Psychometric Properties of the Dating Violence Questionnaire: Reviewing the Evidence in Chilean Youths

Validation of the Chilean version of the Dating Violence Questionnaire Laura Lara1 and Javier López-Cepero2 1Universidad Autónoma de Chile, Talca, Chile; 2Universidad de Sevilla, Spain Corresponding author: Laura Lara, Universidad Autónoma de Chile, C/ 5 Poniente, 1670 Talca, Chile. Email: [email protected] The present manuscript is a preprint version of the paper. You may find the final version at the Journal of Interpersonal Violence (SAGE) website, or by following the link: https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260518760612 Abstract This study aims to adapt the Dating Violence Questionnaire (DVQ) to the Chilean population, improve the subscales with the lowest internal reliability, and inform about dating violence rates among youth in Chile. DVQ is a 42-item questionnaire that measures victimization in romantic relationships between young people, through eight different types of violence (detachment, humiliation, coercion, emotional punishment, gender-based, sexual, physical, and instrumental). 848 high school and university students (14-24 years old) participated in the study. While adapting the instrument to the Chilean context, four new items were added to improve internal reliability of instrumental and emotional punishment subscales (DVQ+). Results showed that both DVQ and DVQ+ versions had an adequate fit with the original eight factor model (RMSEA = .024 - .025; CFI = .97 - .97, respectively), and the extended version improved internal consistency of instrumental (from .55 to .72) and emotional punishment (from .58 to .73) scales. Scores of DVQ were correlated negatively with quality of the relationship and positively with fear, perceived abuse, and attachmentrelated anxiety. Key words: Assessment, dating violence, youth violence Introduction Violence in couple relationships is a well-documented topic that has generated a growing research interest in recent decades (Bhona, Lourenço, & Brum, 2011). Aggressions manifested in adolescents and emerging adults’ romantic relationships have turned from attracting marginal attention to being a worldwide priority (López-Cepero, Rodríguez- Franco, Rodríguez-Díaz, & Bringas, 2014). As a result, there is abundant literature showing the existence of aggression by youths of different ages, sexes, countries of origin, and sexual orientations (Esquivel-Santoveña, Lambert, & Hamel, 2013). Victimization in youths’ romantic relationships is more frequent than in adulthood (Puente, Ubillos, Echeburúa, & Páez, 2016) and is associated with physical health problems, mental health issues, and attachment-related anxiety (Yarkowsky & Fritz, 2014), as well as with lower levels of relationship satisfaction and perceived relationship quality (Kaura & Lohman, 2007). These findings, along with the opportunity to intervene in the first stages of violent relationships, justify the need to gather greater knowledge about adolescents and young adults’ romantic relationships (Wekerle & Tanaka, 2010). The instruments used to evaluate violence make an important contribution to the construction of a scientific corpus of knowledge, as we can only find what we ask for (Waltermaurer, 2005). In a recent revision, López-Cepero, Rodríguez-Franco and Rodríguez- Diaz (2015) highlighted two possible obstacles in advancing knowledge of dating violence among Spanish speaking youth: a) a lack of instruments developed in Spanish (most of them being translations of English language instruments); and b) a lack of attention towards youth populations, causing most of the information about youth dating violence to be derived from instruments designed and validated for adults, thus ignoring differences that intimate partner violence may have in adolescent and young couples. These antecedents indicate the pertinence of developing reliable and culturally adapted instruments that allow us broaden our knowledge of the topic in different contexts (Hays & Emelianchik, 2009). To date, at least five instruments have been specifically developed and validated to asses dating violence in adolescents and youths; the CADRI (Conflict in Adolescent Dating Relationships Inventory, developed with Canadian participants by Wolfe et al., 2001); the DVQ (Dating Violence Questionnaire, developed with Spanish, Mexican and Argentinean participants by Rodríguez-Franco et al., 2010); the PDV-Q (Psychological Dating Violence Questionnaire, developed with Spanish participants by Ureña, Romera, Casas, Viejo, & Ortega-Ruiz, 2015); the VADRI (Violence in Adolescents` Dating Relationships Inventory, developed with Spanish-speaking samples from Guatemala, Mexico and Spain by Aizpitarte et al., 2015) and the VIFFA (Violence Faite aux Filles dans le Contexte de Frèquentations à l’Adolescence, developed for a Canadian French-speaking sample by Lavoie & Vèzina, 2001). Two of these instruments (CADRI and DVQ) stand out for their international progress, having more than one validation and being translated to different languages. So far, the CADRI has been validated in Spain (Fernández-Fuertes, Fuertes, & Pulido, 2006) and Mexico (Hokoda et al., 2006), although the structure and number of items varied between versions. On the other hand, DVQ has already been validated in the United States (López- Cepero, Fabelo, Rodríguez-Franco & Rodríguez-Díaz, 2016) and Italy (Presaghi, Manca, Rodríguez-Franco, & Curcio, 2015), keeping the same factorial structure and items as the original across studies. Regarding types of violence assessed, both CADRI, DVQ and VIFFA include physical, sexual, and emotional violence, although only DVQ evaluates coercive control as a separate scale, as recommended by Esquivel-Santoveña et al. (2013). In addition, DVQ is the only questionnaire among those five that include separate measures for both overt (direct) and subtle (indirect) ways of harming (See table 1). In sum, DVQ makes a good election for evaluating adolescents and youths, as well as it provides results that can be added and/or compared to results obtained in different countries and languages. Table 1. Measures of IPV available at each instrument. Physical Psychological/ Emotional Sexual Coercion Overt Subtle Lang CADRI • • • • E, S DVQ • • • • • • E, S, I PDV-Q Violence (global factor) • S VADRI Violence (global factor) • S VIFFA • • • • F Languages: E = English, S = Spanish, I = Italian, F = French Regarding the last census available (Instituto Nacional de Estadísticas, 2014), Chile has a population of over 18 million people, of which near 5 million are between 13 and 29 years old –ages that encompass adolescence and young adulthood for the American Psychological Association. However, little is known of the situation of Chilean adolescents and youths. Among the available antecedents, Lehrer, Lehrer and Zao (2010) estimated that 21% of female university students suffered aggressions from their partners; Vizcarra and Poo (2011), reported that 26% of university students of both sexes suffered physical violence and 56% psychological abuse; and Leal-Soto, Reinoso, Rojas and Romero (2010) estimated physical victimization prevalence of around 20% and psychological victimization of around 38% in a sample of high-school students. These results are coincident in highlighting the existence of violence in young Chileans; however, only Lehrer et al. (2010) applied a commonly used instrument, thus making conclusions hard to compare with previous literature. Given that middle education is mandatory until 18 years old in Chile, and that higher education students have duplicated in the last decade, reaching figures over 1.1 million people (the highest among Latin American countries; Consejo Nacional de Educación, 2016), educative contexts must be attended as a critical ground in both assessing intimate partner violence and developing preventive and/or early intervention programs. In the light of these antecedents, and given the need to adapt and validate instruments for assessing dating violence in Chilean population, the present study has three objectives. First, psychometric proprieties of the adapted version of the DVQ for the Chilean population will be analyzed, verifying the fit of its factorial structure, internal consistency and concurrent validity. Second, it will be verified if the inclusion of new items (DVQ+) improves the internal consistency of two of its scales (emotional punishment and instrumental violence), a need detected in previous studies (Presaghi et al., 2015; Rodríguez-Franco et al., 2010). Third, descriptive results will be provided, measuring the prevalence of dating violence in adolescent and young Chileans. Method Participants Participants in this study were 848 Chilean high-school (64.9%) and university (35.1%) students, aged 14-24 years (M = 17.86, SD = 2.71), 64% female, currently or previously involved in a heterosexual relationship of at least one month of length. 73.1% reported being in a stable relationship (exclusive partner or engaged), compared to 26.9% who reported being in a non-stable relationship (e.g. ‘friends with benefits’). Instruments All participants answered the DVQ and two items regarding fear perception and abuse in the relationship. A subsample of the participants (N = 578), answered two extra measures: an abbreviated version of the Perceived Relationship Quality Component Inventory (PRQC) and the Attachment-Related Anxiety scale of the Experiences in Close Relationships Questionnaire (ECR). Dating Violence Questionnaire. The DVQ (Rodríguez-Franco et al., 2010) is a selfadministered behavioral questionnaire which assesses victimization frequency experienced in couple relationships of at least one month’s duration. It consists of 42 items rated in a 5- point Likert scale from 0 (‘never’) to 4 (‘almost always’). Original validation determined a factorial structure with eight scales (detachment, humiliation, sexual, coercion, physical, gender-based, instrumental, and emotional punishment), with alpha indices between .59 and .82. In the present study, the extended version of the instrument (DVQ +) considered four additional questions, aimed at increasing the number of items present in the two scales which presented alphas <.70 in previous studies (emotional punishment and instrumental violence): ‘Blames you for things you have not done or that are not under your responsibility’ (emotional punishment); ‘Punishes you when he/she considers that you did wrong’ (emotional punishment); ‘Threatens to hurt your pets’ (instrumental violence); and ‘Threatens to harm your friends or family’ (instrumental violence). Also, a single question regarding fear perception in the relationship (‘Are you scared of, or have you felt scared of your partner?’) and another question regarding abuse perception (‘do you feel or have you felt abused in the relationship?’), rated in the same 5-point Likert scale as the DVQ. Both forms of self-labelling have been demonstrated to have a positive relation with the experienced victimization of adolescents and youths (Hamby & Gray-Little, 2000; Heron, Thompson, Jackson, & Kaslow, 2003). The DVQ and self-labeling indicators were reviewed by seven experts, who independently corroborated the adequacy of the items for the Chilean context and carried out proposals to improve the statements. Once the proposals had been unified, the new statements were compared to the Spanish version by one of the authors of the original instrument. Subsequently, the adequacy of items was verified through ten discussion groups, formed of three participants each (N = 30 total participants), of similar age and sex as the target population. The outcome of this process resulted in the addition of clarifications (included in parenthesis) to some of the items to facilitate their comprehension. Once again, these changes were supervised by one of the original authors of the instrument. The final version for Chilean populations is presented in Table 2. Table 2. Chilean Version of DVQ Chilean version English version (López-Cepero et al., 2016) Scale 1 Pone a prueba tu amor, tendiéndote trampas para comprobar si le engañas, le quieres o si le eres fiel. Tests your love, setting traps to find out if you are cheating C 2 Te sientes obligada/o a tener sexo (caricias, tocamientos) con tal de no dar explicaciones de por qué a tu pareja. You feel compelled to have sex as long as you don’t have to explain why S 3 Se burla o ríe de las mujeres u hombres en general (Si es hombre se ríe de las mujeres y si es mujer de los hombres). Mocks women or men in general GB 4 Te ha robado Has stolen from you I 5 Te ha golpeado Has beaten you Ph 6 Es responsable con el estudio, trabajo y amigos, pero llega tarde a vuestras citas, no cumple lo que te promete y se muestra irresponsable Is a good student, but is always late at meetings, does not fulfil his/her promises, and is irresponsible D 7 Te humilla en público Humiliates you in public H 8 Te niega sexo o cariño como forma de mostrar su enfado Refuses to have sex with you or give you affection to express his/her anger/annoyance EP 9 Te habla sobre relaciones que imagina que tienes con otras personas Talks to you about relationships he/she imagines you have C 10 Insiste en tocamientos que no te son agradables y que tú no quieres Insists on touching you in ways and places which you don’t like and don’t want S 11 Piensa o actúa como si los del otro sexo fueran inferiores Believes that the opposite sex is inferior, and says that its members should obey men (or women) GB 12 Te quita cosas importantes (las llaves del auto, de la moto, el celular, el dinero, etc.) Takes car keys or money away from you I 13 Te ha abofeteado, empujado o zamarreado (sacudido) Has slapped your face, pushed or shaken you Ph 14 No reconoce su responsabilidad sobre la relación de pareja, ni sobre lo que les sucede a ambos Does not acknowledge any responsibility regarding the relationship or what happens to both of you D 15 Te critica, subestima o humilla por tu forma de ser Criticizes you, underestimates the way you are, or humiliates your self-esteem H 16 Te niega apoyo, ayuda o afecto como forma de castigarte Refuses to give you support or affection as a punishment EP 17 Amenaza con suicidarse o hacerse daño si lo/la dejas Threatens to commit suicide or hurt himself/herself if you leave him/her C 18 Te ha tratado como un objeto sexual Has treated you as a sexual object S 19 Se ha reído o insultado a las mujeres u hombres como grupo (si es hombre se ha reído o insultado a las mujeres y si es mujer a los hombres) Has ridiculed or insulted women or men as a group GB 20 Ha lanzado objetos peligrosos contra ti Has thrown blunt instruments at you Ph 21 Te ha herido con algún objeto Has hurt you with an object Ph 22 Impone reglas sobre la relación (días, horarios, tipos de salidas) a su conveniencia Imposes rules on the relationship (days, times, types of outings), at his/her exclusive convenience D 23 Se ríe de la forma en que te expresas Ridicules your way of expressing yourself H 24 Amenaza con abandonarte Threatens to abandon you EP 25 Te retiene para que no te vayas Has physically kept you from leaving C 26 Te sientes forzado a realizar determinados comportamientos sexuales (caricias, besos, tocamientos) You feel forced to perform certain sexual acts S 27 Ha bromeado o despreciado tu condición de mujer / hombre Has made fun of or discredited your feminity/masculinity GB 28 Te ha hecho gastar la plata que no tienes Made you go into financial debt I 29 Estropea objetos muy queridos por ti Damages or destroys objects that mean a lot to you Ph 30 Ignora tus sentimientos Has ignored your feelings D 31 Te critica, te insulta o grita Criticizes, insults you, or yells at you H 32 Te deja de hablar o desaparece por varios días, sin dar explicaciones, como manera de demostrar su enojo Stops talking to you or disappears for several days, without any explanation, to show their annoyance D 33 Te manipula con mentiras Manipulates you with lies D 34 No ha tenido en cuenta tus sentimientos sobre el sexo (caricias, tocamientos, etc.) Doesn’t consider your feelings about sex S 35 Sientes que critica injustamente tu sexualidad (conjunto de actividades y comportamientos relacionados con el placer sexual) You feel he/she unjustly criticizes your sexuality GB 36 Te insulta en presencia de amigos o familiares Insults you in the presence of friends or relatives H 37 Se ha negado a ayudarte cuando de verdad lo necesitabas Has refused to help you when you were in real need D 38 Invade tu espacio (escucha la radio muy fuerte cuando estás estudiando, te interrumpe cuando estás solo/a…) o privacidad (lee tus conversaciones de whatsapp, se mete en tu Facebook, etc.) Invades your space (listening to loud music when you are studying, listening your phone calls…) C 39 Te fuerza a desnudarte cuando tú no quieres Forces you to undress even if you don’t want to S 40 Te insulta o se ríe de tus creencias, religión o clase social Has ridiculed or insulted your beliefs, religion or social class H 41 Te ridiculiza o insulta por las ideas que mantienes Ridicules or insults you for the ideas you uphold H 42 Sientes que no puedes discutir con él / ella, porque está casi siempre enojado/a contigo You feel you can’t argue with him/her because he/she is almost always annoyed with you C 43 Te culpa por cosas que no has hecho o que no han sido responsabilidad tuya Blames you for things that you have not done or that are not under your responsibility EP* 44 Te castiga cuando piensa que te has equivocado Punishes you when considers you did wrong EP* 45 Amenaza con hacerle daño a tu mascota Threatens to hurt your pets I* 46 Amenaza con hacerle daño a amigos o familiares tuyos Threatens to harm your friends or family I* Note: D-detachment; H-Humiliation; S-Sexual; C-Coercion; P-Physical; GB-Gender based; EP-Emotional Punishment; I-Instrumental.*New items, not included in English version (López-Cepero et al., 2016). Relationship Quality. The PRQC (Fletcher, Simpson, & Thomas, 2000) is a selfadministered questionnaire that assesses six dimensions of the perceived relationship quality (satisfaction, commitment, intimacy trust, passion, and love). The short version (PRQ-S; Demir, 2008) consists of six items, one for each dimension, obtaining an alpha of .88 in an American sample. The present study included a translated version of the instrument, to be answered on a 5 point Likert scale from 1 (totally disagree) to 5 (totally agree), obtaining and adequate internal consistency (α = .89). Commenting on practical aspects, the DVQ is an expanding instrument, as the dating violence questionnaire for adolescents and youths that has been validated in the greatest number of countries to date (López-Cepero et al., 2015). Furthermore, having a version adapted to Chilean samples allows us to obtain a detailed version of the aggression dynamics experienced by couples at a local level and to compare the findings with results obtained in diverse places around the world. In this regard, is has been corroborated that the relative presence of different forms of aggression in Chilean youths is very similar to the relative presence which has been found in Spanish, Mexican and Argentinean samples (Rodríguez-Franco et al., 2010). These results should be interpreted in at least three aspects: firstly, victimization is present among Chilean youths of both sexes; secondly, it is corroborated that the most evident forms of aggression, such as physical or sexual violence, have a prominently inferior presence when compared to more subtle forms of abuse, such as coercive control or detachment (Rodríguez-Franco et al., 2010); and lastly, even though there is a direct and significant correlation between all proposed measurements, our ability to detect maltreatment (self-labeling as a victim) is far from perfect, constituting an extra barrier for potential victims to seek aid during the first stages of aggression (Rodríguez-Franco et al., 2010). As a whole, these findings indicate the need to develop intervention programs directed towards adolescent and young populations. These programs should first aim to prevent the manifestation of these aggression dynamics, or to hasten the access to specific resources in order to avoid the consolidation of current abuse in relationships (Hays & Emelianchik, 2009; Wekerle & Tanaka, 2010). Logically, the present study presents some weaknesses. Unlike previous validations (López-Cepero et al., 2016; Presaghi, 2015; Rodríguez-Franco et al., 2010), internal consistency of the coercion scale did not reach the established cutoff point (>.70). It may be necessary to revise this aspect in future studies, to know if this finding corresponds to adaptation problems or to divergences in the conceptual construction (‘what is coercion?’) in young Chilean population. Secondly, the DVQ adaptation was conducted in high school and college students as a single group, without controlling for possible differential effects of educational level, ethnic group or context of extraction (rural or urban), which should be included in future investigative efforts. Nevertheless, the study also presents relevant strengths, such as: providing validation of DVQ adapted to adolescent and young Chilean populations; the inclusion of improvements which provide solutions to the psychometric weaknesses present in previous studies; and the higher prevalence of manifestations of subtle forms of aggression compared to the marginal presence of easily recognizable aggressions, similar to previous results. These elements can guide the creation of early intervention programs that better fit the current needs of Chilean adolescents and youths thus providing early and adapted responses to the current and potential risks that they face in their relationships. 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