Study of interior hygrometry profiles for the hygrothermal assessment of social housing envelopes in humid temperate climates

Journal of Building Engineering 103 (2025) 112031 Available online 10 February 2025 2352-7102/© 2025 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/). Study of interior hygrometry profiles for the hygrothermal assessment of social housing envelopes in humid temperate climates Roberto Arriagada-Bustos a , Ariel Bobadilla-Moreno a , Carlos Rubio-Bellido b,* , Alexis P´ erez-Fargallo c a Center for Research on Construction Technologies, University of Bio-Bio, Chile b Department of Architectural Constructions II, University of Seville, Spain c Escuela de Arquitectura, Facultad de Ingeniería, Arquitectura y Dise˜ no, Universidad San Sebasti´ an, Lientur 1457, Concepci´ on, 4081339, Chile ARTICLE INFO Keywords: hygrothermal performance Humidity and mold Relative humidity Residential buildings Monitoring ABSTRACT The building sector has focused on energy efficiency to promote sustainable development. However, incorporating energy efficiency measures in buildings usually affects their hygrothermal performance and can cause condensation and mold growth in their envelopes. These phenomena are related to the indoor climate, the enclosure setup, and the outdoor climate, so properly characterizing these parameters is fundamental for making hygrothermal assessments. From this perspective, the indoor climate is usually defined based on hygrometry classes or profiles, such as those in the ISO13788, EN15026, WTA, and DIN4108 standards. These standards have different limit values that seek to reflect the practices and cultures of use for buildings. The novelty of this research is to make new indoor hygrometry profiles based on post-occupational measurements. The indoor and outdoor humidity and temperature of 67 social housing units were monitored to build the new indoor hygrometry profiles, with 74,440 indoor and 4089 outdoor records. The excess indoor humidity was determined from these parameters, and the distribution of indoor variables using the outdoor temperature was analyzed. Subsequently, three types of new indoor hygrometry profiles were made that link outdoor temperature to excess indoor humidity, indoor relative humidity, and indoor air temperature. To test the new profiles, a comparative analysis of the hygrothermal performance of a built element was made using the WUFI Pro 6.4 software (168 simulations), considering the profiles of the ISO13788 standard and those developed in this study. The results show indoor environmental conditions are outside commonly accepted comfort ranges or more critical conditions from the hygrothermal point of view, with mean temperatures of 17 ◦C and relative humidities exceeding 80 % during 33.1 % of the monitored timespan. The results also show that the profiles developed in this study are more rigorous and properly reflect the indoor climate of the studied homes than the international standards commonly used. This research paves the way for new specific studies in similar climate conditions. * Corresponding author. E-mail addresses: [email protected] (R. Arriagada-Bustos), [email protected] (A. Bobadilla-Moreno), [email protected] (C. Rubio-Bellido), [email protected] (A. P´ erez-Fargallo). Contents lists available at ScienceDirect Journal of Building Engineering journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jobe https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jobe.2025.112031 Received 24 November 2023; Received in revised form 21 January 2025; Accepted 3 February 2025 Journal of Building Engineering 103 (2025) 112031 2 1. Introduction A global need for sustainable development has prompted several countries to adopt control measures that guarantee the integration of this concept in buildings [1,2]. Energy efficiency has been a priority, and new regulations and standards have been implemented with specific objectives associated with reducing buildings’energy demand or consumption [3–5]. In some cases, higher thermal insulation and hermeticity standards incorporated in European buildings have generated a hygrothermal imbalance, causing condensation phenomena that affect habitability [6–8]. In this sense, a reliable prediction of hygrothermal conditions and mold risk is vital to ensure a healthy environment and avoid building damage [9,10]. Currently, there are different methods and tools to evaluate the hygrothermal performance of building envelope elements, which consider different heat and mass transfer phenomena. Two methodologies are distinguished: simplified methods (steady-state/Glaser), which are described in the ISO 13788 standard, and numerical simulation methods (transient models/WUFI), which are described and regulated by the EN 15026 standard [11,12]. In general terms, the Glaser method only considers steady-state heat conduction and vapor diffusion, while the transient models also take into account heat storage and moisture, the effects of latent heat, and the transport of liquid and convection under realistic initial and limit conditions [13,14]. Regardless of the method used, a series of parameters and boundary conditions must be defined to perform a hygrothermal assessment, namely the number of layers the built element has, the physical properties of materials, and the indoor and outdoor climate, among others [15–17]. Other factors linked to the use of space, such as ventilation, energy poverty, and overcrowding, are also determining factors in the results [18]. Today, there are different alternatives to define the indoor climate depending on the standard, methodology, and/or calculation tool used. The ISO 13788 standard establishes that indoor temperature and relative humidity values should be used considering the intended use of the building [13]. Indoor relative humidity can be obtained from excess indoor vapor pressure (Δp), which, in turn, can be obtained from indoor excess moisture (Δv). Appendix A in the standard establishes two mechanisms to obtain indoor climate conditions, one for continental and tropical climatology and another for maritime climatology. For continental and tropical climatology, simplified approximations based on the outdoor air temperature (daily average) are used, from which the temperature and humidity of air-conditioned buildings (only in homes and offices) can be determined (See Fig. 1). For maritime climatology, it establishes five indoor hygrometry classes defined according to the outdoor temperature (monthly average), from which the indoor excess moisture and pressure are determined (Δv and Δp). The standard establishes one hygrometry class per building type and recommends using the upper limit of each class for calculations unless the designer can demonstrate that the conditions are less severe (See Fig. 2). On the other hand, it establishes that measured data can be used to obtain the values applicable in other climates since the data used to establish the hygrometry classes are for buildings in Western Europe. The EN 15026 standard recommends using the appropriate indoor conditions for the most severe probable use of the building, for which it establishes three alternatives [14]. First: using values measured for similar buildings in a similar climate or values established by specified air conditioning systems; Second: results of buildings’hygrothermal simulations; and third: specifications of moisture production and ventilation rates and calculation of indoor conditions based on moisture production specifications and ventilation rates. It uses the same criteria defined in the ISO 13788 standard to establish the indoor moisture and temperature. However, in the case of Chile, temperature and humidity differences from these standards have been observed in social housing. These are mainly linked to energy vulnerability situations [19,20]. 1.1. Moisture production, indoor hygrometry, and mold exposure Predicting mold growth during the design stage in facade construction is essential to prevent financial losses and ensure a healthy and comfortable indoor environment. For this reason, several authors have made studies where the hygrothermal performance of conventional or innovative construction elements is evaluated using indoor climate parameters established by default in standards or simulation software [21–23] and, in others, by using indoor climate parameters measured at a laboratory level to calibrate their models [24–28], evidencing differences in hygrothermal behavior when the parameters used to make the analyses have an Fig. 1. Indoor profiles for Continental and Tropical Climatology (a) Indoor Temperature/Outdoor Temperature profile. (b) Indoor Relative Humidity/Outdoor Temperature profiles. Source: EN13788 [13]. R. Arriagada-Bustos et al. Journal of Building Engineering 103 (2025) 112031 3 experimental basis. Kempton et al. [29] evaluated the effectiveness of hygrothermal remediation measures for different residential complexes, monitoring five homes, detecting that the indoor relative humidities were above 80 % for between 7 % and 45 % of the time, a scenario not foreseen when making previous assessments of remediation solutions using the methodologies defined in the BS5250, ISO13788, CIBSE Guide A, and ASHRAE 160 standards and technical documents. They raised the need to investigate further the interactions of occupant behavior and the indoor environment and how to use these parameters to estimate the risk of mold appearance. This has also been seen in other situations where low-cost housing uses lightweight construction solutions in small volumes that, added to humidity levels above 80 % up to 12.3 h a day, generate a high risk for cumulative mold growth [30]. Sharpe et al. [31] establish that energy poverty in social housing is a risk factor for increased exposure to damp and mold conditions. This has also been seen in Chile, where indoor temperatures in low-cost housing can be 14 ◦C [19]. Du et al. [32] conducted a literature review related to the building environment and mold exposure in building interiors, establishing that the appearance of mold is closely tied to indoor relative humidity, the materiality of the enclosures (substrate), exposure time, and outdoor climate. Regarding the outdoor climate, they explain that the risks are more significant when buildings are located in an area with a hot and humid climate and high rainfall. On the other hand, they suggest that energy efficiency measures, both in new and existing buildings, could have a secondary effect that would affect the hygrothermal performance of indoor environments, favoring mold growth. Recart et al. [33], when reviewing the impacts of implementing energy efficiency measures in residential buildings, established that, from the hygrothermal point of view, the envelopes might suffer higher levels of humidity, greater risks of condensation and, ultimately, more favorable conditions for the growth of mold. In turn, they concluded that the indoor environment is affected most due to the higher levels of thermal insulation and airtightness. Chile was the first country in Latin America to incorporate Energy Efficiency (EE) concepts into its standards. It has improved the thermal insulation levels of envelopes in residential buildings with the same objectives set at a European level [33–35]. However, these standards do not focus on or prioritize measures regarding specific energy-related social contexts, such as social housing. In fact, it has been found that vulnerable households in south-central Chile maintain very low temperatures during the winter and that their inhabitants are unable to maintain adequate temperatures [36], which would suggest that they are looking for other strategies to withstand environmental conditions and also that they are more exposed to health problems. On the other hand, it has been observed that a better thermal standard will not always be associated with environmental conditions that guarantee healthiness and environmental ergonomics [37]. In particular, with regard to condensation problems, it has been observed that they are unchanged in social housing in south-central Chile [38]. From 1964 to 2015, the Chilean Government gave out 3,671,646 subsidies for social housing [36]. The current Emergency Habitational Plan 2022–2025 (PEH, in Spanish), which was generated to address the housing shortage in Chile, aims to hand over 260,000 dwellings with progress to March 2024, standing at 44.1 % [39]. However, much of the housing handed over previously has had serious humidity-associated pathologies, which has meant there is interest in developing standards that avoid condensation problems and, consequently, the pathologies associated with humidity (mold). The PEH 2022–2025, among its governing principles, just as in other international-level policies, looks to foster territorially pertinent sustainable plans and projects that promote environmental care and improve people’s living and health conditions. Despite this, no hygrothermal profiles for the indoor environment of social housing with vulnerable families have been developed at a domestic or international level that allows mold growth to be evaluated in construction solutions. For this reason, this research aims to analyze post-occupational monitored information on the temperature and humidity conditions, both indoors and outdoors, in social housing located in a humid template climate. Secondly, this analysis will generate indoor hygrothermal profiles that assess the behavior of construction elements and mold generation. 2. Methodology To build the indoor hygrometry profiles, the humidity and indoor and outdoor temperature of 67 social housing units were monitored with 74,440 records per variable. The indoor excess moisture was determined from these parameters, and the distribution of indoor variables based on outdoor temperature was analyzed. Subsequently, three types of indoor hygrometry profiles were made that tie Outdoor Temperature to Indoor Excess Moisture, Indoor Relative Humidity, and Indoor Temperature. Finally, a comparative analysis of the hygrothermal performance of a built element was carried out using the WUFI Pro 6.4 software (168 simulations), Fig. 2. Indoor Excess Moisture profile and hygrometry classes recommended considering the use for Maritime climatology. Source: EN13788. R. Arriagada-Bustos et al. Journal of Building Engineering 103 (2025) 112031 4 considering the excess moisture profiles of the ISO13788 standard and those developed in this study with the monitoring records. 2.1. Case studies This macro-study was carried out using six monitoring campaigns performed by the Center for Research on Construction Technologies of the University of Bio-Bio, Chile (CITECUBB, in Spanish) between 2015 and 2019 in 6 residential social housing complexes. According to the 2017 Census, housing complexes represent 20 % of urban housing in Chile. Information was collected from a total of 67 homes/apartments located in the cities of Talcahuano, Hualp´ en, and Coronel in the Province of Biobío, Chile, an area characterized by having a warm temperate climate with winter rains and high atmospheric humidity, Csbn according to the Koppen climate classification. Fig. 3 shows the location of the different buildings and their immediate surroundings. All the residential complexes were built after the 2010 earthquake and complied with the Thermal Conditioning requirements established in the General Ordinance of Urbanism and Construction at that date. Their vertical enclosures consisted mainly of Concrete, Masonry, and Wood. According to the 2019 building yearbook of the Chilean National Institute of Statistics [40], these materials were used in more than 87 % of the homes with new building permits. 2.2. Monitoring of indoor and outdoor climate parameters For this study, the database was consolidated by monitoring indoor and outdoor ambient temperature and humidity parameters. These parameters were recorded in the dwellings in the context of diverse technical hygrothermal studies, considering measurement periods spanning June to October, which are considered favorable for hygrothermal analysis in the southern hemisphere. The monitoring of the outdoor climate parameters was made using a DAVIS weather station (Model: Vantage Pro2 (Precision: RH ±2 %; Temperature 1 ◦F; RH ranges: 1–100 %; Temperature −40 a +150 ◦F), which was installed in an open area on the respective residential complex’s or building’s roof, 1.8 m from roof level, recording data (temperature, relative humidity, rainfall, wind speed and direction, among others) every 15 min throughout the monitoring period. For this study, only the outdoor relative humidity and temperature were considered. The indoor climate of the dwellings/apartments was monitored in 2 rooms: a living-dining room and a bedroom. In both rooms, this was done at a height of 1.1 m from the ground so that it would not interfere with the residents’daily routine [41]. The records were obtained simultaneously using data loggers (HOBO U12-013) (Precision: RH ±2.5 %; Temperature 0.35 ◦C; RH ranges: 5–95 %; Temperature −20 a +70 ◦C) every 15 or 30 min, depending on the residential complex, for one week. In some complexes, the monitoring was carried out in two periods due to the number of homes evaluated and equipment availability. The dataloggers were installed 1.5 m from the finished floor and attached to one of the walls of the monitored rooms, ensuring they Fig. 3. The location of the complexes monitored and their immediate surroundings. R. Arriagada-Bustos et al. Journal of Building Engineering 103 (2025) 112031 5 Table 1 Summarizes the main characteristics of the housing units in the different residential complexes. Characteristics of the Residential Complexes Complex Type Floors Housing units Locality 1 Buildings 4 and 5 400 Talcahuano 2 Buildings 4 and 5 1.032 Talcahuano 3 Buildings 4 and 5 400 Hualp´ en 4 Houses 1 and 2 158 Coronel 5 Houses 1 and 2 87 Coronel 6 Buildings 2 150 Coronel Characteristics of housing units Complex Surface area (m2) N◦of Beds. Envelope Wall Material Monit. Unit 1 57 3 Concrete +Indoor Thermal Coating 5 2 57 3 Concrete +Indoor Thermal Coating 13 3 56 3 Concrete +Indoor Thermal Coating 5 4 57–89 1–3 Aerated Concrete Block Masonry/Wooden Partition Wall 14 5 67–68 3 Brick masonry - Wooden partition wall 10 6 56 3 Exact Walls (Concrete +Expanded Polystyrene (EPS)) 20 Monitoring periods Complex Period 1 01-06-2015/08-06-2015 2 23-09-2015/30-09-2015 3 31-08-2015/07-09-2015 4 29-09-2017/06-10-2017_06-10-2017/13-10-2017 5 20-08-2018/26-08-2018_27-08-2018/02-09-2018 6 09-09-2019/16-09-2019 Ventilation systems 1 Passive ventilation in dry premises is achieved by opening windows and using latticework in the kitchen and bathroom. 2 Passive ventilation in dry premises is achieved by opening windows and using latticework in the kitchen and bathroom. 3 Passive ventilation in dry premises is achieved by opening windows and using latticework in the kitchen. Mechanical ventilation is used in the bathroom, and discharge is done using a shaft. 4 Passive ventilation in dry premises is achieved by opening windows and using latticework in the kitchen and bathroom. 5 Passive ventilation in dry premises is achieved by opening windows and using latticework in the kitchen and bathroom. 6 Passive ventilation is achieved by opening windows in dry premises and through latticework in moist premises. Images of Residential Complexes (continued on next page) R. Arriagada-Bustos et al. Journal of Building Engineering 103 (2025) 112031 6 Table 1 (continued) Characteristics of the Residential Complexes Complex Type Floors Housing units Locality Images of Hygrothermal Pathologies in Residential Complexes Source: Preparation by the authors with information provided by CITECUBB R. Arriagada-Bustos et al. Journal of Building Engineering 103 (2025) 112031 7 were not affected by direct solar radiation, heat sources, and internal/external air flows. 2.3. Definition of indoor hygrometry profiles The indoor and outdoor temperature and relative humidity records collected by CITECUBB were processed, filtered, and consolidated into a database. The indoor excess moisture, calculated using the formulas defined in Appendix E of the UNE EN ISO13788 standard [13], is included in this database. As a first step, the procedure considered calculating the indoor and outdoor air’s water vapor saturation pressure (Рsat), expressed in Pascals (Pa). This calculation was made from the air temperatures (θ) recorded in each case, using equation (E1) if the temperature was greater than or equal to 0 ◦C or equation (E2) if the temperature was less than 0 ◦C. For the case of the indoor Psat, the indoor air temperature is considered, and, for the case of the outdoor Psat, the outdoor air temperature. Psat =610.5e17.269 θ 237.3+θfor θ≥0◦C (E1) Psat =610.5e21.875 θ 265.5+θfor θ<0◦C (E2) As a second step, the indoor and outdoor air’s water vapor pressure was calculated (Р), expressed in Pascals (Pa). This calculation was made by multiplying the air’s water vapor saturation pressure (Psat), expressed in Pa, by its respective relative humidity (φ), expressed in %, using equation (E3). For the case of the indoor P, the Psat and the relative humidity of the indoor air are considered. For the case of the outdoor P, the Psat and the relative humidity of the outdoor air are considered, respectively. P=Psat φ 100 (E3) As a third step, the indoor and outdoor air humidity by volume was calculated ( ν ), expressed in kilograms per cubic meter (kg/m 3 ). This calculation was made by dividing the air’s water vapor pressure (P), expressed in Pa, by the air temperature (T), expressed in degrees Kelvin (K), and the gas constant for water (R ν ), whose value is 462 [Pa m 3 /(K kg)], using equation (E4). For the indoor ν , the P and the indoor air temperature are considered, and for the outside ν , the P and the outside air temperature are considered, respectively. ν =P T Rv (E4) Finally, the indoor excess moisture (Δ ν ), expressed in kilograms per cubic meter (kg/m 3 ), is defined by calculating the difference Table 2 Characteristics of the constructive solution. Constructive element, from outdoor to indoor: C1: Plaster, density 2000 kg/m 3 , thermal conductivity 1.2 W/mK C2: Concrete, density 2300 kg/m 3 , thermal conductivity 1.6 W/mK C3: Air layer, density 1.3 kg/m 3 , thermal conductivity 0.071 W/mK C4: EPS, density 15 kg/m 3 , thermal conductivity 0.04 W/mK C5: Plasterboard, density 850 kg/m 3 , thermal conductivity 0.2 W/mK Source: Prepared by the authors. Table 3 Indoor climate conditions. Condition Designation Excess moisture profile Indoor temperature 1 HC 1 Hygrometry Class 1, ISO13788 20 ◦C, WUFI(ISO13788) 2 HC 2 Hygrometry Class 2, ISO13788 20 ◦C, WUFI(ISO13788) 3 HC 3 Hygrometry Class 3, ISO13788 20 ◦C, WUFI(ISO13788) 4 HC 4 Hygrometry Class 4, ISO13788 20 ◦C, WUFI(ISO13788) 5 HC 5 Hygrometry Class 5, ISO13788 20 ◦C, WUFI(ISO13788) 6 P1A1 Hygrometry Class Upper B, Measurements 22 ◦C (Measurements) 7 P1A1 Hygrometry Class Upper B, Measurements 17 ◦C (Measurements) 8 P1A1 Hygrometry Class Upper B, Measurements 13 ◦C (Measurements) 9 P1A2 Hygrometry Class 3rd Quartile, Measurements 22 ◦C (Measurements) 10 P1A2 Hygrometry Class 3rd Quartile, Measurements 17 ◦C (Measurements) 11 P1A2 Hygrometry Class 3rd Quartile, Measurements 13 ◦C (Measurements) 12 P1A3 Hygrometry Class Medians, Measurements 22 ◦C (Measurements) 13 P1A3 Hygrometry Class Medians, Measurements 17 ◦C (Measurements) 14 P1A3 Hygrometry Class Medians, Measurements 13 ◦C (Measurements) R. Arriagada-Bustos et al. Journal of Building Engineering 103 (2025) 112031 8 between the air humidity by indoor volume (i ν ) and the air humidity by external volume(e ν ), using equation (E5). Δ ν =iv −ev (E5) The indoor hygrometry profiles are built from the consolidated database prepared, taking as reference the profiles defined in the UNE-EN ISO13788 and EN15026 standards and the WUFI Pro 6.4 software for the variables being considered [13,14,42]. The data are compared to materialize three types of profiles: Indoor excess moisture versus outdoor air temperature, indoor air relative humidity versus outdoor air temperature, and indoor air temperature versus outdoor air temperature. Descriptive statistical techniques were used to identify distributions, trends, and statistical indicators of the different records and main parameters used to prepare the profiles (Indoor excess moisture, Indoor relative humidity, and Indoor temperature). The records of the indoor parameters of the consolidated database were reprocessed and sorted considering the outdoor temperature, which, in turn, was rounded to a whole number. Box and whisker diagrams were made to observe symmetries, identify atypical points, and compare distributions. From the box and whisker diagrams, scatter plots were made for the upper whisker, third quartile, median, first quartile, and lower whisker to establish different profile scenarios. The trend equations were obtained from these graphs, defining the main points with which the profiles were made. On the other hand, the respective R 2 -values of the trend equations associated with the different scenarios were obtained from the scatter plots. These different scenarios within the same type of profile were developed to identify the profile that generates the most unfavorable indoor condition, as recommended in the UNE-EN ISO 13788 and EN15026 standards. 2.4. Evaluation of the hygrothermal performance of a vertical enclosure An analysis of the hygrothermal behavior of a vertical perimeter enclosure is made using the WUFI Pro 6.4 software to analyze the effect of different types of profiles on its hygrothermal performance. For this assessment and to define the indoor relative humidity, 8 profiles of the Indoor excess moisture versus outdoor air temperature type are considered: the 5 established in the UNE-EN ISO13788 standard and the 3 profiles of this type defined from the data measured in the different residential complexes. As for the indoor temperature, the WUFI Pro default temperature of 20 ◦C is considered for the profiles of the UNE-EN ISO13788 standard, along with the 3 different temperatures for each of the profiles defined based on the actual measurements. These are 22 ◦C, which represents the average value of the upper whiskers of the indoor temperatures versus the outdoor temperature; 17 ◦C, which represents the average value of the indoor temperature medians versus the outdoor temperature; and 13 ◦C, which represents the average value of the indoor temperature lower whiskers versus the outdoor temperature. The vertical enclosure assessed was one of the perimeter wall solutions in one of the monitored residential complexes in the city of Talcahuano. The enclosure comprised reinforced concrete coated externally with mortar plaster and internally with a thermal coating based on expanded polystyrene and plasterboard. The indoor thermal coating was attached to the concrete wall using 10 mm thick adhesive spots. In the hygrothermal assessment, the section that has an air chamber was analyzed. The main characteristics of the constructive solution assessed are shown in Table 2. The following are considered for the hygrothermal assessment: 4 orientations (N-S-E-W), 3 evaluation periods (1 year, 2 years, and 3 years), outdoor climate data obtained with Meteonorm 8.0 software (hourly parameters for Talcahuano-Chile) [43], material properties of the WUFI software database, element inclination of 90◦, small building height (up to 10m), relative humidity and initial temperature of the component of 80 % and 20 ◦C respectively, 14 indoor climate conditions according to those specified in Table 3. A total of 168 simulations were made. The construction solution evaluation process considered the following general steps: a) definition of the component or solution being assessed, where all the layers in the construction solution must be included, specifying their materiality and thickness; defining the orientation, inclination, and height of the element being assessed; defining the physical properties of the outdoor and indoor surface considering the materials used and type of element; establishing the initial conditions of the element, regarding its temperature and humidity; b) establishing the control parameters, defining the evaluation period (start and end date), the type of calculation, the special hygrothermal conditions, the numerical parameters, and geometry (cartesian or radial symmetry); c) establishing the climate by defining the outdoor and indoor climate. For the outdoor climate, the WUFI software provides different options. For this study, this is established by considering the Meteonorm climate file. Different climate profiles are loaded for the indoor climate, namely those of ISO13788 and those made using the monitoring date, through the table option. Finally, the calculation process through which the Table 4 Outdoor Relative Humidity and Temperatures (minimum, maximum, and average) by residential complex. Parameter Residential Complex CR1 CR2 CR3 CR4 CR5 CR6 Monitoring Period (See Table 1)11112121 Minimum outdoor T (◦C) 11.6 9.7 8.3 8.3 4.3 2.8 6.1 2.6 Maximum outdoor T (◦C) 17.6 16.9 20.8 19.5 24.3 17.6 15.1 17.2 Average outdoor T (◦C) 14.1 12.1 13.7 12.8 13.0 10.0 11.8 10.6 Minimum outdoor RH (%) 71.0 70.0 47.5 59.9 45.6 46.0 45.9 51.0 Maximum outdoor RH (%) 98.0 97.0 91.9 96.7 92.4 93.0 92.8 89.0 Average outdoor RH (%) 94.8 87.3 76.9 85.8 73.4 82.5 82.5 76.7 R. Arriagada-Bustos et al. Journal of Building Engineering 103 (2025) 112031 9 Table 5 Indoor Temperature, Relative Humidity, and Excess Moisture by residential complex. Parameter Residential Complex CR1 CR2 CR3 CR4 CR5 CR6 Period 1 1 1 1 2 1 2 1 Room E D E D E D E D E D E D E D E D Indoor air Temperature Min T. (◦C) 15.5 13.2 14.3 8.3 14.3 11.1 12.5 12.7 12.4 11.9 11.1 7.8 13.5 14.6 12.0 10.0 Max. T (◦C) 23.2 24.1 24.1 26.8 24.1 21.1 24.6 25.0 27.0 22.2 28.3 24.3 20.5 23.7 28.1 22.9 Average T (◦C) 17.4 17.2 17.1 17.1 17.1 17.1 16.3 16.8 18.0 18.0 16.2 15.5 16.4 17.3 17.4 17.1 % of time when T ≥20 ◦C 3.3 2.5 3.6 5.6 2.0 6.5 5.7 4.0 18.9 7.0 17.2 6.4 2.8 2.5 12.9 4.0 % of time when T <20 ◦C 96.7 97.5 96.4 94.4 98.0 93.5 94.3 96.0 81.1 93.0 82.8 93.6 97.2 97.5 87.1 96.0 % of time when T ≤19 ◦C 92.1 93.3 91.3 88.5 85.9 80.8 91.1 92.8 67.3 66.8 79.9 89.6 86.6 89.3 78.6 85.6 % of time when T ≤18 ◦C 75.6 78.8 78.6 78.5 67.0 65.1 86.1 83.6 51.4 40.6 76.9 80.6 74.3 73.7 65.5 68.3 % of time when T ≤17 ◦C 43.8 50.3 51.7 52.5 43.2 50.9 76.1 58.3 39.2 24.8 72.2 69.7 62.9 41.2 49.4 48.1 Indoor relative humidity Min. indoor RH (%) 69.1 6709 57.7 60.6 49.4 46.7 54.7 57.8 43.6 50.8 40.1 47.9 63.5 61.2 40.6 51.0 Max. indoor RH (%) 99.0 94.1 96.0 94.6 91.5 91.2 95.4 94.3 87.6 85.0 84.2 85.9 83.8 82.2 99.7 100 Average indoor RH (%) 85.1 82.2 78.7 81.5 75.1 77.8 76.6 78.8 64.3 68.9 65.0 68.3 73.2 73.2 70.3 74.2 % of time when the RH ≤70 % 0.1 2.0 10.9 1.0 18.9 13.6 14.6 7.6 73.1 54.7 62.8 54.4 19.5 37.4 46.6 33.0 % of time when the RH >70 % 99.9 98.0 89.1 99.0 81.1 86.4 85.4 92.4 26.9 45.3 37.2 45.6 80.5 62.6 53.4 67.0 % of time when the RH >75 % 97.7 78.4 70.0 83.0 53.9 61.2 62.3 75.4 2.8 8.7 15.5 24.4 29.6 46.0 26.9 44.1 % of time when the RH >80 % 85.9 68.5 45.8 61.7 23.6 45.0 33.6 44.3 0.2 0.3 1.3 6.5 4.6 5.1 10.5 28.6 % of time when the RH >85 % 51.8 39.5 19.2 27.8 5.5 22.6 7.3 14.4 0.1 0.0 0.0 0.3 0.0 0.0 3.2 15.6 Indoor Excess Moisture Min. Excess Moisture (g/m3) 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Max. Excess Moisture (g/m3) 4 5 7 7 6 6 6 6 5 7 5 6 4 5 11 11 Average Excess Moisture (g/m3) 1 1 2 3 2 2 1 2 2 2 1 1 1 2 3 3 R. Arriagada-Bustos et al. Journal of Building Engineering 103 (2025) 112031 16 5. Conclusions In this article, a study of the indoor and outdoor climatic conditions of social housing located in humid temperate climates, specifically in cities of the Province of Concepci´ on, Chile, was carried out. The temperature and relative humidity parameters of 67 dwellings were analyzed, and the excesses of indoor moisture for each were calculated. Different interior hygrometry profiles were built from these parameters, and a comparative analysis was made against those available in international standards. Finally, 168 hygrothermal simulations of a type of vertical enclosure were performed to analyze the impact of the different profile alternatives on its hygrothermal performance. The monitoring records show the indoor environmental conditions outside the commonly accepted comfort ranges or more critical conditions from the hygrothermal point of view. Between 24.8 and 76.1 % of the time, the indoor temperature remained equal to or lower than 17 ◦C. The indoor relative humidity was high, and 33.1 % of the time remained above 80 %, reaching maximum values that varied between 88.2 and 100 %. By comparing the indoor climate parameters with those of the outdoor climate, it was determined that the maximum indoor excess moisture fluctuated between 4gr/m 3 and 11gr/m 3 . 3 types of interior hygrometry profiles were made, and for each, 3 alternatives were defined using descriptive statistics and box and whisker diagrams. All the profiles created have limit values different from those available in the standards for hygrothermal analysis and design ISO13788, EN15026, WTA, and DIN4108. The first type of profile compared the Indoor Excess Moisture with the Outdoor Temperature, establishing the upper limits of each of the alternatives at 11 g/m 3 (0.011 kg/m 3 ), 7 g/m 3 (0.007 kg/m 3 ), and 5 g/ m 3 (0.005 kg/m 3 ), all with a lower limit of 0 g/m 3 (0.000 kg/m 3 ). The second compares the Indoor Relative Humidity to the Outdoor Temperature, where the limit values for each of the alternatives were 57–100 %, 52–85 %, and 48–79 %. The third compares the Indoor Temperature to the Outdoor Temperature, where the limit values for each of the alternatives were 3–18 ◦C, 13–18 ◦C, and 15–18 ◦C. The hygrothermal simulations showed that the excess moisture profile built from the values of the upper whiskers of the box diagram "excess moisture/outdoor temperature" is the profile that generates the most critical hygrothermal conditions, incorporating a greater amount of total water to the constructive solution, a greater amount of water to the materials of the indoor thermal coating, and a higher surface humidity (83.0–96.5 %). The hygrometry class 5 profile of the ISO13788 standard, the most unfavorable standard, generates less critical conditions than the profile described above. Hygrothermal simulations require basic entries such as location, orientation, climate, and construction. However, hygrothermal modeling is not difficult. The interactions between the macro-level entries (indoor and outdoor climate) and the characteristics of the materials mean that the hygrothermal performance prediction is very variable. This variability could lead to an unsuitable prediction of the risk related to humidity in the construction elements. However, knowledge of realistic humidity and temperature profiles can help to reduce variability and improve the accuracy of the results. The current profiles in the ISO13788, EN15026, WTA, and DIN4108 standards fail to properly reflect the severity of the indoor climate in the studied homes. This can lead to errors from the hygrothermal perspective, where designs could be accepted that, in reality, could have moisture shortcomings due to condensation and mold formation. The following are considered as the limitations of the study: The construction of the profiles was made based on monitoring environmental variables of a significant but limited number of social housing units (67); the location of the housing is only in 3 localities; and the measurement and registration of environmental variables was only one week in each housing complex, which was also done in different periods, which could modify the profiles made. Another limitation is associated with the hygrothermal assessment, as an outdoor climate generated through the Meteonorm software was used for this. In addition, the physical properties of materials from the WUFI Pro databases were used, aspects that can influence the hygrothermal performance of the assessed element. From the study carried out, the following future research is visualized. From the perspective of social housing, to analyze how incorporating a more significant number of dwellings with other typologies and other locations has an impact. Also, analyzing and/or developing indoor hygrometry profiles for private housing would allow the comparative analysis of aspects such as the existence or not of heating and/or cooling systems, forms of use (levels of moisture generation) and occupancy, thermal protection, surface/volume of buildings, ventilation, airtightness, or others. On the other hand, research associated with creating climatic databases and local materials for hygrothermal analysis. Ultimately, public policies for social housing in a humid template climate must consider that using real data in hygrothermal simulation shows the high probability of mold generation linked to energy and social vulnerability, which generates low temperatures and high indoor moisture. In this sense, the development of energy efficiency standards and energy policies for social housing that improve indoor environmental quality and reduce the risk of mold appearance is essential. CRediT authorship contribution statement Roberto Arriagada-Bustos: Writing –review &editing, Writing –original draft, Visualization, Software, Methodology, Data curation, Conceptualization. Ariel Bobadilla-Moreno: Writing –review &editing, Methodology, Conceptualization. Carlos RubioBellido: Writing –review &editing, Conceptualization. Alexis P´ erez-Fargallo: Writing –review &editing, Visualization, Formal analysis. Financing "This research did not receive external funding." R. Arriagada-Bustos et al. Journal of Building Engineering 103 (2025) 112031 17 Declaration of competing interest The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper. Acknowledgments We are grateful to the University of Bío–Bío, Chile, and the University of Seville, Spain, for their support in the doctoral co-tutelage fellowship of the lead author, period when this article was written. On the other hand, to the Center for Research on Construction Technologies of the University of Bío-Bío, Chile, CITECUBB, for providing the technical information related to the environmental monitoring processes of residential complexes. This work is a product of the collaboration with Iberoamerican networks: Thematic Network 722RT0135 “Red Iberoamericana de Pobreza Energ´ etica y Bienestar Ambiental (RIPEBA)”. This study was funded by the Spanish Ministry of Science and Innovation, under the research project PID2021-122437OA-I00 ‘‘Positive Energy Buildings Potential for Climate Change Adaptation and Energy Poverty Mitigation (+ENERPOT)”. Data availability No data was used for the research described in the article. 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