School management from the voice of their protagonists in Spain

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N.º 79 301 pp. 301-324 School Management from the Voice of Their Protagonists in Spain La dirección de centros escolares desde la voz de sus protagonistas en España A gestão escolar pela voz de seus protagonistas na Espanha Rosario Ordóñez Sierra* orcid.org/0000-0002-8563-9975 Margarita Rodríguez-Gallego** orcid.org/0000-0001-6959-4829 Antonia López Martínez*** orcid.org/0000-0003-3460-9546 Para citar este artículo: Ordoñez, Sierra, R., Rodríguez-Gallego, M. y López Martínez, A. (2020). School Management from the Voice of Their Protagonists in Spain. Revista Colombiana de Educación, 1(79), 301-324. https://doi.org/10.17227/rce.num78-8370 Recibido: 05/09/2018 Evaluado: 03/09/2019 * Doctora en Pedagogía. Profesora del Departamento de Didáctica y Organización Educativa, Facultad de Ciencias de la Educación, Universidad de Sevilla, España. Correo electrónico: [email protected] ** Doctora en Pedagogía. Profesora del Departamento de Didáctica y Organización Educativa, Facultad de Ciencias de la Educación, Universidad de Sevilla, España. Correo electrónico: [email protected] *** Doctora en Didáctica y Organización Escolar. Profesora del Departamento de Didáctica y organización educativa de la Facultad de Ciencias de la Educación de la Universidad de Sevilla, España. Correo electrónico: [email protected] N.º 79 302 Resumen El estudio recoge las aportaciones de los directivos escolares sobre sus competencias, acceso al cargo y, aquellos factores que facilitan y dificultan la dirección del centro. En el estudio participaron 20 directores/as de la provincia de Sevilla. Se utilizó una metodología cualitativa, a través de entrevistas semiestructuradas y análisis de contenido. Del análisis de los resultados se deducen consecuencias en las categorías estudiadas como son: acceso al cargo de dirección, competencias, retos, dificultades y modelo directivo. La mayoría de los directivos entrevistados manifiestan que el acceso al cargo de la dirección es asumido para enfrentar retos, siendo esencial las competencias de gestor, la capacidad de escucha y la empatía, entre otras. Su trabajo es facilitado por las relaciones con sus compañeros/as, un buen equipo directivo, el respaldo de la comunidad educativa y la comunicación. Por el contrario, sus deberes son obstaculizados por las familias que no se involucran y los problemas de disciplina. Palabras clave dirección escolar; competencias; modelo directivo; liderazgo; centros de educación infantil y primaria Palavras-chave gestão escolar; competências; modelo de gestão; liderança; centros de educação infantil e primária Abstract This study gathers the contributions of school principals’ professional skills, their access to the role as heads and the main advantages and disadvantages of being a school principal. The study involved 20 principals from the province of Seville. A qualitative methodology was used, through semi-structured interviews and content analysis. From the analysis of the results, specific aspects are deduced in the categories studied such as: access to the principal position, competencies, advantages, difficulties, management model. Most of the principals interviewed assured that accessing the position is assumed with willingness to face challenges, and that management competencies, capacity to listen and empathy are essential for the role. Their work is facilitated by their relationships with their co-workers and a good management team, followed by the support of the educational community. On the other hand, they stated that their duties are hindered mainly by families who are not involved and discipline issues. Keywords school management; competencies; management model; leadership; Early Childhood and Primary Education centres Resumo O estudo reúne as contribuições dos diretores das escolas sobre suas competências, acesso ao cargo e fatores que facilitam e dificultam a gestão do centro. Vinte diretores da província de Sevilha participaram do estudo. Utilizou-se uma metodologia qualitativa, por meio de entrevistas semiestruturadas e análise de conteúdo. A partir da análise dos resultados, são deduzidas conseqüências nas categorias estudadas, tais como: acesso ao cargo de gerência, competências, desafios, dificuldades e modelo de gestão. A maioria dos gestores entrevistados afirmou que o acesso à posição gerencial é assumido para enfrentar desafios, sendo essenciais habilidades gerenciais, habilidades de escuta e empatia, entre outros. Seu trabalho é facilitado pelo relacionamento com seus colegas, uma boa equipe de gerenciamento, o apoio da comunidade educacional e a comunicação. Pelo contrário, seus deveres são dificultados por famílias que não estão envolvidas e os problemas disciplinares. pp. 301-324 School Management from the Voice of Their Protagonists in Spain Rosario Ordóñez Sierra / Margarita Rodríguez-Gallego / Antonia López Martínez N.º 79 303 Introduction The present study gathers the contributions of school principals about perceived competencies for the performance of their duty and the factors that facilitate or hinder day-to-day work in the educational centre, with the aim of determining the problems they face and their direct impact in practice. In Spain, since the Organic Law of the Right to Education (lode, 1985) came into force, an important modification took place in the model of access to school management, turning from being done through appointment by the ministry to election by the educational community, which began to allow most of the teaching staff of the centre to stand as a candidate for election. Nowadays, those who become school principals are teachers elected by a commission of representatives of the administration and, also, by their own colleagues. After a period of four or eight years, they resume their role as teachers. During their term of office, the managerial responsibilities gathered in the established text of the loe-lomce (2016) (art. 132c) are: “to perform the pedagogical management, to foster educational innovation and to promote plans that lead to the achievement of the centre’s educational project goals”. It seems that, apart from being a manager and representing his/her co-workers, this law states that the principal must also perform a good pedagogical duty. However, this management model, in Spain, rather than democratic, has been configured as collegial, which has severe consequences for the day-to-day performance of the pedagogical role. The principal becomes a prisoner of his/her colleagues’ demands, and this poses serious obstacles to pedagogically “move” the educational centre toward a progressive improvement of teaching. Unless those who perform the principal role earn a moral authority, the institution labels them with a weak identity, given their “parity” with the teachers (Ritacco & Bolivar, 2016). In addition to the above mentioned, the following changes are stated in the established text of the loe-lomce (2016), which refer to the requirements to stand as a candidate to be elected principal and to participate in the competition on the merits: To possess accredited certification of completion of a training course on the performance of the principal role, provided by the Ministry of Education, Culture and Sports or by the educational administrations of the Autonomous Communities. The characteristics of the training course will be regulated by the government. The certifications will be valid in the whole of the national territory. (Art. 134). N.º 79 ISSN 0120-3916 · Segundo cuatrimestre de 2020 Revista Colombiana de Educación N. 79 304 Universidad Pedagógica Nacional, Colombia This model of school management, unlike the international tendencies, is more focused on the bureaucratic and administrative aspects and, according to some authors (Bolívar, 2010a; Ritacco & Bolívar, 2016; Gago, 2006), it has proven to be insufficient for the development of pedagogical conditions that favour the learning of students in each of the classrooms. In fact, Bolívar (2015) stated that now the lomce proposes to go back to old practice, by which the school principal must be the delegate of the administration and make sure that the centre complies with the regulations, whereas in the most advanced countries in this matter the principal has a more professional role of pedagogical leadership. Different studies about the professionalization of the school principalship show the distance between legislation and the actual capability of principals to perform certain duties, such as pedagogical leadership and coordination, innovation and interaction with the community (Ainscow & West, 2008; Barrios, Iranzo & Tierno, 2013; Iranzo, Barrios & Tierno, 2008). Therefore, school principals find many difficulties in practice to improve teaching, considering that school management in Spain has moved among the following roles: representative-delegate of the administration (central or regional), manager and enforcer of the compliance with the regulations, and delegate of the faculty (Bolívar, 2010a; Viñao, 2016; Perines & Hidalgo, 2018). The training that principals receive during their term of office is a fragmented, legalistic training that has no references to the context of each centre (Bernal, 2008). To respond to the formative deficiencies, special emphasis must be placed on the demands that arise from the educational practice (Vázquez, Liesa & Bernal, 2015; Izquierdo, 2016). Estruch (2002) highlighted three management models within the European framework: 1) the bureau-professional management model, based fundamentally on the representation of the centre´s administration; it is applied in countries with more centralistic educational systems, such as Belgium, France, Greece or Italy. 2) The pedagogical-professional management model, focused on the improvement of the quality level and the school and social context, in which the leadership functions are a priority; it is applied in countries with more decentralised educational systems, such as those in Northern Europe. And the bureau-participative management model, which is between the first two models. The principal is democratically elected by the community, but appointed by the administration, as is the case of Portugal or Spain. There is not a single improvement project without a good management team behind it, even if the latter is not the direct protagonist. Therefore, the capacity to improve a school depends, in a relevant manner, on management teams with pedagogical leadership, resource management pp. 301-324 School Management from the Voice of Their Protagonists in Spain Rosario Ordóñez Sierra / Margarita Rodríguez-Gallego / Antonia López Martínez N.º 79 305 leadership and administrative leadership (inee, 2013) that actively help invigorate, support and encourage its development, in order for the school to build its own improvement potential (Bolívar, 2010b; Day et al., 2011). In the last few years, there has been an increasing number of studies on the strategic aspect of school leadership in the improvement processes (Hallinger & Heck, 2011; Leithwood, Patten & Jantzi, 2010). Leadership plays a relevant role in the international educational policies of the oecd member countries (Heck & Hallinger, 2010; Pont, Nusche & Moorman, 2009) and it is considered the second most decisive and influential factor of school grades, after the teacher´s performance in the classroom (Bolívar, 2010b; Gairín & Castro, 2010; Informe McKinsey, 2010). Nowadays, it has been reported that leadership is influenced by the characteristics of the environment of the schools, and that it is a social phenomenon (Hallinger & Heck, 2011; Mulford & Silins, 2009; Sánchez-Moreno & Hernández, 2014) determined by the relationships between the leader and his/her followers, the characteristics of the school project and the educational and social context of each school. Taking as a reference several previous studies on the competencies of school management (Álvarez, 2006; Caminero, 2012; García & Poblete, 2003; Pont & Teixidó, 2002; Teixidó, 2007), these can be summarised into the following: planning and development of strategies, individual and team decision making, interpersonal relationships, emotional control, leadership, negotiating, adjusting activities to previous regulatory procedures, adapting to context, problem solving, innovation project making, entrepreneurial spirit, ethical behaviour, motivating and encouraging the staff, permanent education and self-assessing their organization. To sum up, the school management must be competent in administration, leadership, mediation, education and quality in order to achieve better results. Therefore, it is important in this study to determine the competencies and difficulties that are perceived as necessary for the development of management. Methodology The present research was based on a qualitative methodology. It is framed within the interpretive paradigm (Hernández, Fernández & Baptista, 2010). The aim of this study is to determine which competencies and factors facilitate and hinder the managerial duties of the educational centre for the improvement of teaching, with the aid of the perceptions that principals have about their experience. N.º 79 ISSN 0120-3916 · Segundo cuatrimestre de 2020 Revista Colombiana de Educación N. 79 306 Universidad Pedagógica Nacional, Colombia Objectives The present study aims: 1. To describe the characteristics and challenges that influence their decision to stand as a principal candidate. 2. To analyse the perceived competencies to perform their role. 3. To determine the factors that facilitate and hinder the characteristic tasks of the principalship. 4. To analyse how they define themselves within their management model. Context and participants The study was conducted with school principals from Early Childhood and Primary Education centres (ecpec) within the city of Seville and its province (Spain). The characteristics of the population, as well as the number of participants in the sample, were not selected in advance, but gradually, throughout the duration of the study, following representativeness and authorization criteria. In this context, the study began with 35 school principals, although after considering the afore mentioned criteria, the sample was reduced to 20, who gave their consent for the interview to be used and published; 70 % of them were male and 30 % female. Ninety percent of them were from public centres located in either urban (60 %) or rural areas (40 %). Thirty percent of the participants had between 20 and 25 years of experience, 20 % of them had less than 20 years of experience and another 20 % had between 25 and 30 years of experience. Only one participant (5 % of the sample), had more than 30 years of experience. Regarding age, 25 % of the principals were between 41 and 45 years old, another 25 % were between 46 and 50, 20 % were over 56, 15 % between 51 and 55, 10 % between 31 and 35 and 5 % between 51 and 55. Information gathering strategies Information was gathered by means of semi-structured interviews, which had a flexible script of open questions based on the difficulties that the participants find in their duties to improve teaching. Through these interviews, we selected the information that we considered to be most relevant for the study. This way, we intended to validate the theories about the research problem by focusing on their verification. pp. 301-324 School Management from the Voice of Their Protagonists in Spain Rosario Ordóñez Sierra / Margarita Rodríguez-Gallego / Antonia López Martínez N.º 79 307 Data analysis A content analysis was conducted for each of the interviews using the Atlas. ti 6.2 software. As a result of this process, a system of categories and codes (with their corresponding frequencies) was established. To carry out the qualitative analysis, the categories were selected according to indicators provided by the interviews. In addition to describing and explaining the system, the frequencies of each code were analysed, which allowed establishing the significance of each category. In order to ensure the validity and reliability of the results obtained, a triangulation of encoders was performed; i.e. the content analysis, based on the system of categories and codes, was applied by three researchers, and the concordance level between them was calculated, using Cohen’s Kappa coefficient. To sum up, this allowed showing the information gathered and presenting the results according to the objectives proposed. Table 1. System of response categories and codes Items Category Code 1. Why did you decide to stand for school principal? Access adm1 I was proposed by the administration facl faculty chal challenge aske I was asked by the former principal or proposed by colleagues reti the former principal retired and i was the head of studies 2. What competencies must a good school principal have? Competencies auth authority coll understanding one’s colleagues dele know how to delegate (distributed leadership – team work) spea speak empa empathy envi normalised working environment list listening trai training work know how the centre works mana management of human resources and materials soci social skills inno innovative medi mediator moti motivator nego negotiator reg1 know the regulations orga organised pati patience rigo rigour N.º 79 ISSN 0120-3916 · Segundo cuatrimestre de 2020 Revista Colombiana de Educación N. 79 308 Universidad Pedagógica Nacional, Colombia Items Category Code 3. What elements facilitate your duties as a school principal? Advantages adm2 administration cote communication with the teachers edco educational community mate management team pare parents reg2 regulations plan planning documents rela relationships supp support rspn responsibility between colleagues 4. What difficulties have you had as a school principal? Difficulties bice big centre sick sick leaves among teachers rel1 relationship with the students par1 parents bure bureaucracy reg3 regulations / regulatory changes teac teachers laex lack of experience stud students nepr new projects 5. How would you define your school management model? Management model part participative repr representative mixe mixed Own source Results In this section, the results of the study are presented, taking as a reference the system of response categories and codes (with their corresponding frequencies), which was established after the content analysis had been carried out with the data gathered from the interviews. In the access category, we were interested in why principals decided to stand as candidates for their current role. One of the most repeated codes was chal (frequency=7, i.e. 35 of the participants). They stated that it is an essential premise for a principal candidate to face it as a challenge in which one can innovate and organize the teachers and their students. “[ …] On the other hand, I like facing challenges, being able to keep innovating and learning new things every day, and this role allows me to do so. I decided to launch myself into a new adventure and accumulate new experiences”. P8: (12:12), chal. “[…] It was a personal challenge for me, and it still is today”. P18: (14:14), chal. pp. 301-324 School Management from the Voice of Their Protagonists in Spain Rosario Ordóñez Sierra / Margarita Rodríguez-Gallego / Antonia López Martínez N.º 79 315 In the management model category, the participants highlighted three codes: participative, representative and mixed. The most frequent code was participative (PART, frequency=17, i.e. 85 % of the sample): “[…] Participative, without question” P1: (24:24), part. “…As participative as possible and collaborative within the whole of the educational community” P10: (34:34), part. “…I consider my school management model to be participative, since all the decisions of the faculty must reach consensus. We prioritise values such as participation and commitment by everybody”. P7: (26:28), part. It is worth mentioning that the validity and reliability of the results presented in this section are guaranteed, at least partially, by the high consistency index obtained between the encoders (Altman, 1991). As is shown in Table 2, the rounded value of Cohen’s Kappa is 0.87. The probability of coincidence between encoders due to chance is discarded (p = .000). Table 2. Consistency index between encoders (Cohen’s Kappa) Estimated Kappa, Asymptotic Standard Error, and Test of Null Hypothesis of 0 Population Value Kappa ASE Z-Value P-Value .87787580 .06424844 15.3758715 .000*** *p< .05 **p< .01 ***p< .001 Own source Table 3 shows the words that were mentioned with the highest frequency by the 20 principals interviewed, as well as the number of letters that each consists of, their frequency of appearance and their percentage. The most frequent words were: centre, changes, management, team, regulations, parents, teachers and meetings. Table 3. Most mentioned words and their frequency, percentage and number of letters Words Length Total Count % Activities 11 55 0.20 % Pupils 8 22 0.08 % Students 7 71 0.26 % Year 3 33 0.12 % N.º 79 ISSN 0120-3916 · Segundo cuatrimestre de 2020 Revista Colombiana de Educación N. 79 316 Universidad Pedagógica Nacional, Colombia Words Length Total Count % Support 5 26 0.09 % Classroom 4 26 0.09 % Autonomy 9 48 0.17 % Changes 7 85 0.31 % Characteristics 15 32 0.12 % Centre 13 384 1.39 % Centres 7 30 0.11 % Season 5 32 0.12 % Faculty 8 23 0.08 % School 7 39 0.14 % Colleagues 10 56 0.20 % Advice 7 22 0.08 % Criteria 9 42 0.15 % Course 5 45 0.16 % Decisions 10 24 0.09 % Difficulties 12 44 0.16 % Management 9 66 0.24 % Managerial 9 44 0.16 % Principal 8 55 0.20 % Education 9 48 0.17 % Educational (female) 9 21 0.08 % Educational (plural) 10 29 0.10 % Educational (male) 9 43 0.16 % Realization 11 42 0.15 % Elements 9 29 0.10 % Interview 10 32 0.12 % Team 6 87 0.31 % Evaluation 10 54 0.20 % pp. 301-324 School Management from the Voice of Their Protagonists in Spain Rosario Ordóñez Sierra / Margarita Rodríguez-Gallego / Antonia López Martínez N.º 79 317 Words Length Total Count % Facilitate 9 23 0.08 % Man 6 22 0.08 % Introducing 13 35 0.13 % Laws 11 74 0.27 % Improvement 7 33 0.12 % Model 6 30 0.11 % Needs 11 38 0.14 % Children 5 43 0.16 % Level 5 57 0.21 % Regulations 9 30 0.11 % Parents 6 77 0.28 % Participate 10 31 0.11 % Plan 4 34 0.12 % Practice 8 39 0.14 % Primary 8 27 0.10 % Main 11 23 0.08 % Problems 9 37 0.13 % Teacher 8 21 0.08 % Faculty 11 41 0.15 % Teachers 10 53 0.19 % Project 8 32 0.12 % Projects 9 33 0.12 % Resources 8 36 0.13 % Relationships 10 40 0.14 % Meetings 9 59 0.21 % ROO 3 25 0.09 % Translated 9 33 0.12 % Area 4 35 0.13 % Own source N.º 79 ISSN 0120-3916 · Segundo cuatrimestre de 2020 Revista Colombiana de Educación N. 79 318 Universidad Pedagógica Nacional, Colombia Lastly, Figure 1 shows the cloud of most repeated words. Figure 1 presents the most representative words of the interviews conducted. Figure 1. Word cloud Own source Discussion The conclusions of interest drawn from the analysis of the categories that were established and related to the objectives of the study are presented as follows: first, we highlight the contribution of the school principals interviewed regarding the characteristics and challenges that influenced their decision to stand for the role. After the content analysis, it can be asserted that most of the participants took the position of school principal as a personal challenge, followed, with a lower percentage, by those who stated to have accepted the role after being proposed by either the former principal or by the educational administration, mainly the inspector. Others took the position either because the former principal retired, or their colleagues proposed them. It is inferred that, for most of them, the decision to become the school principal was associated with the willingness to face challenges. Therefore, we consider that pedagogical management should be essential among their challenges, to ensure quality and efficient management. Navareño (2016) pointed out that the essence of principalship lies in the ability to find always the best answer, and, to pp. 301-324 School Management from the Voice of Their Protagonists in Spain Rosario Ordóñez Sierra / Margarita Rodríguez-Gallego / Antonia López Martínez N.º 79 319 this end, a school principal must ensure that all the members of the staff work toward the same goals, in order to improve the teaching-learning process as a requirement of academic success for everyone. Likewise, the competencies perceived by the participants to adequately perform the duties of a school principal were analysed. In this regard, the principals interviewed stated, mostly, the following: management, capacity to listen and empathy (as personal skills); authority, being able to delegate, knowing how the centre works and motivating others (as interpersonal skills), in that order. These results highlight the management and leadership skills, in line with Campo (2010). To a lower extent, they also consider the following: understanding their colleagues, developing social skills, innovation, being organised, patience, being able to negotiate and knowing the regulations. To sum up, the most developed competence is that of management, followed by personal skills (leadership), social skills and, lastly, knowing how the centre works and motivating others. The most valued competencies not only include those regarding technical skills and knowledge, but also those associated with interpersonal relationships, which supports the idea that the top priority of the management team is people, rather than papers and tasks (Murillo, 2006). Since management is considered the first competence developed by school principals, it can be inferred that these results are consistent with the Spanish school management model, which is based on more bureaucratic and administrative aspects, although they consider it insufficient for the achievement of more favourable pedagogical conditions. These data are in line with the studies performed by Barrios-Arós, Camarero-Figuerola, Tierno-García and Iranzo-García (2015), García and Poblete (2003), Caminero (2012) and Murillo (2006), which showed that most school principals consider that their model is mainly based on management, followed by decision-making and interpersonal relationships, with proper technical training. With regard to the elements that facilitate and hinder the characteristic tasks of the management team, the interviewees highlighted, as facilitating factors, the following: first, the relationships with their colleagues and having a good management team composed by trustworthy people, followed by the support of the educational community and communication between the teachers. To a lesser extent, they stated that the educational administration, the planning documents, the parents and the regulations facilitate their daily duties. On the other hand, they indicated the following as difficulties: those parents who do not get involved in the school and who do not comply with its rules, the opposition of some colleagues to changes, and discipline issues. These results suggest that parents, teachers and relationships within the centre are elements that influence positively, but also negatively, the performance of a school principal’s duties. The participants of this study emphasised that N.º 79 ISSN 0120-3916 · Segundo cuatrimestre de 2020 Revista Colombiana de Educación N. 79 320 Universidad Pedagógica Nacional, Colombia the teachers, the parents and, in general, the members of the educational community, must all have the same concerns and interests in order to feel like they are part of the whole. In this regard, Izquierdo (2016), Navareño (2016) and Ritacco & Bolivar (2016) state that, in order to achieve the goals proposed, it is essential to create the suitable conditions for everybody to find a purpose for their tasks and duties. The data from the pisa report indicate that students obtain better academic results when the principals have more responsibility and leadership skills (Montero, 2010, 2013). However, we consider that the interviewed principals admit facing a series of difficulties in practice that require a greater management capacity and professional recognition to be able to act successfully. In any case, according to the talis study (mecd, 2013a, p. 45), all principals must meet the requests and duties established by the political momentum and by the educational laws of each country or region, although, ultimately, all of them are focused on the management of human resources and materials, communication and interaction with the whole of the educational community, decision making based on evidence, and exercising the necessary educational leadership to help students complete their studies successfully. Finally, through the management model category, the participants were proposed to define their own management models, and the one that was repeated with an astonishing percentage was the participative model. Almost all the principals interviewed in this study proposed that this is the most suitable model to apply, since they consider that participation must be regular in the different groups that are integrated in the organisation of the centre, for a suitable delimitation of the objectives and proper decision making, in both ascending and descending order. Limitations The present study allowed us to approach the reality of school management in practice, to determine aspects related to the characteristics and challenges that they consider when accepting the role, the competencies that they perceive as necessary for the performance of their duties, and the factors that facilitate and hinder their tasks, using a qualitative methodology. However, further research should combine quantitative and qualitative methodologies to expand and generalise the results obtained. Funding This work is part of a R&D study funded by the Spanish Plan for Scientific and Technical Research and Innovation 2013-2016 (difoticyd edu2016 75232-P) and by the research group (gid) HUM-390, also known as pp. 301-324 School Management from the Voice of Their Protagonists in Spain Rosario Ordóñez Sierra / Margarita Rodríguez-Gallego / Antonia López Martínez N.º 79 321 “Educational Research Group: Technological and Qualitative Analysis of the Teaching-Learning Processes” (in Spanish: “Grupo de Investigación Didáctica: Análisis Tecnológico y Cualitativo de los Procesos de Enseñanza-Aprendizaje”), of the government of Andalusia (Spain). References Ainscow, M. & West, M. (2008). Mejorar las escuelas urbanas. Liderazgo y colaboración. Madrid: Narcea. Altman, D.G. (1991). Practical statistics for medical research. New York: Chapman and Hall. Álvarez, M. (2006). La misma dirección para una nueva escuela. Organización y Gestión Educativa. 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