Identity and gender in childhood. Representation of Moroccan women in textbooks

Identity and gender in childhood. Representation of Moroccan women in textbooks The current study investigated the role of women as represented in preschool textbooks in Morocco. To this end, we have carried out a content analysis on the images representing female figures from 5 publishers (N=2789 images, N=95 books). The expectation that images of women would appear more prominently in domestic and leisure settings than in professional ones was generally supported by the results. Although most of the professions represented are those traditionally associated with women, greater equity between men and women can still be observed. Publishers are attempting to represent a society that is dynamic, despite certain deep-rooted customs and traditions. Textbooks contribute to the learning and perpetuation of stereotyped perceptions. The results imply that it is important that the roles of women are evolving more quickly towards modernisation/westernisation than those of Moroccan society is. The traditional influences still visible in these books are a reflection of the current situation of Moroccan society. Keywords: identity; female stereotyping; content analysis; textbooks; childhood Introduction Different media play a key role in the formation of the current society of knowledge, greatly influencing human behaviour and social relations. These media include school text or handbooks (Parks; 2019), whose influence as sources of information and communication when aimed at younger people is even greater as they can be easily influenced. These books are a fundamental pillar in the management of the teaching-learning process, as well as one of the ways in which students perceive reality and build their individual social identities from childhood (Atienza & Dijk, 2010; Cho & Park, 2016). The social and historical representations and their changes over time can therefore be understood through the analysis of textbooks (Terra, 2014). Special attention should be paid to textbooks given their vital importance in learning and raising awareness among children and young people (Osaďan, Belešová & Szentesiová, 2018). The increasing use of ICTs (Information and Communication Technology) in the classroom does not seem to lessen the importance of textbooks, which are still one of the most widely used resources (Braga & Belver, 2016). There are many ways in which textbooks can approach reality, opting to influence pupils by steering them towards a specific ideological stance or belief as their editorial discourse is not necessarily neutral (Morand, 2012). Images have intense potential to be related with thought, not just illustrating our thinking, but complementing it and ensuring that creativity is magnified. It can therefore be stated that contemporary citizens have learnt to think in images (Ubreva, 2008). In the field of education, teachers and students tend to attach major importance to written texts, playing down the power of images. Even teaching and learning activities usually focus on the written message, barely paying attention to illustrations (Rigo, 2014), although increasingly studies highlight the importance of images in developing language and learning to write (Andrews & Thoms, 2008). Their purpose as a teaching resource in the educational process is highlighted by Pulak & Wieczorek-Tomaszewska (2014), emphasising both the efficiency and functionality of images as a means of communication, and their advantages in relation to other educational media for the transmission of messages. In the field of teaching science in particular images are not encouraged as mere objects for observation, but it is emphasised that they must be observed, modified, critically examined or replaced (Perales, 2008). In fact, in the more innovative 21st century, images are no longer only found in textbooks or other traditional means of learning. In this respect, Chiang, Yang, Huang & Su (2015) reference the power of image-based learning strategies used in mobile systems and how they improve students’ learning, achievements and motivation to learn. Importance has long been attached to the power of communication and significance of images. The first preschool education book to make use of illustrations as a key element in the education process was Orbis Sensualium Pictus (Comenius, 1658) where John Amos Comenius used illustrations extensively for teaching purposes. In his well-known The Great Didactic, Comenius stated: ‘The other aid to study in the Mother-School is a picture-book which should be put straight into the child’s hands’ (Comenius, 1907, p. 264). From this point on a lengthy tradition of using illustrations was maintained, further intensifying from the 1950s in the fields of creation and expression in the humanities (Ruiz del Olmo, 2012). Images are currently considered of great importance in the teaching-learning process. They are extremely useful in improving working memory as students are easily able to create mental images of important information (Fenesi et al. 2014), while improving performance through interactive learning with images (Lee, 2015). In short, teachers using images in education can aid the creation of concepts while in turn improving students’ understanding (Ekanayake & Wishart, 2014). Communication media in general and textbooks in particular are influential from childhood in the development of individual social identities which are gradually acquired, changed and transformed through different forms of interaction (Atienza & Dijk, 2010). The construction of our own gender identity begins at a very early age, when the effect of textbooks on fully developing minds is very important. Gender discrimination continues to be a scourge hard to eliminate which can have major repercussions on students. Therefore textbooks play an important role in instilling values and beliefs among students, as well as in the development of their gender identity (Lee & Collins, 2009; Lee, 2019). For most students textbooks are a constant source of knowledge and an important tool for socialisation (Zagumny & Pulsipher, 2008). Explicitly, or implicitly through a hidden curriculum, students are immersed in content, language, illustrations on a daily basis. Their predominantly androcentric perspective was and continues to be harmful to children’s development and subsequent behaviour and attitude towards both sexes (Lee, 2014). This has contributed to the institutionalisation of certain school textbooks which transmit biased gender stereotypes which paradoxically could promote social change resulting from educational policies geared towards gender equity (Biemmi, 2015). Extensive research has focused on analysing the gender perspective, most notably Guimaraes and Garcia (2014) who in their study of Physical Education textbooks in Brazil and Spain established that many leisure and sports activities are rife with sexist stereotypes and discrimination which encourage sexism among students through a discriminatory hidden curriculum. A year later, Minte & González (2015) completed a qualitative study of women in school texts on the history of Chile and Cuba, concluding that men and women represent traditional roles and stereotypes, while women are invisibilised or pushed into the background. Several studies on the Spanish situation have shown the limited presence of women in 115 textbooks from Compulsory Secondary Education (López-Navajas, 2014), showing clear inequality in terms of gender in the images used for Artistic Education in secondary education (Gómez-Pintado & Marcellan, 2017), as well as a biased treatment of the gender perspective in Preschool Education textbooks (Miralles, Delgado & Caballero, 2008). In addition, discrimination against women is detected in textbooks used for English classes in the last decades of the 20th century. However, a major change took place as a result of the introduction in 2001 of the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages, recording the linguistic policies of the forty-one Member States of the Council of Europe. This has meant that both sexes are to be represented equally, with positive discrimination of women also encouraged in some instances (Pérez-Sabater, 2015). In Brazil, public policies in support of greater equity between men and women in didactic content have led to noticeable improvements in school texts (Rosemberg, Moura & Silva, 2009). In keeping with this, a clear transmission of gender stereotypes is observed in the graphs and illustrations of primary school textbooks in Hong Kong (Ruby & Chi, 2016). Although in recent years there has been a significant increase in gender equity and visibility of women, both in the illustrations and texts in the schoolbooks in the region, equity between the sexes is yet to be achieved (Lee, 2014). Kazemi et al. (2013) speak against the cultures and ideologies imported from the West, especially USA, through the hidden curriculum of the English textbooks published by Cambridge University Press and frequently used in Islamic countries such as Iran. These books feature some degree of invisibility and discrimination against men, to the benefit of women, who are very visible, something which goes against the ethics and traditional female roles of Islamic societies. In view of the above it can be stated that textbooks are of great importance in the acquisition of behaviour patterns and in how students socialise and gain awareness while learning (Ullah & Christine, 2013). This is reason enough to pay attention to their importance. Moreover, when geared towards preschool pupils - the stage at which children learn while barely using any critical filters - it is deduced that Preschool textbooks are essential to the development of behaviour roles and patterns, including those linked to gender. The role of women in Moroccan society has undergone major change in recent decades, encouraged by Mohammed VI (Le Matin, 2016). Increasing equality is observed between men and women in the political and legal fields, while only slight progress has taken place in terms of religion. These changes pose a threat to the traditional ideology based on a deep-rooted ancestral patriarchy where the role of women is limited to childbearing, as a biological medium of indisputable importance to society (Charpentier, 2015). Islam is highly influential in Moroccan society and the education received by children. Morocco is a country governed by an Alaouite dynasty, with a Sunni population of the Malachite rite, clearly moderate and tolerant. The current Family Code (Moudawana) dates from 2004 (Code de la famille, 2004) and constituted a major change regarding the role of women in society. Despite the opposition of more conservative individuals it constituted a ground breaking change in the role of women in society. Despite the opposition of conservatives who considered it incompatible with Islamic Sharia Law, the rights of Moroccan women were greatly promoted, almost - but not completely - reaching a similar status to that of men. This law becomes all the more important taking into account that 83% of Moroccans are in favour of obeying Sharia (Pew Research Center, 2013). Although with certain limitations to women which are far from acceptable in the European western context, Moudawana is a major cornerstone for principle of equality between men and women. Without this great social advance in recent years Moroccan textbooks would not have evolved to such a degree in terms of equity between men and women. Our hypothesis is that pre-school textbooks in Morocco transmit a model of women adapted to social changes. Based on the guidelines set by Neuendorf (2011) for content analysis–preparation, we expressed the initial research question for this study: what is the role of women as transmitted to Moroccan pupils in preschool education through the images in their textbooks? In order to provide a response to this question we planned the analysis of the illustrations featured in Moroccan preschool textbooks in order to identify their androcentric and/or sexist content, highlighting this situation to ensure the adoption of relevant measures to prevent this being transmitted through these books. Therefore, the ultimate aim is to encourage coeducation in which the intervention planned is based on the respect and recognition of the value of people, encouraging the holistic development of childhood from an equal perspective (Brunet & Pastor, 2012; Rodríguez, 2011; Subirats & Tomé, 2007). Method The population of messages analysed were preschool textbooks from Morocco, examining all the levels of this educational stage: 3/4 years, 4/5 years and 5/6 years, from 5 different publishers (Dar Errachad El Hadida –Al Awwali-, Librairie Dar Al Massar, Palais Edition, Dar Nachr El Maarrrifa, Edisoft). Each of these publishers offers two different versions for each textbook, one in Arabic and another in French, with completely different images and texts. Both versions of each publisher were analysed, totalling 95 textbooks from the 2016/17 academic year. We identified clearly defined message units - images of women - to which the measures were applied. In order to validate the analysis of the data we followed the guidelines of Frienze (2018), and Daalmans, Kleemans and Sadza (2017). Firstly, our research group consulted the coding from previous research on this topic. These instances of coding had been validated and suggested that the tool was highly reliable (Author, 2008, 2009; Author 2014a, 2014b). This was followed by a review of theory and research on the topic in recent years (Sánchez, Martoz & López, 2017; Salami & Ghajarjeh, 2016; Sarvarzade & Min, 2017; Zong, 2017; Price-Glynn & Missari, 2017; Nakagawa & Wotipka, 2016; Minte & Gonzalez, 2015; Spinner et al. 2018). After compiling all the information available we put together a codebook. In order to ensure maximum reliability for these codes, three outside observers assessed the relevance and clarity of each variable. Intercoder reliability was calculated in SPSS using the macro by Hayes for Krippendorff’s alpha (Hayes & Krippendorff, 2007). All variables were analysed as nominal (see Table 1). Table 1. Krippendorff's Alpha Reliability Estimate Alpha LL95%CI UL95%CI Units Observers Pairs Ordinal .8740 .7479 .9685 31 3 93 Source: developed by the authors As reported in Table 1, the results show a relatively high inter-coder reliability (α = 0.87). A result > 0.8 represents a strong inter-rater reliability (Krippendorff, 2018). The resulting classification was organised based on dimensions and analysis indicators to better explain the data shown in table 2 (see table 2). Table 2. Dimensions and indicators analysed Dimensions Indicators Figures represented in the image Group Distribution of female and male figures Type of presence General aspects of the main figure in the image Gender Age Physical constitution Attire Graphic aspects of the image Type of image Type of line Setting of the image Action depicted in the image Role represented Motivation of the action Degree of responsibility Emotional component Social setting Attitude Degree of autonomy have mostly been produced by men, and in the case of Islamic Education, exclusively so (Mdidech, 2009). Author (2014a) researched the role of women in the illustrations of primary education textbooks in Morocco, observing how female characters were mostly represented in private settings, carrying out household tasks, taking care of offspring and/or buying at the market, thus reinforcing their role of ‘housewife’. In contrast, the men depicted in images are working on activities in public and professional settings. As regards the use of the hijab or similar garments it should be stressed that these must not be seen as old-fashioned or antimodern, even if this tends to be suggested by western-centric modernity. The knowledge transmitted by the ruling Christian-centric western epistemological colonialism must not lead to Muslim hijab-wearing women being labelled as oppressed, submissive and obedient, as seen by Islamophobic ideologies. It is extremely misguided to see the use of hijabs as exclusive symbols of Arabic/Islamic patriarchy (Author, 2009). Many Muslim women are not being recognised as freely deciding to use it, choosing a spiritual practice which goes beyond the distorted colonial vision which imposes a single modernity (Adlbi, 2014). The rejection of various modern interpretations which do not match those of the west hinders the creation of alternative female emancipatory projects other than the western ones, and adding complications to Muslim women who are immersed in the difficult process of reconstructing their identity. Decolonised local epistemologies pave the way for modern aspects derived from creativity and not from dependence (Taha, 2006). Epistemological decolonisation. None of this is impediment to stating that currently in different local and national patriarchal Muslim societies these women are being pressurised and at times forced to use this type of attire, making it a tool for male subjugation. It is true that a new image of women is taking shape in Morocco. This research has shown how in the textbooks analysed there is greater equality in relation to men. However, the predominance of male figures over female ones is still undeniable and there are persistent aspects in which the role of women appears as inferior to that of men. As women are mostly portrayed at a young age they are not depicted carrying out complex action or responsibilities in social and/or professional settings. This leads us to reexamine the identification model of women, as shown in preschool textbooks, as well as the models to be followed or behaviour patterns to be taken into account for both sexes. As regards clothing, it is of interest to note the modernisation process witnessed in Moroccan society in recent years, greatly influenced by the influx of western media (Author, 2011). This situation has almost certainly prompted the adoption of European customs and ways of life, while cases in which women appear in traditional dress are in the minority. Data obtained show that textbooks present a dynamic society which is progressing in step with the times despite some deep-rooted customs and traditions. The traditional social and religious pressure to use the veil has eased, allowing it to become an adornment and symbol of beauty, appeal and elegance, while still retaining religious significance. It can also be inferred that publishers are trying to open up new paths without stagnating in tradition, representing a desired society rather than present society. We have surprisingly observed that Moroccan textbooks do not faithfully reflect Moroccan society, where gender differences are clearly seen in a wide variety of fields. In short, it can be stated that despite the risk of androcentric bias identified in our research, publishers are making considerable effort, moving between the dichotomy of reflecting everyday reality of wide sectors of traditional society and educating towards a fairer and more equal society. Both options are reflected when, on the one hand, illustrations are included with women carrying out functions they have traditionally carried out, and on another, it is seen that most of the images of female characters have no veil, which is not the real situation in Morocco. We consider the fact that female characters have almost equal representation in public and private to be progress in terms of equality, although it was not a factor in previous research on the topic (Author, 2014b). Even so, most of the images representing women show leisure and domestic settings, with professional settings appearing less represented. This trend is in keeping with the majority carrying out unpaid activities, while the minority are engaged in professional tasks. In this regard it should be noted that most of the professions represented are those traditionally linked to women: nurses, teachers, carers and housewives. It is only fair to recognise the changes implemented by school textbook publishers, who have gone to great lengths to promote greater gender equity, incorporating cultural changes into their manuals. However, this does not mean there is not still a long way to go. The small yet growing bourgeoisie cannot bridge the huge socio-economic abyss between the wealthy social class and the majority of the population. This leads to a cultural and ideological duality which is undoubtedly reflected in the illustrations analysed. We are convinced that in Morocco the school education of girls is one of the main causes of personal, social and family transformation as it directly affects female change of status. For many it is necessary to move swiftly from a traditional cultural model, rooted in family education and Islam, to a questioned modern westernised model. In this transition textbooks play a vital role. 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