Consumer behavioral factors of the new EU regulatory framework for the feeding of insect-derived products

Future Foods 9 (2024) 100383 Available online 26 May 2024 2666-8335/© 2024 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/bync-nd/4.0/). Consumer behavioral factors of the new EU regulatory framework for the feeding of insect-derived products Pablo Ledesma-Chaves, Eloy Gil-Cordero * , Bel´ en Maldonado-L´ opez Business and Marketing Department, University of Seville, Seville, Spain ARTICLE INFO Keywords: Edible insects Consumer behavior Sustainable consumption New food acceptance Neophobia, ecological value, social stigma, animal empathy ABSTRACT Purpose: To analyze the intention to consume insect derivatives after the 2023 regulatory changes in Europe that allow their commercialization for human consumption. It is necessary to know if society is willing to consume these new foods taking into consideration their ecological value, animal empathy, social stigma and neophobia. Design and methodology: The research was carried out by means of a survey of 1,278 consumers in Spain. The analysis of the results obtained was carried out through a mixed PLS-SEM and fs/QCA methodology. Findings: Ecological value and social stigma are the most significant variables in terms of the intention to consume insect derivatives by humans. In contrast, empathy for animals does not influence this behavior, suggesting changes from parallels shown in animal research. Practical and social implications: The findings of this study are significant as they provide valuable information on how ecological value and social stigma are key to the intention to consume insect derivatives, while animal empathy is a construct that does not exert an influence. These results are relevant for society, as the consumption of insect derivatives is becoming an increasingly popular alternative in terms of sustainability and food security in compliance with the goals of the 2030 Agenda. In addition, this study contributes to filling a gap in the scientific literature on edible insect derivatives in the context of their recent commercialization and the variables that influence or not their acceptance. Value and originality: This paper provides useful information after the regulation of January 3, 2023 which proceeds to the amendment of the Implementing Regulation (EU) 2017/2470 on the consumption of insect derivatives, so it can be a tool that helps to raise business strategies. The results obtained are original, being a new growing field, and relevant, due to the importance that this new form of food is sustainably acquiring worldwide. 1. Introduction Throughout history, the world’s population has included insects in its diet (Alhujaili et al., 2023). In continents such as Africa, Asia and Latin America, insects are part of the regular diet of their citizens (Kolobe et al., 2023). Despite the fact that 80 % of the planet’s inhabitants consume insects, the truth is that for Western society it has been an unexplored topic until now (Rahman et al., 2023). It is understandable that feeding on insect derivatives is a common practice in much of the world, as it offers significant nutritional, economic and ecological benefits (Gnana Moorthy Eswaran et al., 2023), which in turn contribute to the sustainability of the planet, the prevention of malnutrition and future food shortages (de Carvalho et al., 2020). These advantages derive from the reduced amount of water and land needed to raise insects compared to other animals such as pigs, which leads to lower greenhouse gas emissions. Likewise, insects have properties that provide advantages for human health, improving our immunological capacity (Nowakowski et al., 2022). In this sense, the above-mentioned benefits make insect-based feed formulation an alternative contemplated both by the EU and by major international organizations (Formici, 2022). The European Union under EU Regulation 893/2017 authorized "the feeding of aquaculture animals with processed animal protein derived from insects and with compound feed containing it” (Zawisza et al., 2023). On the other hand, the FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations) published a report on the potential of insect derivatives as a source of food for humans and animals (Ferreira et al., 2023). The report concluded that insect derivatives are rich in nutrients * Corresponding author. E-mail address: [email protected] (E. Gil-Cordero). Contents lists available at ScienceDirect Future Foods journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/fufo https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fufo.2024.100383 Received 3 December 2023; Received in revised form 31 March 2024; Accepted 20 May 2024 Future Foods 9 (2024) 100383 2 and have a low environmental impact. However, the FAO does not promote insect ingestion as the only solution, but advocates a balanced diet that includes a variety of foods, including insects, as a nutritious and sustainable option (Van Huis et al., 2013).It was not until 2021 that the use of insects in feed for animal production was regulated by Commission Regulation (EU) 2021/1372. From that date, insect meal can be fed to non-ruminant farm animals such as pigs and poultry in the EU member states (Secci et al., 2022). Subsequently, on January 3, 2023 and consequently amending Implementing Regulation (EU) 2017/2470, the placing on the market of partially defatted powder of Acheta domesticus (house cricket) was authorized as a novel food, being included in the Union list of novel foods (Aiello et al., 2023). It may only be marketed by the company Cricket One Co. Ltd for a period of five years from January 24, 2023, unless a subsequent applicant obtains an authorization for that novel food without reference to the scientific data protected under Article 3, or with the agreement of Cricket One Co. Ltd (Von Der Leyen, 2023). The numerous environmental and nutritional benefits of this type of products can open the door to the consumption of this novel food, which has been accepted by the EFSA (European Food Safety Authority). Despite the fact that insect derivatives are not widely accepted in Spain at this time (Castro Delgado et al., 2020), it is necessary to go a step further and propose a theoretical framework that can provide European society with useful information to promote the consumption of insect derivatives. According to a study, one of the countries with the lowest acceptance rate is Spain, with a 35 % tolerance rate (Castro and Chambers, 2019). In this sense, it is important to check the intention of consumption of these foods in this society and to solve the literary gap associated with human behavior and the social system, taking into account concepts such as social stigma, neophobia or animal empathy, bearing in mind the ecological value of the production process of insect derivatives. Therefore, the main objective of this research is to find out the factors that affect the intention to consume insects in a Western European country with little tradition of this behaviour, such as Spain. The secondary objective of this study is, therefore, to know if the ecological value influences the intention to consume insect derivatives, and if this influence is mediated by animal empathy. In addition, the methodology has considered the effect of neophobia and social stigma on the intention to consume insects, as well as the relationship between the different constructs when determining the intention to consume. 2. Conceptual framework Little has been studied on the attitude of society and its current inclination to adopt insect-based foods and feeds (Ummara et al., 2023). Discussion and debate on the production, consumption and commercialization of insect derivatives in the food sector is needed (Olivadese and Dindo, 2023a). The ingestion of insect derivatives as a food source, also known as entomophagy, has been a common practice in various cultures for thousands of years (Sogari et al., 2023). It is estimated that there are more than 1900 types of insects consumed as food in different parts of the world (Nsevolo et al., 2023). It is often thought that insect eating is limited to tropical countries, but this is not completely true, as this practice is also carried out in nations such as China, Japan and Mexico (Sogari et al., 2023). Within the new regulations proposed in the EU, it is necessary to know the intention of consumption by citizens in order to provide useful information to help plan business strategies related to animal protein derived from insects and the environmental value in its production process, in order to comply with the 2030 agenda. In this sense, the edible insect industry is experiencing a rapid growth to meet the demand for this food ingredient for animals, and is gradually beginning to show interest in Western countries (Ros-Bar´ o, Casas-Agustench, et al., 2022), thanks to legal frameworks to incentivize investment in the development of the edible insect industry (Raheem et al., 2019) This makes companies want to take advantage of the low production costs of this type of food, which is an undoubted economic advantage. Due to alternative protein sources that are sustainable, such as insects, are gaining ever more significance (Wendin and Nyberg, 2021) and its nutritional importance for the immune system (River- o-Pino et al., 2024) it is necessary to understand which factors influence the intention of insect consumption by the Spanish population as a full-fledged member of the European Union since 1986 (Mancini et al., 2022; Ros-Bar´ o, S´ anchez-Socarr´ as, et al., 2022). Given the importance of ecological and environmental value for entomophagy (Lange and Nakamura, 2023; Ordo˜ nez-Araque and Egas-Montenegro, 2021; Papastavropoulou et al., 2023; Szulc, 2023), as well as the cultural and social factors that may influence the adoption of new foods by the population (Mishyna et al., 2023; Ochieng et al., 2023; Olivadese and Dindo, 2023b), in this research we inquire (1) whether ecological value influences the intention to consume insect derivatives, (2) if there is mediation in this relationship by the variable of animal empathy, and (3) if social stigma and (4) food neophobia significantly affect the intention to consume insect derivatives by the population under study. Therefore, the study model is proposed below in Fig. 1. 2.1. Proposed model Proposed model 2.2. Ecological value (EV) The decisions we make about our diet not only affect our health and well-being, but also mitigate the consequences of climate change and the sustainability of the planet (Carey et al., 2023; Dixon et al., 2023). Globally, food production is responsible for about one-third of greenhouse gas emissions, while animal meat production produces twice as much pollution as plant-based food production (Bhattacharyya et al., 2023). In addition, animal production systems can negatively impact air, water and soil quality by interfering with nitrogen and phosphorus cycling (Tj¨ arnemo and S¨ odahl, 2015). Most individuals around the globe have indicated a willingness to adopt alternative meat options, granted that these alternatives possess sensory and nutritional characteristics on par with traditional meat selections (Dunkel and Van Huis, 2024; Kumar et al., 2023).Given the growing concern about the negative impacts of meat consumption on the environment and human health, research has been initiated on different solutions to reduce meat consumption (Filippin et al., 2023). A viable option for this is the substitution of animal-based meats with sustainable alternatives or the consumption of insect by-products (Babarinde et al., 2021; de Castro et al., 2018). Ecological value entails individuals’ concern for the well-being of ecosystems during the act of consumption (Bonisoli et al., 2024). It is linked to attitudes toward nature and shapes people’s opinions about the environment, influencing their decisions and actions (Kalita and Das, 2023; Su et al., 2023). Companies should take ecological value into account to promote environmental performance that generates value and benefits for the global ecosystem (Koyu et al., 2024). Authors such as Krizanova et al. (2021) have noted that ecological value and pro-environmental behavior is a predictor of dietary adherence in the short term and into the future, over other dietary, demographic or motivational predictors. In addition, the environmental advantages associated with insect rearing compared to livestock production involve less land and water use and lower greenhouse gas emissions (Van Huis and Oonincx, 2017). Researchers have also shown the relevance of emotional value in the behavioral intention to acquire foods with ecological value, indicating that the habit of consuming these products generates positive emotions in people, providing an incentive to acquire foods with ecological value (Lavuri et al., 2023; Taufique, 2022). As a complement to this analysis, researchers have also shown the relevance of the emotional value in the behavioral intention to acquire foods with an ecological value, indicating that the habit of consuming these P. Ledesma-Chaves et al. Future Foods 9 (2024) 100383 3 products generates positive emotions in people, encouraging responsible behavior with the natural environment (Qasim et al., 2019). Following this line of analysis, if ecological value is related to environmental stewardship and is a key predictor in the adoption of a vegetarian diet (Carey et al., 2023), animal empathy is presented as a variable related to sustainability and environmental care. Many studies have pointed out that ecological value is a key element in the adoption of a vegan diet (Chai et al., 2019; Filippin et al., 2023; Hodson and Earle, 2018). Hence, showing consideration for the environment may be connected to feelings of empathy towards animals (Ballantyne et al., 2023; Chen et al., 2023). Therefore, consumers of plant-based foods are related to the values of environmental care and responsibility and empathy toward animals (Ghaffari et al., 2022). In view of the above, we propose the following research hypotheses: Hypothesis 1. (H1): Ecological value significantly influences the intention of human consumption of insect derivatives. Hypothesis 2. (H2): Ecological value significantly influences empathy toward animals and insects. 2.3. Animal empathy (AE) Animal empathy refers to the ability of humans to feel and understand the feelings and needs of animals (Camilleri et al., 2020; Dillon-- Murray et al., 2024). In addition, empathy is considered to be the driving force behind prosocial behavior (Yin and Wang, 2023), which helps to establish links between one’s own and other people’s emotional experiences and contributes to decisions regarding consumption patterns (Liang et al., 2022a). With the world’s population on the rise, limited agricultural land and livestock production being a major cause of anthropogenic climate change, the consumption of insect derivatives is being promoted as a more sustainable alternative source of protein (Northrope et al., 2024; Ruby et al., 2023; Van Huis et al., 2013). Therefore, the consumption of insect derivatives is a more ethical and sustainable option, as insects can be reared with less environmental impact and animal suffering (Berggren et al., 2019). The consumption of insects or entomophagy is thus a form of vegetarianism motivated by environmental care that allows the consumption of some species as an option more aligned with its values of empathy and respect for animals (House, 2018; Mankarios, 2023). Due to growing consumer awareness of the food production process, there is an increasing demand for food produced under conditions that respect animal welfare (Halprin and Schoolman, 2023). In this sense, the welfare criteria for insects may differ from those of vertebrates (Cinar, 2024; Delvendahl et al., 2022). Therefore, we propose the following hypothesis: Hypothesis 3. (H3): Animal Empathy significantly influences human intention to consume insect derivatives. 2.4. Food neophobia (FN) Neophobia, usually defined as a relative reluctance to consume unfamiliar foods or beverages, is considered an adaptive trait of omnivores, including humans (Jaeger et al., 2023). In recent decades, the concept of food neophobia has developed in relation to the potential reluctance to purchase food products made from insect flour or whole insects, especially following their regulation for human consumption (Sogari et al., 2023). Furthermore, food neophobia also poses a significant challenge for consumers to adopt plant-based alternatives instead of animal-based products in the food industry (Faria and Kang, 2022; Koyu et al., 2024). The relationship between food neophobia and the intention to eat insects has not been robustly analyzed within the framework of a food whose consumption regulation has been novel for the Western population and becomes governmentally catalogued and legalized for human consumption (Choe and Kim, 2024; Fantechi et al., 2024). Insect foods are unknown to most Western consumers, where there is no tradition of eating them, unlike in many other parts of the world (Erhard et al., 2023). In cultures where the consumption of insects is not widespread, encountering insects might provoke food neophobia (Jürkenbeck et al., 2024; Koivuniemi et al., 2024). The rejection of foods based on ideological factors is a cultural process and can be an obstacle to the adoption of new nutritious and sustainable foods, such as insects in Western cultures (Evans et al., 2017). By lessening food neophobia associated with insects, the acceptance of insect proteins as a valuable source of Fig. 1. Proposed model and hypothesis. P. Ledesma-Chaves et al. Future Foods 9 (2024) 100383 4 nutrition will be enhanced (Kumar et al., 2023; Rivero-Pino et al., 2024). Numerous articles examine the relationship between food neophobia and behavioral intention (Hashemi et al., 2023; Kashif et al., 2023; Sabbagh et al., 2023; Tarinc et al., 2023), but without taking into account that in the West the consumption of insect derivatives in the diet may be conditioned by various cultural and environmental factors (Veldkamp et al., 2022), Therefore, the following hypothesis is formulated: Hypothesis 4. (H4): Food neophobia significantly influences consumers’ intention to consume insect derivatives. 2.5. Social stigma (SS) Stigma refers to "an attribute that is deeply socially discrediting" which has as its main characteristic the social disapproval of individual beliefs or characteristics that are not acceptable according to cultural norms (Li, 2021). In this line and focusing on the food sector, those who adopt vegetarian food consumption try to put an end to the exploitation of animals, reverse the destruction of the environment due to this exploitation and prevent the associated personal and social costs to human health, but sometimes encounter the rejection of society (Ou, 2023) (Brouwer et al., 2022). This same social stigma is the determining factor when it comes to consuming other types of food, where opportunistic behavior by users is frequent (Apostolidis et al., 2021). Consumers may feel apprehensive when thinking about manufacturing possibilities in the food sector, with an emphasis on socalled novel foods, to which we have to add social desirability, where this can lead consumers to feel that it is somehow unethical to buy food that "society" disapproves of (Shah and Thanki Joshi, 2024). The relationship between social stigma and behavioral intention in the food sector has been examined (Brouwer et al., 2022), but this relationship has not been studied on the basis of staple foods modified with respect to their original composition, such as bread made with wheat flour, to which insect flour has been added with prior government authorization, which is a novelty at present, although the consumption of insects has been socially accepted since ancient times, mainly in the East (Olivadese and Dindo, 2023a). Therefore, the following hypothesis is formulated: Hypothesis 5. (H5): Social stigma significantly influences consumers’ intention to consume insect derivatives. 2.6. Behavioral intention (BI) Insects can be considered as a possible component in processed foods because they are sustainable over time (Bao and Song, 2022). Although they have obvious benefits, Western countries are often resistant to the idea of including insects in their diet (Menozzi et al., 2017). Nevertheless, it is expected to eventually become a viable option for human food, as it already is for animal feed. However, it is necessary to analyze the behavioral intention of the population, as changing food preferences in itself is a considerable challenge (Bucea-Manea-Țoniș et al., 2023). Different articles have attempted to determine the behavioral intention when consuming this type of sustainable food (Lampo and Sun, 2023; Vartiainen et al., 2020; Verneau et al., 2020), but few have focused on the lifestyle associated with a food-related lifestyle (Rong-Da Liang et al., 2023). Thus, this research has behavioral intention as an independent variable, since analyzing it in relation to the consumption of insect derivatives could solve many environmental and health problems, and help current problems in relation to climate change, hunger and environmental degradation caused by agro-industrial production (Aidoo et al., 2023). 3. Methodology 3.1. Sample and data collection The object of this research is the consumer, and it is centered within their eating and consumption habits. That is to say, it is not necessary to have previous knowledge on the investigated matter, being even advisable, since the center of the investigation, the intention of consumption of foods with components derived from insects is a novel situation within the analyzed environment. Habits in this respect can be considered similar within the European Union, since it is the scope of application of the new legislation. For this reason, the present work chooses Spain as a stable and full member since 1986, being the European legislation applicable throughout its territory. In order to ensure the representativeness of the whole country, the research composes a sample at national level where each of the territorial districts of Spain (17 autonomous communities and 2 autonomous cities) contribute sample elements according to their proportion of the total population of the country. For the calculation of the sample size we followed the calculation recommendations applied to social sciences of Del ´ Aguila & Gonz´ alez-Ramírez (2014), where the mathematical recommendations for the calculation of the sample are indicated, in our case starting from the consideration of an infinite population, where the agreement of the researchers is found in populations whose number of individuals exceeds 100,000. At the time of the study, the Spanish population over 18 years of age was 39,415,017 people (INE, 2023). Our analysis considers the population over 18 years of age since they have reached the age of majority, and are co-responsible for the purchasing decisions made in their households, and therefore for the food they would be willing to consume, according to the criteria applied by Szlachciuk & ˙ Zakowska-Biemans (2024), in a similar study. For the actual calculation, we used the R epicalc package, and parameters were entered for a 90 % confidence interval, a Z-score=1.645 and a test power of 5 % (minimum acceptable probability of avoiding type II error=0.05). All in all, the programme yielded a minimum sample size of 812 individuals. In the end, the number of questionnaires obtained was 1278, a higher number that allowed the sample to be representative. Likewise, an attempt was made to guarantee representation also by age and gender, for which a sample by quotas was used (Yang and Banamah, 2014). For this purpose, non-probabilistic sampling is used, where all the sample elements do not have the same probability of being chosen. This type of sampling has consolidated results in social science research (Gil-Cordero et al., 2023). Once the sample had been selected, users were asked to participate by sending an explanatory e-mail that included a link to complete the questionnaire. This was a structured questionnaire developed through an online platform for this purpose. The questions were evaluated according to a Likert scale 1–7 where value 1 represented "strongly disagree" and value 7 "strongly agree". The research was conducted during the month of June 2023. To ask about the variables, we used scales from other authors already considered, which can be seen in Table 1. To avoid measurement errors, the present work applies common method bias (CMB), following the steps of the test performed by Kock (2015). In this case, a new latent variable is added, which acts as the dependent variable. When this is applied, all variance inflated factors (VIF) reported by the method must be less than 3.3 (Kock and Lynn, 2012). If this condition is met, it is possible to state that there is no measurement error in the sample. In this study, both linear and nonlinear strategies are merged for two fundamental reasons in relation to the tools used. To evaluate the hypotheses put forward, the Smart-PLS 4 program was used (Ringle et al., 2022), recognized for its explanatory capacity in various fields (Henseler, 2018). As for the reasons, first, business decisions tend to be diverse and are influenced by a variety of internal and external factors, especially in areas that are not well understood (Gil-Cordero et al., 2023). Second, this study addresses a complex issue with strong external social P. Ledesma-Chaves et al. Future Foods 9 (2024) 100383 5 elements, which justifies the combination of both methodological strategies to more accurately capture the reality of the consumer’s decision-making process and adoption (Navarro-García et al., 2024). Therefore, it starts with a PLS-SEM analysis approach (Hair et al., 2019) to assess the relevance of hypotheses and direct relationships between variables. However, consumer behavior towards such an innovative behavior from a Western perspective as insect consumption is affected by various combinations of factors, which may change according to internal and external circumstances, suggesting a situation of causal complexity. For this reason, the fsQCA methodology is used (Fiss, 2011a) to identify all combinations of factors that can lead to the desired outcome, in this case, the intention to consume (Beynon et al., 2016). The integration of these methodologies seeks to address the theoretical approach of complexity, which suggests the existence of multiple non-obvious causes in complex situations such as consumer behavior in the face of novel behavior (L´ opez et al., 2023). Consequently, this method facilitates a more complete approximation of the conditions that can lead to an outcome, following three fundamental premises. First, it seeks to identify all possible combinations of conditions that can generate the same outcome, i.e., the intention, given that consumer behavior is not based on individual decisions or on a single factor. Secondly, it is recognized that there are multiple combinations that can lead to the same result, a phenomenon known as equifinality. Finally, causal asymmetry is considered, where the presence or absence of a condition requires different explanations (Woodside, 2014). Therefore, the joint implementation of this methodology provides a more complete view of the various possible solutions, and complements and enhances the use of an exclusively linear methodology to understand consumer behavior (I.O. Pappas and Woodside, 2021). Both the PLS-SEM and the fsQCA require a previous evaluation of the validity and reliability of the measurement scales, so we will follow the criterion of Roldan & Cepeda (2017). 4. Results 4.1. PLS-SEM With respect to the validity of the variables, the research follows the criterion of Roldan & Cepeda (2017), analyzing the individual loadings and Cronbach’s Alpha. Respectively, the individual loadings must be greater than 0.7 and the Alpha greater than 0.8. (Ringle et al., C. 2015). Both criteria are met, as shown in Table 2. However, the limitations of Cronbach’s Alpha make it necessary to also analyze the composite validity indicators, as well exceeding the values of 0.8 established as acceptable (Sarstedt et al., 2017). In addition, the average variance extracted (AVE) is also shown, to analyze the convergent validity, and whose values are above the 0.5 considered as adequate (Ringle et al., C. 2015b). For the evaluation of validity, the Fornell and Larcker criteria are analyzed (lower diagonal table 2), proving that the values of the diagonal (each construct with itself), i.e. the correlation, are higher than the rest (Henseler, 2015). In addition, we analyzed the estimation of the real correlation between two constructs by means of the Heterotrait-Monotrait Ratio (HTMT-diagonal upper table 2), whose Table 1 Scales of the proposed model, loads and validity. Construct Items Loadings AVE Composite reliability Cronbach´s alpha Rho_A Ecological Value (Lee and Yun, 2015) EV1 I believe that the consumption of insect derivatives can be environmentally friendly 0.869 0.732 0.915 0.860 0.860 EV2 I believe that the consumption of insect derivatives is produced respecting the rights of animals and insects 0.923 EV3 I believe that insect derivatives are produced in a way that provides balance to nature 0.860 Animal Empathy (Michaelidou and Hassan, 2008) AE1 I sympathize with the suffering of animals and insects 0.862 0.739 0.934 0.911 0.915 AE2 I identify with the feelings experienced by animals and insects. 0.795 AE3 I am very concerned about pain and suffering in animals and insects 0.899 AE4 I care about animals and insects and other creatures 0.908 AE5 I have feelings for animals and insects 0.830 Food Neophobia FN1 I do not trust new foods in general 0.795 0.611 0.886 0.841 0.853 (Cifci et al., 2022) FN2 If I don’t know what a new or strange food is, I won’t try it 0.876 FN3 I find the food sold in street stalls, or similar, too weird to eat 0.774 FN4 I am afraid of eating food products that I have never tasted 0.765 FN5 I am very picky about the new food products I eat 0.786 Social Stigma (Johnson, 2015) SS1 I have experienced the inability to participate in meals because there is no adequate food 0.708 0.576 0.902 0.871 0.904 SS2 I have sometimes been insulted because of my diet 0.709 SS3 I have been labeled as having eating problems 0.788 SS4 I have often been harassed for my food choices 0.893 SS5 I have been teased for being different in my diet 0.887 SS6 I have been ridiculed or laughed at because of my diet 0.773 SS7 I have often been ridiculed or laughed at because of my diet 0.775 Behavioral Intention (Di˜ no and de Guzman, 2015) BI1 I would intend to try foods containing insect derivatives in the next 12 months 0.876 0.826 0.935 0.895 0.895 BI2 I anticipate that I could eat derived foods containing insect derivatives within the next 12 months 0.929 BI3 I plan to consume insect derivatives in the next 12 months 0.921 Animal Empathy (AE); Behavioral Intention (BI); Ecological Value (EV); Food Neophobia (FN); Social Stigma (SS).ç. Table 2 Fornell and Larcker test and HTMT. AE BI EV FN SS AE 0.860 0.469 0.224 0.556 0.473 BI 0.428 0.909 0.537 0.567 0.724 EV 0.204 0.471 0.884 0.532 0.396 FN 0.485 0.513 0.445 0.781 0.645 SS 0.422 0.654 0.339 0.536 0.759 Animal Empathy (AE); Behavioral Intention (BI); Ecological Value (EV); Food Neophobia (FN); Social Stigma (SS). P. Ledesma-Chaves et al. Future Foods 9 (2024) 100383 6 values are below 0.85, the most restrictive criterion recommended by different authors (Henseler, 2018). To measure the goodness of fit of the quantitative model presented, we follow the criteria of Roldan & Cepeda (2017) regarding the standardized root mean square residual (SRMR) value, which measures the difference between the observed correlations and those correlations implicit in the model. A value below 0.08 indicates that the model has a good fit (Hair et al., 2019). In the case of the research, this value is 0.074, so we can consider the goodness of fit to be adequate. The value of the standardized root mean square residual (SRMR) for the present study is 0.074, which indicates a good fit of the model, since it is below the recommended 0.08 threshold (Hair et al., 2019). The contrast of hypotheses (Table 3) shows that three of the five hypotheses are significant, specifically those corresponding to EV on AE (p-value 0.048), as well as EV and SS on BI (p-value 0.002 and 0.000, respectively). It is important to highlight the value of the relationship between SS and BI, which corresponds to the relationship with the highest intensity (t-value 5.007), followed by EV (t-value 3.042). The possible mediation effect of AE between the relationship between EV and BI was not significant (p-value 0.235). Regarding the explanation of the variance, the constructs expressed in the model account for 50.4 % of the consumption intention, expressed under the R 2 parameter. This is a high level for a parsimonious model (Gil-Cordero et al. 2023). 4.2. fsQCA The objective of using the fsQCA methodology in this research is to collect the combined value of the variables used, and to observe which possible solutions can lead to the same result. After checking the validity and reliability of the scales (Table 2), we proceed to the preparation of the data for their application. We first analyze the necessary conditions, as can be seen in Table 4. fsQCA estimates that a condition is considered necessary if its consistency is greater than 0.9 (Ragin, 2009a). In this respect, the analysis determines AE (Consistency 0.9235) and EV (Consistency 0.9063) as necessary conditions. This information will later become relevant for the construction of the truth table. Previously, and following the development of (Ragin, 2009c), the fsQCA implementation process involves three stages, namely data calibration, truth table construction and logical minimization. One of the most challenging components of the fsQCA approach is calibration. This assertion has been already supported by previous research (Greckhamer et al., 2018). The adjustment consists of assigning degrees of belonging to the analyzed phenomenon, thus transforming the research process from a quantitative to a qualitative nature (Goertz and Mahoney, 2012). Accuracy of fit represents a critical step in fsQCA, since errors can impair the validity and reliability of the results. Data fitting involves assigning membership values to specific categories of the data (either conditions or outcomes), which can range from 0 (no membership at all) to 1 (full membership) (Meuer, 2014). Within this range is the point of intersection. The accuracy of the fit is influenced by the choice of the fit function and the cut-off thresholds that determine the degree of adhesion. The choice of the cut-off points is in line with the studies of Kraus et al. (2018) and Ragin & Strand (2008) for this type of social research, the 90 th, 50 th and 10 th percentiles being applied to the Likert scales previously converted for proper calibration by calculating the weighted mean of the responses to each construct (Gil-Cordero et al., 2023). Next, the truth table is constructed, which assumes all possible combinations that, in the case of the research, lead to the ultimate goal of behavioral intention for the consumption of insects and their derivatives. The process of constructing the table is accompanied by logical minimization, which allows results independent of each other (Fiss, 2011a). The interpretation of the truth table (table 5) is an answer to the Complexity Theory (Greckhamer et al., 2018), especially in the complex human decision-making processes in new environments, such as the one discussed in the present research. The table 5 offers two solutions in the combination of antecedents leading to behavioral intention with respect to the consumption of insects and their derivatives. The antecedents EV and SS appear in both solutions as core antecedents, indicating their importance with respect to the rest. As for AE, this appears only in solution two, while FN only appears as negated in solution 1 (Pappas & Woodside,I.O. 2021), when it is indicated that the absence or negation constitutes an irrelevant element for the construction of the proposed solution. The consistency of both the individual solutions (Sol.1 0.7967 and Sol. 2 0.8106) and the global solution (0.8049) exceed the ranges Table 3 T value of the hypotheses stated in the study model. Direct effect p value 95 % Confidence Interval t value Significance Ecological Value ——>Animal Empathy 0.204 0.048 (0.001; 0.404) 1.976 Yes Animal Empathy ——> Behavioral intention 0.140 0.103 (−0.027; 0.311) 1.630 No Ecological Value ——> Behavioral intention 0.246 0.002 (0.092; 0.404) 3.042 Yes Food Neophobia ——> Behavioral intention 0.086 0.387 (−0.098; 0.291) 0.865 No Social Stigma ——> Behavioral intention 0.466 0.000 (0.276; 0.638) 5.007 Yes Table 4 Analysis of necessary conditions (fsQCA). Consistency Coverage AE 0.9235 0.3771 ~AE 0.4169 0.6080 SS 0.5834 0.6990 ~SS 0.8154 0.3545 EV 0.9063 0.5739 ~EV 0.5015 0.3224 FN 0.6892 0.5040 ~FN 0.7284 0.4121 Table 5 Truth table. 1 2 Ecological Value Animal Empathy Food Neophobia Social Stigma Raw coverage 0.4392 0.5317 Unique coverage 0.0066 0.0975 Consistency 0.7967 0.8106 Solution coverage 0.5368 Solution consistency 0.8049 Note. Black (“ “) and hollow circles (“ ”) show the presence and absence of a condition, respectively. Moreover, large and small circles show core and peripheral conditions, respectively. Blank cells show a “do not care” situation. P. Ledesma-Chaves et al. Future Foods 9 (2024) 100383 7 determined for these investigations (Ragin, 2009b). In addition, the overall coverage of the solutions reaches 53.68 %, which is a high level for a parsimonious model. Regarding the single coverage, the value of solution 2 is noteworthy, where it reaches 9.75 %, which is a very high level for this type of research (Fiss, 2011b). The joint evaluation of both models provides interesting results to the research, which allow a more complete analysis when projecting the results. The variables EV and SS appear as the most relevant variables in the model, as they have a direct influence, but they also appear in both proposed solutions, which indicates not only their influence, but also their combinatorial power, which may represent an important starting point for applying other variables to them and analysing their different combinations. AE and FN, although not directly significant, appear to a certain extent as excluding variables in the solutions offered. This fact is relevant since it allows us to determine those elements that are most important in influencing behaviour, and how they may or may not be important for the final objective depending on the rest of the antecedents present in the solution. 5. Discussion The results obtained allow us to achieve the proposed objectives with a high level of success, especially in a novel field where the constructs present different interpretations according to previous research. In addition, it is important to contextualize the results according to a given environment, since the vision regarding food through insects and their derivatives may vary greatly, as indicated by Sogari et al. (2023), in its analysis in Europe on the subject, due to the important cultural component that this type of food has. The relationship between EV and AE (H1) is significant in the research, and applied to insects and their derivatives it implies an added complexity in its perception by the consumer. Previous studies, applied to animals, have shown that elements such as compassion or the perception of ecological value creation can alter human beings’ disposition toward animals (Pohlmann, 2021). The perception of the ecological value of insects in societies in part of European society is reflected in the study by Gałęcki et al. (2023). This thus determines a somewhat instrumental relationship, where the consumer does not perceive the food per se, but for a superior utility, something that has also been analyzed by some authors (Khalil et al., 2020). The hypothesis relating AE to BI (H3) is not significant in the research. This result appears to be contrary to studies such as that of Liang et al. (Y. 2022) about the consumption of foods from animals, at least partially, where AE is considered an important element that affects consumption, but in the role of moderator. In addition, Cornish et al. (2020) stand out in their analysis of animal meat consumption using animal empathy scores, which also become an important determinant of intention. AE has also been analyzed from perspectives other than feeding processes, as for example in the analysis of Toukhsati et al. (S.R. 2015), where in his study on sterilization of domestic animals, AE also appears as a fundamental determinant of human behavior. The results of the present study may be due to the different conception of empathy with respect to animals and insects. There are numerous studies and analyses that have determined the high degree of suffering that animals undergo in the treatment processes for their transformation into food (Broad, 2020; Temple and Manteca, 2020; Varela et al., 2022). This perspective provokes in society a strong feeling of empathy and therefore rejection. However, such a perception of suffering or proximity is not perceived when we talk about insects, at least at this stage of the process. In this regard, the work of La Barbera et al. (2018) indicates that the European consumer’s perception varies according to the type of destination that insect feeding has, distinguishing the groups of animals towards which its conversion into food is directed. This fact is opposed to the results of the present work, in which the consumer, observed from the insect feeding protagonist, does not show empathy as one of his values. However, this empathy, projected with the presence of the ecological value, does provide a consumption solution, as observed in the qualitative results. The relationship of FN with BI (H4) is not significant in the study. The FN construct has shown a high degree of variability depending on the context performed. In fact, in an analysis on the consumption of insect-fed animals, Mustapa & Kallas (2023) note that the results of a survey of potential Spanish consumers show that the responses about FN differed significantly according to the age range of the respondents, indicating that younger people were more open to trying new products. Therefore, the results may be subject to variations in the sample structure. Other analyses have shown that it is possible to alter the perception of FN through sensory education programs (Mustonen and Tuorila, 2010). It is possible that the outcome may also be determined by the complete lack of information on the use of insects for food, which may result in the consumer not even being able to develop a feeling of FN. This fact may be reflected in the study of Çınar et al. (Ç. 2021), where they indicate that FN can be explained by factors such as openness to experience, behavior within the food diet, hunger or the ability to neutralize risks. None of these elements has been able, in the introduction phase in which we find ourselves in the European Union, to be developed by consumers with respect to insects. In line with this, cultural differences, lack of familiarity or lack of knowledge of the origin of the food appear as reasons applied to the FN of Western societies in the study of Siddiqui et al. (S.A. 2022). In the analysis conducted in Belgium by Verbeke (2015) refers to FN as the most important factor determining the willingness of Western consumers to eat insects, contrary to the results reported here. One of the possible explanations is that neophobia is being overcome due to consumer awareness of the prejudices of the food system maintained until now, and of which the media give continuous references. This thesis has also been put forward and maintained by Verbeke (2005) in its research in the European field. In a study conducted in Spain, Ros-Bar´ o, S´ anchez-Socarr´ as, et al. (2022) identify FN as a key obstacle to insect feeding, although they detect advances in the acceptance of this type of food, as well as a distinction between age and gender strata, although their study does not mention the potential health or environmental effects of this type of consumption, so the results of FN are contrary to those found in the results of this analysis. The relationship between EV and BI (H2) is significant. This fact is in line with the results of Qasim et al. (2019) where the importance of values and their determination in the consumption of organic food is highlighted. In areas other than animals, such as energy consumption, the EV variable has shown its strength in terms of significance and influence on the intention to consume. Similarly, in the study of Dangelico et al. (R.M. 2022) related to the consumption of sustainable fashion, similar results are obtained with respect to this variable. This fact indicates, together with the results, that the awareness of ecological value is deeply rooted in consumers, and therefore is a fundamental value when deciding on the consumption of insects and can be used as a lever to overcome any other aspect or consideration in the evaluation of consumption. It could become one of the key values for introducing insect diets in European countries, as indicated by Mancini et al. (2022), as European consumers are beginning to perceive the environmental benefits of insect feeding. Furthermore, in their study, (Guin´ e et al., 2021) discuss the importance of knowledge about this issue among Portuguese consumers, which was generally low, constituting a major barrier to its acceptance. In this respect, the results of our study may reveal that the level of information about the EV of insects and their introduction into the diet has increased among european consumers. Finally, the hypothesis that relates SS with BI (H5) is significant, being also the one with the highest level of intensity. This fact presents a relevant issue with respect to other research, such as that carried out by Brouwer et al. (2022), also in the food domain, regarding the adoption of a vegan diet, indicating that social stigma was not relevant to the behavior. The relevance in this research of the relationship may mean that there is a social awareness on the part of some people of the need for insect consumption, but that they encounter a high degree of rejection in P. Ledesma-Chaves et al. Future Foods 9 (2024) 100383 8 their environment to that approach. In this regard, Pauer et al. (2022) indicate with respect to meat consumption that the stigmatization of a behavior means that social influence can provoke ambivalence more frequently than with respect to other more accepted behaviors. The results also coincide with analyses carried out in European settings, where the social context comes into play. In line with this, McDade & Collins (2019) talk about the complexity of creating a European social context favourable to insect consumption, which does not stigmatise those who are favourable, indicating the need for the existence of social models of consumption. Szlachciuk & ˙ Zakowska-Biemans (2024) also agree on this fact in their European study, warning of the danger of feeling ostracised by a positive attitude towards insect eating, coinciding with the results of this study, and warning of the need to reduce stigma, as stated by House (2016) in his study on Danish consumers. In another context and in a recent study, Babarinde et al. (2024) respondents reported that stigmatization against those who eat insects was a constraint to the use of insects as food among undergraduates in south-western community of Nigeria. 6. Conclusion, implications and future lines of investigation 6.1. Conclusion This research has attempted to analyze the new context that is opening up in Western societies with the opening of legal regulations on the consumption of insects and their derivatives. This issue, which has important implications for future consumption and the use of resources and global supply, has been initially approached from the perspective of different backgrounds that would influence their consumption and adoption. The results indicate that the reasons for the consumption of this type of food are sustained from the point of view of consumers in their ecological value, disregarding other elements of animal empathy. Similarly, social stigma appears as another determinant variable for behavior, currently considered as a social barrier. Although the antecedents present a high combinatorial value, at present, movements oriented toward the promotion of insect-based feeding should consider these two variables as a basis for the determination of consumptionoriented strategies. The study makes progress compared to previous research in showing a European consumer who has overcome the barrier of neophobia, and therefore becomes aware of the ecological and environmental value that insect feeding can have, but who is limited to some extent by social perceptions regarding their behavior. Therefore, this situation represents an important added factor with respect to the research carried out so far, advancing from a question of yes or no to a perspective of how. The study therefore provides an important starting point for future research in terms of establishing a balance between the provision and awareness of ecological value and consumer stigmatization, whereby research will need to identify the specific characteristics of each of these aspects and establish an appropriate balance to enable progress in consumer acceptance and the establishment of an appropriate social framework for their development. 6.2. Academical implications From an academic perspective, the present work represents one of the first attempts to determine the elements that affect consumer behavior and vision concerning the consumption of insects and their derivatives in Western societies. Therefore, it fills an important gap in the literature where calls have been made in the light of the new global sustainability objectives to seek new alternative food ways and, therefore, it may serve as a basis for new future research models. Furthermore, this research raises, from an academic point of view that will have to be gone into deeper, the question of if insects have, from the consumer’s point of view, an equal or similar consideration to animals, in the spotlight of the global debate regarding their use as food. This situation opens up an enormous theoretical range of study for the future, where further research should better determine the differences in the consideration of insects and animals in the consumer’s mind, thus determining more precise models of application for the establishment of human behavior. In addition, the application of a dual methodology allows, from an academic perspective, a better understanding of how these variables act in combination to represent consumer behavior. This will make it possible to create more accurate models in the future, which will better determine the behavior and balance of the combined variables, in addition to being able to add others. In this sense, the work represents an important advance for research on the consumption of insect derivatives by humans. Compared to previous contributions in Western countries, the present study represents an important academic advance since it takes a further step in the understanding of the potential consumption potential of Europeans in this respect. Previous studies had analyzed the possible potential of the situation, but the present analysis shows the increased awareness of the ecological value that Western society has taken in this regard, although the exposure of such behavior determines a social stigma that is difficult to overcome, which conditions the results. So far, most studies have constituted a yes/no answer to the openness to insect consumption, while with the results obtained here, it is possible to obtain a European consumer profile whose characteristics can be better defined for future models and research, making a balance between the characteristics of environmental awareness and the need to take action against the problems that the future poses, in the face of overcoming social stigmas. The model developed also allows the analysis of a dual perspective, from a personal view and from the perception of others. That is, it combines elements that analyze the personal behavior of the future consumer, as well as the vision perceived by other consumers, allowing a more complete analysis of the process of introduction of this type of food, and enabling future research to understand the phenomenon from different academic research fields. 6.3. Managerial implications From a management perspective, this work has important implications for the future development of the emerging entomological food industry. The consumers of the future may be adapted to the consumption of this type of food, but its introduction, especially in those societies more reluctant toward it, will be slow and costly. Therefore, companies can, on the basis of the conclusions of this work, begin to develop strategies adapted to its introduction. In addition, the consideration will be different with respect to the awareness of animal consumption, since the results indicate that the consumers’ vision of insects is different from that of other vertebrate animals. In this sense, in the first place, business strategies oriented toward the consumption of insects and their by-products should focus on the ecological value, over and above considerations associated with animals. The consumer’s vision of insect derivatives for food differs profoundly from the consideration of animals, so companies should deepen their communication processes from a vision of environmental care and sustainability. Secondly, these communication processes by companies should have an impact on the normalization of the existence of other food models by consumers, i.e., the existence of different alternatives to meet the needs. This fact rests on the combined importance of the value of Social Stigma, present in the proposed solutions, which from a business development point of view can be a major business obstacle if companies do not develop strategies to welcome this new class of consumers, offering them a double way, both in terms of adapted products and visibility and normalization in the eyes of society. 6.4. Social implications From a social perspective, the consumption of foods with insectderived components is currently far from the consumer’s perspective, P. Ledesma-Chaves et al. Future Foods 9 (2024) 100383 9 which welcomes it as something exotic and typical of other cultures, at least in Western countries. However, the problems of global population growth, climate change and resource scarcity are likely to change this view. Therefore, governments and societies can, based on the results of this work and similar ones, begin to understand the vision of Western societies with respect to this type of food, the difference in perception with respect to animal consumption, as well as the social reaction to its evolution. A change in the paradigm of perception is necessary, and societies and governments should normalize, according to the results obtained, different ways of eating and promote their visibility and integration, in order to reduce the perception of stigma and rarity detected in the research. 6.5. Limitations and future lines of investigation The present work is limited to the Spanish environment; however, its application to other western societies would allow us to understand whether the results can indeed be generalized and, therefore, the development of universal strategies. In addition, future work can add constructs referring to the consideration of insects, completing those present in this research, thus creating a more complete model. Ethical statements Participants gave informed consent via the statement "I am aware that my responses are confidential, and I agree to participate in this survey" where an affirmative reply was required to enter the survey. They were able to withdraw from the survey at any time without giving a reason. The products tested were safe for consumption." "The study was explained to consumers in the online questionnaire. They were informed that they would participate in the survey using their personal smartphone, that all data will be de-identified and only reported in the aggregate. All participants acknowledged an informed consent statement in order to participate in the study. CRediT authorship contribution statement Pablo Ledesma-Chaves: Writing – review & editing, Writing – original draft, Visualization, Validation, Supervision, Software, Resources, Project administration, Methodology, Investigation, Funding acquisition, Formal analysis, Data curation, Conceptualization. Eloy Gil-Cordero: Writing – review & editing, Writing – original draft, Visualization, Validation, Supervision, Software, Resources, Project administration, Methodology, Investigation, Funding acquisition, Formal analysis, Data curation, Conceptualization. Bel´ en Maldonado- L´ opez: Writing – review & editing, Writing – original draft, Visualization, Validation, Supervision, Software, Resources, Project administration, Methodology, Investigation, Funding acquisition, Formal analysis, Data curation, Conceptualization. Declaration of competing interest The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper. Data availability No data was used for the research described in the article. References Aidoo, O.F., Osei-Owusu, J., Asante, K., Dofuor, A.K., Boateng, B.O., Debrah, S.K., Ninsin, K.D., Siddiqui, S.A., Chia, S.Y., 2023. Insects as food and medicine: a sustainable solution for global health and environmental challenges. Front. Nutr. 10, 1113219 https://doi.org/10.3389/fnut.2023.1113219. 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