and induc i e app oaches. Fo hese easons, we decided o en ich his esea ch wi h bo h quali a i e and quan i a i e me hods. The alue and con ibu ion o knowledge and p ac ice o he wo k s ems om ou dis inc elucida ions. (a) I sheds ligh on he scale and na u e o bo h he abso- lu e and compa a i e impo ance o s a egic agili y in de eloped and/ e sus eme g- ing ma ke s, whe eas ex an s udies ha e ocused on de eloped ma ke s so a . (b) I p o ides insigh s on he ela ionship be ween s a egic agili y and openness, in he o me con ex , sugges ing ha being open o ex e nal sou ces o knowledge and o he esou ces inc eases he impac o agili y on pe o mance. Acco dingly, we add o he body o li e a u e ha is cu en ly lacking s udies on he ela ionship be ween s a egic agili y and openness. (c) I p esen s a amewo k o unde s anding he di e en ypes o s a egic o ien a ions, based on he a iables o s a egic agili y and openness and depic ed sys emically and con ex ually owa ds a comp ehensi e unde s anding o he no ions in ol ed and hei in e ela ionships. (d) I iden i ies he explici desc ip i e manage ial implica ions and o e s p esc ip i e and p ac ica- ble ecommenda ions owa ds indus y adop ion and implemen a ion. S uc u ally, and in o hodox ashion, and ollowing a heo e ical esea ch, he pape i s de elops a se o hypo heses conce ning he ela ionships be ween s a egic agili y, openness and pe o mance. I subsequen ly es s hese h ough a quan i a i e s udy using da a ga he ed om I alian i ms ope a ing and/o selling in eme ging ma ke s. The indings, he ea e , a e compa ed, h ough a second s udy, wi h a pool o i ms ope a ing in de eloped coun ies. Nex , he pape p o ides he esul s o in e iews conduc ed wi h op manage s o h ee I alian i ms o deepen and e ine he esea ch indings and o u he explo e he unde lying means h ough which openness may suppo s a egic agili y and compe i i eness. Finally, and in an in eg a i e manne , a amewo k is de eloped which e ines and expands he no ions and ( he subsequen ly es ed) supposi ions o he opic, and posi ions hese, along wi h hei c i ical con ex ual ac o s and o ces, wi hin a comp ehensi e concep uali- sa ion ha in e ela es hese sys emically. 2 Theo e ical ounda ion andhypo heses 2.1 The s a egic agili y impe a i e S a egic agili y is a ield o esea ch o ela i ely ecen o igins, bu i is one ha has a ac ed signi ican a en ion (Mo on e al. 2018; Webe and Ta ba 2014). This in e es is e iden ly s imula ed by i ms’ g owing need o adap a ion (Klamme e al. 2017), which i sel is consequen o inc easing globaliza ion, compe i ion and oppo uni ies o e ed by new echnologies. Acco ding o Doz and Kosonen (2008, 2010), agili y e e s b oadly o he abili y o he o ganiza ion o adap cons an ly o unce ain en i onmen s. The au ho s’ elab- o a ion o he no ion u he iden i ied h ee equisi e me a-capabili ies o s a egic agili y, namely s a egic sensi i i y, esou ce luidi y, and leade ship uni y. S a egic sensi i i y e e s o he abili y o become awa e o ma ke ends and con e ging 1 3 S a egic agili y, openness andpe o mance: amixed me hod… o ces in o de o quickly ake ad an age o new oppo uni ies (Doz and Kosonen 2010). Resou ce luidi y is he capabili y o apidly edeploy esou ces and econ- igu e business sys ems (Doz and Kosonen 2010). Resou ce luidi y is he abili y o espond quickly o ma ke changes and o s ay ahead o he compe i ion. Finally, s a egic agili y equi es leade ship uni y and collec i e commi men , so ha he i m can p o i om ising oppo uni ies wi hou being slowed down by in e nal dis- ag eemen s and con lic (Doz and Kosonen 2010). In essence, agili y demands bo h as decision-making p ocesses and imely o ganiza ional adap a ions/ ans o ma ion, which can ake place in he i m’s di - e en ac i i ies and business p ocesses, such as in o ma ion echnology (Mo on e al. 2018), o ganiza ion (B uelle e al. 2014), human esou ce managemen (Lewis e al. 2014; Komod omos e al. 2019), s a egy (B annen and Doz 2012), and inno- a ion (Wilson and Doz 2011). Fu he mo e, acco ding o he esou ce-based iew (RBV), agili y is also abou disco e ing and deploying he igh esou ces, angible and in angible, o implemen he new s a egy in a imely manne (Webe and Ta ba 2014). In his ega d, s udies on open inno a ion ha e highligh ed he impo ance o acqui ing unique esou ces, such as knowledge, om ex e nal pa ne s (Boge s e al. 2020). Hence, knowledge is conside ed an inc easingly impo an asse o compe e in dynamic ma ke s (Cillo e al. 2019). And hough ex an li e a u e o e whelmingly cha ac e ises and highligh s s a- egic agili y as a co e asse o compe i i e i ms, we s ill know li le abou he an e- ceden s, mode a o s and ou comes o s a egic agili y so a (Kale e al. 2019; Junni e al. 2015). 2.2 Con ex o analysis: eme ging ma ke s The e m “eme ging ma ke s” e e s o speci ic as -g owing economies wi h high a es o s able de elopmen (Howe-Walsh e al. 2019; Rodge s e al. 2019), in which he popula ion is mo ing om basic needs o a mo e consump ion-o ien ed beha - iou (Ci ci e al. 2019; Kapidani and Luci 2019). O e all hese ma ke s p o ide new oppo uni ies and new challenges o ace (Ma quis and Rayna d 2015; Loehde e al. 2020). In such a dynamic en i onmen , i ms a e expec ed o balance hei ole in economic de elopmen wi h social esponsibili y owa d he coun y in which hey a e ope a ing (Akh a e al. 2018). Fi ms also ha e o challenge he gap be ween local ine iciency and global go e nance s uc u es, and o adap o cul u al di e - ences, s anda ds and p ac ices (Meye and Peng 2016). Fu he mo e, global i ms ha e o ace poli ical ins abili y, which is adi ionally associa ed wi h eme ging coun ies, as well as indus ial in as uc u e ine iciency and he lack o in ellec ual p ope y igh p o ec ion. The absence o specialized in e media ies, p ope egula- o y sys ems and con ac -en o cing mechanisms is also a h ea . Fi ms also ace poli ical isks, in la ion isks, bank ins abili y, legal isks, exchange a e isks and isks om ope a ions (Khanna e al. 2005). The a o emen ioned cha ac e is ics o eme ging ma ke s, plus o he s such as low income, high ola ili y and ie ce compe i ion, addi ionally and po en ially demand a deg ee o agili y a he highes s a egic le el. A his le el, in ac , hey can e en D.V on is e al. 1 3 anscend, as needed, simple s a egic adap a ion o apply comple e s a egic ede- elopmen and/o eo ien a ion ha will boos sales and g ow as he ma ke i sel g ows. The e o e, he con ex o analysis sugges s he absolu e impo ance and necessi y o o eign i ms o be agile in o de o explo e and exploi oppo uni ies and ace compe i ion in eme ging ma ke s. In addi ion, hese oppo uni ies and challenges unde line he impo ance o acqui ing coun y-speci ic esou ces and knowledge, and hus, sugges ha open inno a ion is a iable s a egy o inc easing agili y and pe o mance. In ac , ope - a ing in an ins i u ional and compe i i e con ex , di e en om he i m’s o iginal one, could e eal a lack o angible and in angible esou ces, such as knowledge, ha a e necessa y in implemen ing s a egy and c ea ing alue. Finally, while he e a e many s udies on he bene i s o open inno a ion in he con ex o de eloped ma ke s (e.g. Boge s e al. 2020), o he bes o ou knowledge, his phenomenon has no been in es iga ed enough in he con ex o de eloping ma - ke s. This makes he compa a i e in es iga ion be ween he wo ma ke s e en mo e wo hwhile. 2.3 Hypo heses Ou li e a u e e iew has con iden ly concluded ha he s a egic agili y–pe o - mance ela ionship has ecei ed e y li le a en ion by schola s, a leas p opo ion- ally o i s impo ance. Mo e indi ec ly, some s udies ha e sugges ed ha an agile o ganiza ion is be e able o adap i s cul u e o ma ke changes, o lea n abou ma ke changes swi ly, and o shape i s p oduc s acco ding o cus ome s’ p e e - ences (Kumkale 2016). Mo eo e , hese changes can po en ially be ans o med in o oppo uni ies by eo ganizing he i m’s s a egy and sys ems esponsi ely o en i- onmen al changes (Shin e al. 2015). To sum up, pu pose ully designed and eal- ised s a egic agili y bes ows business wi h he compe encies o espond p omp ly o changes, o be lexible, and o implemen o he ac ions o con ol and limi ma ke isk and unce ain y (She ehiy e al. 2007). Hence, being agile equi es cons an scanning o he in e nal and ex e nal en i- onmen s, collec ing and using in o ma ion swi ly, esponding o ma ke changes apidly, and alloca ing esou ces p omp ly and app op ia ely (Fe a is e al. 2018). In he same ein, s a egic e lexi i y is he eby in oduced as a po en ial necessi y, wi h isible e ec s a he o ganisa ional, eam and indi idual le els (Chen e  al. 2018). Speci ically, s a egic e lexi i y has been sugges ed as a emedy o incessan en i onmen al changes and he a ying compe i i e condi ions ha a e in ole an o con en ional s a egic planning. Agili y can os e he quali y o a i m’s compe i i e ac i i y in en o y and applicable esponses o en i onmen al changes, hus, enhancing pe o mance (Tallon and Pinsonneaul 2011). Addi ionally, i has been shown ha s a egic agili y impac s posi i ely on business model inno a ion p opensi y (Clauss e al. 2019; Hock e al. 2016). The necessi y and bene i s o s a egic agili y is ob i- ous a all le els o ma ke s (local, na ional, and in e na ional), h ough e ec- i ely mee ing cus ome s’ changing needs, in oducing new p oduc s, adap ing o 1 3 S a egic agili y, openness andpe o mance: amixed me hod… nega i ely p og essing poli ical change, es ablishing s a egic pa ne ships, and o e ing op-le el se ice (F ynas e al. 2006; Oyedijo 2012). As a consequence, agili y mus be seen no as a me e ad isable op ion bu as an essen ial condi ion, pa icula ly o i ms wi h ope a ions in di e en o eign ma ke s, which a e in luenced by poli ical, economic, social and cul u al ac o s ha a e o en opaque and/o e a ic (Boso e al. 2018; Luo 2003; W igh e al. 2005). Fo hese easons, we can in e ha s a egic agili y gene ally impac s on sales g ow h, and he eby we se o h an aus e e, ye signi ican hypo hesis… Hypo hesis 1 S a egic agili y impac s posi i ely on sales g ow h o bo h companies ac i e in de eloped ma ke s, and o o eign ones ac i e in eme ging ma ke s. Though i is logical o assume ha agile i ms, especially in e na ional i ms, a e able o explo e new oppo uni ies and boos hei pe o mance, s a egic agil- i y alone is some imes no enough (Kiessling e al. 2009). In ac , i is no uncom- mon o i ms o ope a e unde condi ions o esou ce sca ci y (Pe e a 1993), which po en ially e e s o he lack o knowledge o he e e ence con ex , such as when i ms ope a e in o eign ma ke s (Li and Scullion 2010). As sugges ed by he RBV, compe i i e ad an age is achie ed h ough unique angible and in angi- ble esou ces (Ba ney 1991; Ba ney e al. 2001). In addi ion, he KBV ad anced he RBV, indica ing ha knowledge is a i al dual ac o (bo h asse and esou ce) o i ms (Del Giudice and Maggioni 2014; Hock-Doepgen e al. 2021; Scuo o e al. 2022). In a simila con ex , albei e minologically di e en , ex an wo ks app oach angibili y h ough he no ion o ‘so ’ and ‘ha d’ ac o s, ela ing hese o bo h ex e nal and in e nal esou ces and linking hem o he changing land- scape o he o ganisa ional and he ma ke (consume ) con ex s (Campanella e al. 2020). Howe e , hese heo ies ocused on in e nal asse s and elemen s. Acco ding o he open inno a ion pa adigm, companies should open up o ex e nal sou ces o s a egic esou ces o enew hemsel es and imp o e hei pe o mance (San- o o e al. 2018; Abdulkade e al. 2020; Mokh a zadeh e al., 2020). Speci ically, h ough inbound open inno a ion p ac ices, ideas and esou ces low in o he o ganiza ion om ex e nal pa ne s, and a e used wi h ideas de eloped in e nally (Giampaoli e al. 2017; Ma inez-Conesa e al. 2017), and access o specialized, complemen a y asse s is a gued o be he main eason i ms engage in inno a ion h ough open p ocesses (Na alicchio e al. 2017; Chau asia e al. 2020; Pomegbe e al. 2020). In he ein o he abo e wo ks, acqui ing knowledge and esou ces has been sugges ed as an e ec i e me hod o add essing he inc easing complexi y and unce ain y o he compe i i e landscape (Díaz-Díaz and de Saá Pé ez 2014; O iz e al. 2018). To imp o e he lexibili y o adap o en i onmen al changes, i is sugges ed ha i ms b oaden hei knowledge base by acqui ing ex e nal knowledge om di e se sou ces (Ka ila and Ahuja 2002; Teece e al. 2016; Tian e al. 2021). A numbe o s udies, in ac , ha e ound ha he b ead h o ex e nal knowledge sou ces, which is he numbe o ex e nal sou ces exploi ed o acqui e D.V on is e al. 1 3 knowledge and esou ces, is posi i ely associa ed wi h pe o mance (Lau sen and Sal e 2006). Acqui ing knowledge and esou ces om many sou ces, hus, appea s o be a p econdi ion o ope a ing in an agile way. This could u he allow global i ms o be agile in o eign ma ke s and adap o he local con ex . Hence, he easonable assump ion is ha his openness owa ds many di e en sou ces o knowledge acili a es i ms’ explo a ion o new oppo uni ies (s a egic sen- si i i y) and hei acquisi ion o ap esou ces o exploi he speci ic oppo uni- ies ( esou ces luidi y). Mo eo e , being open allows he de elopmen o a alue p oposi ion in line wi h he a ge ed ma ke , and he poli ical, legal and social con ex s, hus boos ing sales. The e o e, a logical in e ence is ha s a egic agil- i y can be os e ed h ough being open o di e se sou ces o knowledge, which gi es ise o he second hypo hesis. Hypo hesis 2 The ela ionship be ween s a egic agili y and sales g ow h is mode - a ed by he b ead h o ex e nal knowledge acquisi ion o companies ac i e in de el- oped ma ke s and o o eign ones ac i e in eme ging ma ke s. As s a ed abo e, he b ead h o ex e nal knowledge sou ces ega ds he num- be o ex e nal sou ces exploi ed o acqui e knowledge and esou ces, and he li e a u e has ound i o be posi i ely associa ed wi h pe o mance (Lau sen and Sal e 2006). Ne e heless, he li e a u e on openness also ad oca es ha he acquisi ion o ex e nal knowledge canno gua an ee he exploi a ion o knowledge (Fleming and Waguespack 2007). In hese e ms, some schola s p oposed ha he dep h o ex e nal sou ces o knowledge, which is he in ensi y o he ela ionships wi h ex e nal ac o s, can o en gua an ee highe pe o mance (Lau sen and Sal e 2006). Collabo a ion e e s o he de elopmen o knowledge h ough ela ion- ships wi h speci ic pa ne o ganiza ions, and i in ol es a mu ual exchange o knowledge (Bs iele e al. 2017). Thus, in o de o explo e and o exploi new oppo uni ies, and o enhance hei o e all pe o mance, i ms can o m alliances o join en u es wi h o he indus ial companies ca ying complemen a y knowl- edge o hei own. Unlike a me e ex e nal knowledge sou cing ac i i y, collabo a ion in ol es dense in e ac ion and exposu e o knowledge, and hus equi es us (Fleming and Waguespack 2007). Al hough some isks a e inhe en o deep and o mal collabo a ion ag eemen s, a close and sound ela ionship wi h se e al pa ne s o knowledge sou ces (sea ch dep h), allows a p ecise and imely applica ion o knowledge o speci ic p ojec s (Ka ila and Ahuja 2002) and may suppo he agile o ganiza ion in de eloping and pu suing i s s a egy. In ac , while knowl- edge sou cing ac i i ies a e o en sui able o acqui ing new knowledge (knowl- edge explo a ion), o mal and deep collabo a ions a e o en associa ed wi h spe- ci ic p ojec s ha ha e p ecise a ge s, s a ed deadlines and expec ed ou comes (knowledge exploi a ion). The e o e, i is easonable o assume ha while sea ch b ead h can be use ul o an explo a o y phase, sea ch dep h allows explo a o y open inno a ion ac i i ies o be ans o med in o exploi a i e ac i i ies, inc eas- ing pe o mance. 1 3 S a egic agili y, openness andpe o mance: amixed me hod… Hypo hesis 3 The ela ionship be ween s a egic agili y and sales g ow h is mode - a ed by he dep h o ex e nal knowledge acquisi ion o companies ac i e in de el- oped ma ke s and o o eign ones ac i e in eme ging ma ke s. Figu e1 shows he concep ual model along wi h he esea ch hypo heses. Fig. 1 Concep ual model Table 1 Me hodological ools P incipal Tools Auxilia y and Complemen a y Ins umen s 1 Su ey 1 Seconda y da a 102 CEOs o i ms ac i e in eme ging ma ke s mean i m size o 226 employees (comp ehensi e su ey p o ile in subsequen sec ion) Fo m: con iden ial o mal and in o mal documen s, such as communica ions, memos and in e nal epo s Pu pose: o suppo , combine and/o in e - ela e empi ical indings 2 Su ey 2 Expe panel su ey o 112 CEOs o i ms ope a ing in de eloped coun ies mean i m size o 119 (comp ehensi e su ey p o ile in subsequen sec ion) Composi ion: six expe s ( h ee academics and h ee indus y p ac i ione s) Pu pose: con e ed wi h o ein o ce he me hodological p ocess i sel Exclusion: con ibu ion no u ilised owa ds o as pa o da a ga he ing Role: ac ed as consul an s and ex e nal p ocedu al quali y con ol ‘sa e y ne s’ o he esea ch 3In-dep h in e iews 12 CEOs and manage s o h ee I alian i ms i ms ac i e in bo h de eloped and eme ging ma ke s (comp ehensi e case-s udies’ p o ile in subsequen sec ions) D.V on is e al. 1 3 4.3 In eg a ed discussion and indings o  hequan i a i e analyses The pape has p oposed hypo heses, s emming o he li e a u e e iew, ega ding he ela ionship be ween s a egic agili y, openness and pe o mance o bo h de el- oped and eme ging ma ke companies. Ou esul s allow us o con i m hypo hesis 1, as s a egic agili y has a posi i e and signi ican impac on pe o mance in bo h samples. Rega ding he mode a ing e ec s, he esul s show ha in eme ging ma ke s, bo h sea ch b ead h and sea ch dep h play a key ole in eaping he bene i s o s a egic agili y. In ac , in bo h cases a posi i e and signi ican mode a ing e ec is no ed. In he con ex o companies ope a ing in he de eloped ma ke , howe e , only he mode a ing e ec o sea ch dep h is signi ican . This means ha , in o de o bene i om s a egic agili y, com- panies should ha e ew, bu s able and deep ela ionships aimed a acqui ing scien- i ic and/o ma ke knowledge. The e o e, hypo hesis 2 can only be pa ially con- i med. In o he wo ds, sea ch b ead h (hypo hesis 2) is only i al in he con ex o eme ging ma ke s; sea ch dep h (hypo hesis 3) is i al in any con ex o analysis (bo h de eloped and eme ging ma ke s). 5 Quali a i e esea ch design In keeping wi h he objec i es o ou esea ch, he second s udy adop s a quali a i e app oach in he o m o h ee case s udies (Yin 2003). The quali a i e me hod has been chosen o deepen and e ine he esul s o he quan i a i e esea ch and o gi e mo e p ecise answe s o he esea ch ques ion. Di e en me hods o da a collec ion we e used, including ace- o- ace in-dep h in e iews wi h he h ee CEOs o he h ee com- panies and wi h nine manage s ( h ee om each company). In e nal alidi y (Yin 1994) is ensu ed by e e ing o he same li e a u e on s a egic agili y and open inno a ion ha was used o he a iables o he quan i a i e s udy. The p esen s udy assu es in e - nal alidi y (e.g., Gibbe and Ruig ok 2010; Yin 1994) by u he using he ollowing p ocedu es: i s , all he ques ions ha e been o mula ed acco ding o he well-es ab- lished li e a u e; second, we use pa e n ma ching (Eisenha d 1989), which compa es he obse ed esul s wi h he p edic ions om p e ious s udies; and hi d, we use he- o y iangula ion (Yin 1994) o check indings in ligh o he heo e ical g ounds used. To ensu e eliabili y, we employ widely accep ed me hods, such as ansc ip ions (Gib- be and Ruig ok 2010). Fo he quali a i e pa , we chose o selec h ee companies among hose who pa - icipa ed in he su ey. As a i s s ep, we iden i ied he 20 companies wi h he highes sco es in he s a egic agili y, pe o mance and openness (sea ch dep h and b ead h) a iables. We ocus on hose ope a ing in bo h de eloped and de eloping ma ke s. Sec- ond, we con ac ed hem o check hei in e es in being in e iewed. Thi d, we selec ed hose ha showed in e es and willingness o pa icipa e wi hin a easonable pe iod o ime. They ope a e espec i ely in he ood and be e age, aw ma e ials and ex ile/ appa el indus ies. All h ee companies ope a e in I aly and ha e been selling ab oad o se e al yea s, including in eme ging coun ies. They e iden ly a e companies wi h 1 3 S a egic agili y, openness andpe o mance: amixed me hod… expe ience in eme ging ma ke s and a e app op ia e subjec s o explo e ega ding s a- egic agili y and openness. To sum up, he main goal o he quali a i e s udy was o explo e how openness may con ibu e o s a egic agili y o i ms ope a ing in eme ging ma ke s. The in e iew p o ocol included ques ions ela ed o s a egic agili y, aken om Kale e al. (2019), ex e nal knowledge sou cing (Lau sen and Sal e 2006) and pe o mance (Vila e al. 2015). We u he decided o include ques ions ela ed o he h ee me a-capabili ies o s a egic agili y, namely s a egic sensi i i y, esou ce luidi y and leade ship uni y (Doz and Kosonen 2008) in o de o connec each me a-capabili y o openness. The in e iew s a ed by commen ing on he ques ions o he su ey. A e ha we asked speci ic ques ions. Sample ques ions we e like he ollowing ones: Wha kind o pa - ne ships do you usually look o in he a ge ma ke ? Which pa ne s do you wo k wi h and why? Wha esou ces and/o knowledge do you usually seek o implemen you s a egy in he a ge ma ke ? Do you hink collabo a ions allow you o implemen you s a egies mo e quickly and lexibly? 5.1 Quali a i e indings—case s udy 1 The i s company ope a es in he ood and be e age sec o and sells highly cus- omized p oduc s adap ed o he a ge ed eme ging ma ke . As p oposed by he CEO, s a egic sensi i i y is a key ac o o compe ing in new and eme ging ma - ke s (Table10—quo e 1). And hough s a egic sensi i i y is some hing ha a com- pany usually and inhe en ly has o does no ha e, due o i s leade ship a ibu es, i can also be s imula ed by he de elopmen o ex e nal ela ions, as sugges ed by he R&D manage (Table10—quo e 2). Bo h esponden s, as well as o he manage s, main ained he impo ance o being agile e en when p oduc s a e pe o ming well in he o eign ma ke (Table10—quo e 3). Co-de elopmen o p oduc s wi h a s a egic pa ne has been sugges ed as a key open inno a ion s a egy used o implemen he s a egic ision in he eme ging ma ke , as he CEO s a ed (Table10—quo e 4). Mo eo e , a p e equisi e o being s a egically agile is leade ship’s suppo o he co esponding s a egic decisions and hei implemen a ion, as pu o wa d by a manage (Table10—quo e 5). The link be ween s a egic agili y and open inno a ion was explici ly discussed wi h he R&D di ec o , who unde lined he impo ance o unde s anding wha esou ces a e i al o implemen ing he agile s a egy (Table10—quo e 6). Rega ding he scope o open inno a ion s a egies, he R&D manage s essed he impo ance o es ab- lishing many di e en ies and ela ionships in he o eign ma ke (Table10—quo e 7). 5.2 Quali a i e indings—case s udy 2 The second company is ac i e in he aw ma e ials sec o , and i s p ima y busi- ness ela es o o de s om la ge cus ome s. I has se e al p oduc ion plan s all o e he wo ld, wi h a s ong p esence in eme ging ma ke s such as B azil, China and D.V on is e al. 1 3 Table 10 Case s udy 1 Case Quo e numbe Quo e Case 1 1 Be o e en e ing he eme ging ma ke , we make an in-dep h analysis o he needs and p e e ences o end consume s, bu also o in e media ies and dis ibu o s. This is impo an o c ea e alue o all ne wo ks in ol ed and o all ac o s in he alue chain Case 1 2 In o de o gain in o ma ion abou he cus ome and pa ne s, an open app oach o inno a ion is neces- sa y. This means wo king wi h local consul ing i ms in o de o acqui e in o ma ion and knowledge on cus ome s, hei p e e ences, and hei cha ac e is ics, o example Case 1 3 Fo us, being agile means being able o acqui e in o ma ion on he ma ke and adop a luid and apid s a egic app oach. This in ol es deciding wha ac ions o ake, choosing wha esou ces o employ and ensu ing ha employees a e aligned o he s a egy on mul iple le els. Ul ima ely, his means choosing he igh pa ne and he p ope knowledge sou ces o implemen he s a egy Case 1 4 Fo example, when we wan o de elop and sell a new o adap ed p oduc o he a ge ma ke , we look o a pa ne o co-de elop he p oduc quickly. Co-de elopmen may conce n packaging, adap ing he as e o name o he p oduc o he a ge ma ke , and, in gene al, any aspec o he ma ke ing s a egy Case 1 5 Ope a ing in eme ging ma ke s means dealing wi h a o ally di e en eali y om ha o ou own o igin. This demands ha manage s mus suppo and be able o apply he di ec i es, and ha employees a e, app op ia ely, bo h knowledgeable and mo i a ed o ealise hem Case 1 6 When we e alua e ou s a egies, bo h a he business and he unc ional le els, we apply a model ha allows us o iden i y which esou ces we need and how o use hem. Once his is done, we iden i y which esou ces we al eady possess in e nally and which we need o acqui e om ex e nal sou ces. This makes s a egy implemen a ion as e , mo e e icien and mo e e ec i e Case 1 7 In he case o eme ging ma ke s whe e we ope a e, we y o es ablish mo e ela ionships han he local I alian ma ke . This is imposed by he ac ha he eme ging ma ke is unknown o us. We need di e en sou ces o knowledge and in o ma ion, and di e en ela ionships o collabo a ion 1 3 S a egic agili y, openness andpe o mance: amixed me hod… Table 11 Case s udy 2 Case Quo e numbe Quo e Case 2 8 I you a e al eady pa o in e na ional ne wo ks, i you ha e many ies, i you cul i a e you con ac s globally, i will be easie o ind oppo uni ies. O en, in e na ional pa ne s a e ac i e in p esen ing you wi h oppo uni ies i hey know you a e wo king well, i you ha e a good epu a ion and especially i you ha e some hing aluable o o e in e u n (such as knowledge, unique esou ces, p oduc s, echnologies and con ac s) Case 2 9 Being agile in eme ging ma ke s does no mean simply unde s anding he needs o cus ome s and gi ing hem he p oduc hey wan . I means many hings such as seizing new business oppo uni ies, sa is ying he speci ic needs o indi idual cus ome s, eac ing quickly o compe i o s, in eg a ing new echnologies and mo e. And his is ha de han i sounds. Fo example, some cus ome s simply ask us o p o ide he aw ma e ials; o he s ask us o wo k in a pa icula way, using skills and compe ences we do no ha e. How do we espond? We answe ‘yes’ and hen we decide on how o bes sa is y hei needs Case 2 10 I he cus ome asks us o p ocess pa icula aw ma e ials and we do no ha e he skills o do so, we look o an ex e nal pa ne who can do he wo k o us. Ou sou cing is a undamen al weapon o being agile Case 2 11 Fo example, a new cus ome in an eme ging ma ke exp essly asked us o p o ide a ma e ial o a ech- nology hey we e de eloping. Howe e , we we e asked o ollow some p ocesses ega ding en i on- men al speci ica ions’ con o mi y, and o apply and secu e he co esponding ma e ial ce i ica ions. We didn’ know hese aspec s. The e o e, in o de o ac quickly and e ec i ely, we se up wo o mal pa ne ships o mee he cus ome ’s needs. The e o e, in o eign ma ke s we need mo e ela ions wi h ex e nal pa ne s. The e a e ins i u ional, poli ical, and echnical o ces ha a e mo e complex han ou domes ic ma ke . This equi es a mo e open app oach Case 2 12 New laws a e e y o en in oduced, which a e some imes di icul o implemen o unde s and/in e p e . Fo his eason, he suppo o ex e nal bodies is essen ial o being agile. I no , he isk o ‘ge ing s uck’ is high Case 2 13 Wi h ne wo king ac i i ies, we become a uned o ou en i onmen and we bene i om he po en ial pools o esou ces ha eside in ex e nal ne wo ks. By le e aging on his ne wo ks, we a e able o do hings quickly and e ec i ely D.V on is e al. 1 3 India. The CEO and manage s su eyed poin ed ou ha he sec o is e y ma u e in I aly, bu g owing apidly in many ma ke s, especially eme ging ones. As a con- sequence, hey all highligh ed ha sensing new oppo uni ies is he i s i al s ep in compe ing in in e na ional ma ke s, wi h he CEO suppo ing ha a s ong p es- ence in global ne wo ks, social ies and e sa ile alue o e ings a e an eceden s o spo ing oppo uni ies (Table11—quo e 8). The CEO u he s essed he impe a i e and mul iple meaning o being s a egically agile (Table11—quo e 9). This poin was also ouched upon by he R&D di ec o , who con i med ha open inno a ion allows hem o o e come esou ce sca ci y in deli e ing he alue o he cus ome (Table11—quo e 10). Consis en ly, a manage poin ed ou he impo ance o es ablishing he igh ype o pa ne ships in o de o implemen he s a egy in a imely manne (Table11— quo e 11). Ano he aspec highligh ed by a manage conce ns he poli ical/legal aspec s o he eme ging ma ke , indica ing ha ex e nal collabo a ions a e i al also o being complian wi h o eign laws (Table11—quo e 12). The e o e, he in e - iewees gene ally, indi idually and collec i ely ad oca ed o ope a ing in all he ma ke s, bu especially in he eme ging ones, which po ay pa icula dynamics, and ha compe i i eness is enhanced by he i m’s abili y o engage e ec i ely in bound- a y spanning ac i i ies (Table11—quo e 13). Thus, he abili y o access knowledge, echnology, and in o ma ion h ough ela ionships wi h o he i ms and ac o s acili- a es open inno a ion, which helps he i m e ec i ely implemen s a egies. 5.3 Quali a i e indings—case s udy 3 The hi d company ope a es in he ex ile and appa el sec o , and i has been sell- ing o many yea s in o eign ma ke s. I is a company ha p oduces high quali y aw ma e ials o ex iles (wool, cashme e, e c.) and inished clo hes. This company ope a es in a e y dynamic and compe i i e sec o , and, wi h many compe i o s om all o e he wo ld, hey hold quali y as a dis inc i e compe i i e ad an age. When he concep o s a egic agili y was in oduced, a p o ound discussion ook place ega ding he e y meaning o his e m, especially wi h he CEO (Table12—quo e 14). Rele an o his poin , he R&D di ec o said ha collabo a ions and pa ne s a e undamen al o quickly implemen he s a egy (Table12—quo e 15). Wi h ega d o he opening o he new p oduc ion plan , in e iews ha e high- ligh ed how bounda y spanning ac i i ies we e p o en essen ial in unde s anding whe e o loca e he p oduc ion plan , in de eloping he business plan, in acqui ing local human and in ellec ual esou ces, and in ul illing legal obliga ions app op i- a ely. Ano he manage s essed he impo ance o adop ing he igh ype o col- labo a ions in he con ex o he compe i i e s a egy ha is de eloped (Table12— quo e 16). Finally, he CEO unde lined he impo ance o bounda y spanne s in ans e ing knowledge be ween in e nal and ex e nal coun e pa s (Table12—quo e 17). 1 3 S a egic agili y, openness andpe o mance: amixed me hod… Table 12 Case s udy 3 Case Quo e numbe Quo e Case 3 14 Fo us o be s a egically agile means making s a egic choices, such as on how o dis ibu e he p oduc , in a sho ime and abo e all unde s anding wha esou ces a e needed o implemen he choices. Fo example, in a couple o eme ging ma ke s, we we e su p ised by an inc edibly g owing demand. This made us e y happy, bu i also posed s a egic issues and ques ions. Typically, whe he we would aise p ices o exploi demand o lea e p ices unchanged by inc easing p oduc ion ou pu ? I we inc eased p oduc ion, would we do i in he coun y o o igin o in he eme ging ma ke ? Fo one eme ging ma ke we decided o open a new p oduc ion plan ( o eign di ec in es men ), wi hou lowe ing ou s anda ds and always using high quali y I alian aw ma e ials. This choice, howe e , na u ally led o a se ies o economic and inancial consequences ha had o be assessed ca e ully Case 3 15 To be able o quickly implemen new choices, i is necessa y o ha e collabo a ions and s a egic pa - ne s, o acqui e ma ke in o ma ion, and o ob ain angible bu also in angible s a egic esou ces Case 3 16 In ou indus y, ma ke ing is absolu ely linked o inno a ion s a egy. Exploi ing pa ne ships is essen ial o a ge ing an eme ging ma ke . When we launch new collec ions, we need speci ic ma ke ing ac i i- ies, de eloped in collabo a ion wi h s a egic pa ne s who know he a ge ma ke well. Collabo a i e ma ke ing s a egy is a he hea o inno a ion i sel Case 3 17 We ha e a ew bounda y spanne s in ou o ganiza ion. Thei ole is o make su e ha e e ybody (inside and ou side he o ganiza ion, in he home coun y and in he o eign coun ies) is on he same page ega ding knowledge, s a egies, objec i es, goals. Thei oles and esponsibili ies a e e en mo e i al since we ope a e di ec ly in he o eign ma ke D.V on is e al. 1 3 6 Discussion, indings andconcep ualisa ion The esea ch esul s ha e highligh ed a complemen a y ela ionship be ween s a- egic agili y o o eign i ms ope a ing in eme ging ma ke s and openness. Equally, being open o ex e nal esou ces, bo h angible and in angible, was shown o a ou he de elopmen o agile o ganiza ions ha a e capable o implemen ing s a egy apidly. The quan i a i e pa o he esea ch addi ionally showed ha o eign i ms ha ope a e in eme ging ma ke s and a e s a egically agile a e also he bes pe - o me s he ein. Mo eo e , acqui ing ex e nal esou ces ha a e bo h in ense and ocused (dep h) and less in ense and wide (b ead h) inc eases he bene i s o s a e- gic agili y in eme ging ma ke s. Howe e , ou indings also show ha sea ch b ead h is no i al in he con ex o de eloped ma ke s. This means ha , in de eloped ma - ke s, sea ching o knowledge deeply om one o ew sou ces and/o pa ne s is mo e e ec i e han sea ching widely om many sou ces and/o pa ne s (Lau sen and Sal e 2006). These esul s a e con i med and e ined by he quali a i e s udy and auxilia y me hodological ools. As sugges ed by he li e a u e, he challenge o s a egic agili y lies in ma ching he i m’s s a egy wi h he i m’s esou ces, such as cap- i al, human esou ces, in ellec ual p ope y, ad anced manu ac u ing and in o - ma ion echnologies, as well as in ans e ing knowledge, building a pos -acqui- si ion in eg a ion capabili y, ha ing ele an coo dina ion mechanisms be ween mul ina ional headqua e s and i s subsidia ies, and adap ing CEO’s leade ship s yle o he e e -changing business en i onmen (Lewis e al. 2014). The in e - iews ha e unde lined ha , o di e en ex en s, ha ing an open and collabo a- i e app oach os e s he sea ch, acquisi ion and u ilisa ion o key esou ces, such as capi al, human esou ces, in ellec ual p ope y, ad anced manu ac u - ing and in o ma ion echnologies, and he de elopmen o dynamic capabili- ies, which cons i u e he essence o agile companies’ di e en ia ing a ibu es. Agains his backd op, openness a ou s he abili y o be sensi i e o oppo uni- ies (s a egic sensi i i y), as i also a ou s he acquisi ion o angible and in an- gible esou ces ha he o ganiza ion lacks ( esou ce luidi y). Thus, acco ding o RBV and KBV (Scuo o e al. 2022), i ms a e able o build new sou ces o compe i i e ad an age h ough open inno a ion s a egies. Al hough he e a e no explici e e ences ega ding he ela ionship be ween leade ship uni y and open inno a ion, he in e iews s ongly indica e ha s a egic sensi i i y and esou ce luidi y, which a e di ec ly suppo ed by open inno a ion, a e a ibu es o s ongly compe i i e-o ien ed leade ship uni y. Mo e speci ically, i has been shown ha acqui ing in o ma ion and knowl- edge om ex e nal sou ces helps in explo ing new business oppo uni ies and especially in iden i ying he necessa y esou ces owa ds implemen ing he i m’s s a egy. Mo eo e , he case s udies highligh ed he impo ance o deep collabo a ions (sea ch dep h) in gua an eeing ha new business oppo uni ies a e exploi ed when cus ome s ask o speci ic compe ences ha a e ou side a company’s no mal ange. I is he e o e easonable o in e ha openness ac s as a acili a o o he link be ween s a egic sensi i i y and esou ce luidi y. 1 3 S a egic agili y, openness andpe o mance: amixed me hod… Finally, he quali a i e s udy posi ed ha bounda y spanning ac i i ies a e pi - o al o s a egy implemen a ion in an eme ging ma ke . Con e sely, wi h a closed app oach s a egy, implemen a ion would ha e been slowe and less e ec i e. In his ega d, di e en ypes o ela ionships and knowledge acquisi ion s a egies esul in heigh ened s a egic sensi i i y and imp o ed esou ces luidi y. E iden ly, inbound open inno a ion allows i ms o d aw in ideas om ou - side s o deepen hei pool o a ailable echnological oppo uni ies and, hence, con ibu e o adap ing o he business en i onmen and o exploi ing iden i ied oppo uni ies (Papa e al. 2020). This, howe e , ela es o much mo e han ech- nology, o inco po a e a wide ange o esou ces, bo h angible and in angible na u e. Accessing hese h ough ex e nal pa ne s enhances esou ces’ luid- i y and inc eases he unde s anding o new in o ma ion and po en ial changes, enhancing he i m’s abili y o de ec emo e oppo uni ies and bes owing he lexibili y o adap o unp edic able changes, as a e o en me in he speci ic con- di ions o eme ging ma ke s. Figu e2 summa izes he indings o he quali a i e s udy. 7 Typology andcon ex ualisa ion Ou esea ch indings u he allow he de elopmen o a ypology o companies, as well as he de ini ion and e inemen o a con ex ualised amewo k o S a e- gic Agili y speci ic o eme ging ma ke s, which cons i u es he mos isible gap in ex an li e a u e. Fi s ly, o e lying he a ious desc ip i e me hodological indings, we can pu o wa d ou desc ip i e ypes o i ms in e ms o hei app oaches o s a egy and inno a ion, which a e shown in Table13. In eg a ing he abo e-p esen ed and discussed indings, he esea ch he ea - e cons uc s he inal esea ch amewo k (Fig.2), which e ines and expands he no ions and ( he subsequen ly es ed) supposi ions o he indings. I u he posi- ions hese no ions and supposi ions wi hin a comp ehensi e concep ualisa ion ha Fig. 2 Findings o he quali a i e s udy D.V on is e al. 1 3 Table 13 Types o i ms Closed Open Closed agile i ms Open agile i ms Agile 1. De elop new knowledge and esou ces in e nally 2. A e agile in he sense ha hey a e able o e icien ly and e ec i ely change s a egy by (a) Iden i ying new s a egic oppo uni ies (s a egic sensi i i y) (b) Using and p edisposing a ailable esou ces ( esou ce luidi y) (c) Ha ing leade s ha suppo and guide change s a egies (leade ship uni y) 3. Reac o he en i onmen al changes quickly, commi ing esou ces and aking decisions p opo iona ely swi ly 4. Implemen a ion is done wholly in e nally 1. De elop new knowledge and esou ces ex e nally h ough collabo a ions 2. A e agile in much he same sense as ‘Closed agile i ms’ 3. Implemen a ion is done ex e nally h ough collabo a ions and h ough acquisi- ion o knowledge and esou ces Closed igid i ms Open igid i ms Rigid 1. De elop new knowledge and esou ces in e nally 2. A e no agile in. he sense ha hey s uggle o change s a egy in he sho e m, ei he because o pa h dependency o because hey ha e igid s uc u es 3. Do no eac o en i onmen al changes 4. Tend o s ick o hei o iginal s a egic decisions, aking a long ime be o e e ec ing change 5. Change i sel is h ough in e nal implemen a ion 1. P esen a simila lack o agili y and slow eac ion o change as ‘Closed igid i ms’.’ 2. De elop new knowledge and esou ces h ough collabo a i e ela ionships and acquisi ion o ex e nal knowledge and esou ces 3. Tend o ha e igid s uc u es 4. Usually pu sue long- e m open inno a ion p ojec s 1 3 S a egic agili y, openness andpe o mance: amixed me hod… in e ela es hese sys emically, along wi h hei c i ical con ex ual ac o s and o ces, as suppo ed by he empi ical indings o his esea ch and ex an wo ks. The cen al sys em o he amewo k ocuses on he ela ionship be ween agil- i y and pe o mance, in e media ely posi ioning hei mu ual acili a o o openness. The la e is, in pa allel, linked o ex e nal knowledge dep h e sus b ead h and (pu - pose ully e med) unc ional and a i udinal openness, o highligh he heo e ically and empi ically iden i ied di e ence be ween he wo. The s a egic agili y me a- capabili ies o esou ce luidi y, s a egic sensi i i y and leade ship uni y a e injec ed in o he p e ious ela ionship o indica e hei ela ionship he ein. This sub-sys em is subsequen ly linked o esou ces, hemsel es sepa a ed in o angible and in angi- ble ones, as pe he indings. And he low ends wi h h ee o ien a ions, as de i ed om he esea ch and he eby explici ly e med: con ex ual, pe aining o s a egic o ien a ions o i a di e ing business en i onmen ; ask, ela ing o o ien a ions o ul il asks ha a e alien o he i m; and ma ke , ha is, associa ed wi h adap a ions o local cus ome /consume needs, beha iou , e c. The p e iously desc ibed cen al sys em is enclosed by he con ex ual and pe iph- e al elemen s/ ac o s/ o ces, as de i ed h ough he empi ical esea ch and linked o heo e ical indings. Speci ically, he ou e im o he amewo k inco po a es he eme ging ma ke s’ di e en ia ing ac o s, he necessa y seg ega ion be ween ha d and so con ex ual elemen s (also linked o angible and in angible esou ces in he li e a u e), he e minal s a egic agili y aims/ alues o adap abili y, lexibili y and e lexi i y, and he in e nal and ex e nal s akeholde s. 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Sage Publica ions, Thousand Oaks, CA Zucchella A, Palama a G, Denicolai S (2007) The d i e s o he ea ly in e na ionaliza ion o he i m. J Wo ld Bus 42(3):268–280. h ps:// doi. o g/ 10. 1016/j. jwb. 2007. 04. 008 D.V on is e al. 1 3 Publishe ’s No e Sp inge Na u e emains neu al wi h ega d o ju isdic ional claims in published maps and ins i u ional a ilia ions. Au ho s and A ilia ions Deme isV on is1· Ja osla Belas2· AlkisTh assou1· Gab ieleSan o o2,3 · MichaelCh is o i4 Deme is V on is [email p o ec ed] Ja osla Belas [email p o ec ed] Alkis Th assou [email p o ec ed] Michael Ch is o i michael.ch [email p o ec ed] 1 Uni e si y o Nicosia, 46 Makedoni issas A enue, P.O. Box24005, 2417Nicosia, Cyp us 2 P esen Add ess: Facul y o Managemen andEconomics, Tomas Ba a Uni e si y inZlín, Mos ní 5139, 76001Zlín, CzechRepublic 3 Uni e si y o Tu in, Co so Unione So ie ica 218 bis, 1034, Tu in, I aly 4 Cyp us Uni e si y o Technology, Limassol, Cyp us