A controversial legacy from the Romantic period. Al-Andalus echoes in films featuring tourists (1905-1975)

Culture & History Digital Journal 13 (2) December 2024, 254 eISSN: 2253-797X doi: https://doi.org/10.3989/chdj.2024.254 A controversial legacy from the Romantic period. Al-Andalus echoes in films featuring tourists (1905-1975) Alfonso Fernández-Tabales Instituto Andaluz de Investigación e Innovación en Turismo (IATUR, Universidad de Sevilla) e-mail: a[email protected] ORCID iD: https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3330-2286 Maria C. Puche-Ruiz Instituto Andaluz de Investigación e Innovación en Turismo (IATUR, Universidad de Sevilla) e-mail: m[email protected] ORCID iD: https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3689-0183 Submitted: 2023-06-22. Accepted: 2024-01-31. Published: 2025-02-07. ABSTRACT: The central theme of the article is the role of the image of Al-Andalus in shaping the archetypes of Spain and Andalusia, and more specifically in the tourist image of the latter. Thus, the main objective of this article is to show the historical process through which the idea of and the features associated with Al-Andalus have become one of the components of the tourist image of Spain and, fundamentally, of Andalusia throughout most of the 20th century. Furthermore, the secondary objectives are to analyse the intense debate, running since the beginning of the 19th century, about the image of Al-Andalus among Spanish intellectuals; and analyse the (re) production of “phantom image” linked to Al-Andalus in films with tourists, using a qualitative method of film image analysis that can be considered novel (Grounded Theory built through visual analysis with NVivo software). KEYWORDS: Al-Andalus; Spanish archetypes; cinema; 20th century; qualitative image analysis; orientalism. Citation / Cómo citar este artículo: Fernández-Tabales, Alfonso and Puche-Ruiz, Maria C. (2024) “A controversial legacy from the Romantic period. Al-Andalus echoes in films featuring tourists (1905-1975).” C ulture & H istory Digital Journal, 13 (2): 254. doi: https://doi.org/10.3989/chdj.2024.254 Título traducido: Un legado controvertido del periodo romántico. Ecos de Al-Ándalus en las películas con turistas (1905-1975). RESUMEN: La temática central del artículo es la participación de la imagen de Al-Ándalus en la conformación de los arquetipos sobre España y Andalucía, y más concretamente en la imagen turística de ésta. Así, el objetivo principal consiste en mostrar el proceso histórico a través del cual la idea y los rasgos asociados a Al-Ándalus han pasado a formar parte de la imagen turística de España a lo largo de gran parte del siglo XX. Asimismo, como objetivos secundarios se plantea analizar el intenso debate mantenido desde inicios del siglo XIX sobre la imagen de Al-Ándalus entre los intelectuales españoles; y analizar la (re)producción de los arquetipos vinculados a AlÁndalus en los films con turistas, usando un método cualitativo de análisis de imágenes cinematográficas que puede considerarse novedoso (configuración de Teoría Fundamentada a través del análisis visual con el software NVivo). PALABRAS CLAVE: Al-Ándalus; arquetipos españoles; cine; siglo XX, análisis cualitativo de la imagen; orientalismo. Copyright: © 2024 CSIC. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International (CC BY 4.0) License. PERSONALIZAR eISSN 1988-8538 Idioma English ISSN-L 0210-9174 FUENTE Culture & History, Vol. 13 Num. 1 (2024) EDITOR Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas DOI https://doi.org/10.3989/chdj.2024.450 2 • Alfonso Fernández-Tabales / Maria C. Puche-Ruiz Culture & History Digital Journal 13(2), December 2024, 254. eISSN: 2253-797X, doi: https://doi.org/10.3989/chdj.2024.254 INTRODUCTION AND OBJECTIVES This article comes within a process, the shaping of the clichéd image of Spain and Andalusia viewed both from within and without, which already has a long tradition in scientific literature (Decléty, 2009; Hempel Lipschutz, 1988; Méndez Rodríguez and Plaza Orellana, 2015). In this case, the analysis focuses on a specific issue of particular significance, due to its widespread treatment and topicality, namely the presence of Al-Andalus (or the medieval Islamic period in the Iberian Peninsula) as a component element of this image, especially with regard to the specific case of Andalusia. To this end, the question is approached from the perspective of the creation and consolidation of the tourist image of an area. This is generated through processes, understood and studied within the Humanities and Social Sciences, which involve the reduction of the image of a country or tourist destination to a few simple features, which are familiar to large segments of the market (Baloglu and McCleary, 1999; Cohen, 1988; Echtner and Prasad, 2003; Navalón García, 2015; Selwyn, 1996), and which are then reproduced until they become part of the collective image of those societies (Graburn and GravariBarbas, 2011; Salazar, 2011). The various manifestations of tourist activity are one of the examples of how the past of Al-Andalus, or the vision that has been given of it, resurfaces repeatedly in Andalusia as a “phantom image” (Didi-Huberman, 2002), not a reality but “its double, its replica in a new type of mirror” (Metz, 1975, p. 32). This image-replica, although clear precedents can be found in the 18th century and even in the 16th century (López Ontiveros, 2001; Rodríguez Mediano, 2006), is forged in its essential elements through the vision transmitted by Romantic travellers in the 19th century (Colmeiro, 2002; González Troyano, 2018; Hernández-Ramírez, 2015; Méndez Rodríguez, Plaza Orellana and Zoido Naranjo, 2010). In keeping with the general lines of the Romantic movement (exoticism, orientalism, historicism, decaying grandeur, etc.), they found in Andalusia a geographical and cultural space clearly differentiated from a Europe already immersed in the Industrial Revolution. They attributed these differentiating features to its Islamic past and perceived them as the main appeal to travellers. In this way, these authors (Gautier, Borrow, Irving, Merimée, Ford...), in line with their vision, seek, and find, in the Al-Andalus period the fundamental explanatory factor of the reality they perceive, undervaluing the contributions of other historical periods. And this extends to all aspects of this reality, both in its physical components (landscapes, irrigation, urban geography, vernacular architecture...) and its human or socio-cultural components (music, clothing, festivities, gastronomy, norms of social behaviour...). They go so far as to seek in this past the roots of the psychological or spiritual profile which conform to the “archetype of the Andalusian soul,” generally described in pejorative terms (indolence, extroversion, obsessive defence of honour reaching ferocity when it is questioned, cruelty to animals, predominance of passion as opposed to cold western rationality, etc.). In this respect, and just as a brief example, suffice it to recall Ford’s contemptuous expressions, stating that “[i]f the people [in Andalusia] are sometimes cruel and ferocious when they gather in large numbers; let us remember that through their veins runs the blood of Africa; their fathers were sons of the Arab […]” (quoted in Marchena y Fernández-Tabales, 2002, p. 259). With all of this, in their folk genre stories and travel books, often considered proto-tourist guides, they comprise the structuring elements of the image of Andalusia which has been perpetuated in the places that constitute the main sources of Spain’s tourist market (Great Britain, Germany, France, the United States...). This image has been reinforced by the intensive recovery of its most clichéd elements by tourist promotion in the first threequarters of the 20th century (Hijano del Río, and Martín Zúñiga, 2007), in which a great number of the promotional campaigns, mostly by the central government, have resorted to these features, regardless of the veracity of the image transmitted, even extrapolating them to the whole of Spain (Ortega Cantero, 1999; Poutet, 1995; Storm, 2013), under the Spanish “difference” slogan (Afinoguénova, 2007; Crumbaugh, 2007; Fuentes Vega, 2015; Pack, 2006). The main objective of this article is to show the process through which the idea of and the features associated with Al-Andalus have been one of the components of the tourist image of Spain and, fundamentally, of Andalusia throughout most of the 20th century. The secondary objectives are, on the one hand, to gain a deeper understanding of the context in which the image of Al-Andalus was created by analysing the intense debate about this image among Spanish intellectuals since the early 19th century; and, on the other hand, to study how this “phantom image” linked to Al-Andalus has been (re)produced in films featuring tourists using a qualitative method of analysis of cinematographic images which can be considered innovative. SOURCES AND METHODS After thoroughly reviewing the different intellectual positions on the legacy of Al-Andalus, a sample of 104 “tourist poster” films was analysed. These films are those that exhibit national symbols and archetypes with a certain promotional intent, and do so, moreover, by juxtaposing them with the portrayal of the tourist throughout their plot (Mestre, Del Rey, and Stanishevsky, 2008; see in Annexes Tables 1, 2, 3 and 4 with the complete list of films). To that effect, it is worth noting that 45.71% of the films in the sample are international, while 54.29% are Spanish, so that domestic and foreign depictions are balanced. The presence of a recurrent “phantom image,” as a form of anachronistic “surviving image” (Didi-Huberman, 2002), a replica from a bygone era (Metz, 1975) A controversial legacy from the Romantic period. Al-Andalus echoes in films featuring tourists (1905-1975) • 3 Culture & History Digital Journal 13(2), December 2024, 254. eISSN: 2253-797X, doi: https://doi.org/10.3989/chdj.2024.254 can be traced both in national and international cinema during the period under study. The films were viewed and categorised using NVivo software. This software belongs to the CAQDAS (Computer-assisted Qualitative Data Analysis Software) group of tools which, using a computerised coding system based on the analysis of visual content (Rose, 2001) and the constant comparison of data, make it possible to design Grounded Theory research on the object of study (Strauss and Corbin, 1990; Fig. 1). To carry out this work, the category of analysis “Al-Andalus heritage” was created, in which scenes, segments of photographs and texts were filtered and quantified, reflecting how this aspect, in relation to the development of tourism during the period 1905-1975 in Andalusia, was depicted. The materials analysed belong to the personal archives of the authors or have been obtained during research carried out at the Cinémathèque Française, as well as in the databases of the Filmoteca Española and the Filmoteca de Andalucía. Figure 1. Procedure for analysing films through segments of footage and content. Example of coding in the “Al-Andalus heritage” node. Author’s own work. The category “Al-Andalus heritage” refers to the legacy of Islam in Andalusia and its treatment (or replica) in “tourist poster” films over those 75 years. Our analysis reveals attributes observed by López Ontiveros in the image of Andalusia disseminated by romantic travellers. This “phantom-image,” impregnated with maurophilia and historicism that preferentially chooses the HispanoMuslim past as the determining factor of Andalusian attributes, “[...] implies interpreting the entire Andalusian human landscape in terms of Muslim splendour and its subsequent decadence and collapse” (López Ontiveros, 2001, p. 36), and reveals a prominent presence in official tourist advertising throughout the first three-quarters of the 20th century. As indicated in the Introduction, many authors situate the origin of the universal image with which Spain is identified abroad in Romanticism (Hernández-Ramírez, 2008; Poutet, 1995). To this effect, Hernández-Ramírez highlights the predominance of Andalusian historical heritage over other types of heritage in official tourist promotion from 1928-1950 and 1951-1977 (56.2% and 48%, respectively), used by the tourist authorities to transmit timelessness and exoticism. Through this analysis, we delve deeper into the depiction of the “Al-Andalus heritage” in a more complex format (the cinematographic); a mass medium (Lus Arana, 2020) which, although not intended to induce tourism as we know it today (Ramón Gabriel, 2022), became the most effective tool for the circulation of images and national symbols during the 20th century (García Carrión, 2013; Del Rey, 2007; Gauthier, 2004; Hake, 2002; Hayward, 1995; Higson, 1995; Lindholm and Hall, 2000). This is why the study of “tourist poster” films not only includes references to Al-Andalus’s Historical and Artistic Heritage but also the portrayal of human types, attitudes, legends, etc., associated with seven centuries of Islamic heritage. In short, this category is concerned with the following aspects highlighted by López Ontiveros: • A “predominantly Arab monumentalism,” which focuses on the Granada-Seville-Cordoba triangle and is characterised by the Alhambra, the Alcázar in Seville, and the Mosque in Cordoba (López Ontiveros, 2001, pp. 42-43) but also by the historicist recreations of the early 20th century (neo-Mudejarism as a return to Hispanic-Arabic architectural influence). • A built environment reflecting the labyrinthine network of its historic city streets, full of white houses with window grilles and, above all, typically Al-Andalus gardens, orchards, and courtyards; “all of which perfectly and inextricably blend to create a unified image in the eye of the visitor” (López Ontiveros, 2001, p. 43). • A portrayal of the region as an “earthly paradise,” based on exoticism, as well as on decadence, tradition, and climate; elements which the tourist industry continues to sell today and which favour a leisurely life as opposed to the hustle and bustle of contemporary life (López Ontiveros, 2001, p. 45). • The human landscape of Andalusia, determined by its climate, which considers Andalusia as the “gateway to Africa,” puts sentiment before reason and considers the Andalusian man as “braggart, liar, lazy, buffoon” and the Andalusian woman, “repeatedly [...] as lighthearted” (López Ontiveros, 2001, p. 46). To understand the evolution in the representation of “Al-Andalus heritage” in “tourist poster” films, four stages (“Cinema as a Document,” 1905-1922; “Cinema as Propaganda,” 1923-1939; “The Leaden Years,” 19401959, and “Tourism is a Great Invention,” 1960-1975) have been delimited. They correspond to political periods which were fundamental for tourist activity in Spain during the first three-quarters of the 20th century (PucheRuiz, 2021, 2022), differentiating the films according to whether they are domestic or international productions. The analysis ends in 1975, since from then onwards it is no longer possible to speak of direct dirigisme on the part of the public authorities in relation to tourism, while the appearance of tourists as film characters and the representation of the Andalusian region on the cinema screen diminishes to a large extent. 4 • Alfonso Fernández-Tabales / Maria C. Puche-Ruiz Culture & History Digital Journal 13(2), December 2024, 254. eISSN: 2253-797X, doi: https://doi.org/10.3989/chdj.2024.254 The method employed has made it possible to obtain quality research results, which provide both quantitative support to sustain the research hypotheses, and qualitative support, which enables the detailed analysis of the textual references (Faulkner, 2006; García-Fernández, 2021) to establish trends and behaviours through the study of the scenes. This in itself gives the study a level of detail and precision that would be impossible to achieve in an exclusively statistical work. The application of NVivo tool to the analysis of cinematographic materials and, more specifically, to those that show the adventure of the tourist in their plot, is a novelty within the field of Visual Studies. THE PERCEPTION OF AL-ANDALUS IN THE SPANISH INTELLECTUAL CONTEXT (19TH-20TH CENTURIES) To know and better understand the origin of the view of Al-Andalus in “tourist poster” films, it is of interest to first delve into the perceptions of the Al-Andalus period that have been developed since the 19th century among the Spanish cultural elites. These perceptions have been the breeding ground for subsequent interpretations and artistic productions. In general terms, the attitude of Spanish intellectuals towards Al-Andalus can be divided into two main trends, although it should be noted that the approaches have not always been dichotomous but that the positions have often moved in the middle ground, with a greater or lesser swing towards one of the extremes depending on the historical phase and the authors’ own personal evolution. These tendencies are: • On the one hand, those who consider that the Al-Andalus period represents a parenthesis in the true history of Spain. A period that was fundamentally exogenous and anti-Western in nature, insofar as it was not Christian, and which after its fortunate extirpation has left no greater trace than some archaeological evidence and certain toponymic vestiges. This negative view identifies Al-Andalus with many of the stereotypes that modernity has come to associate with the Arab world (barbarism, religious fundamentalism, and, in short, as Edward Said [1978] denounced in past decades, the incompatibility between Modernity and Islam). • On the other hand, those who perceive and transmit a positive image of Al-Andalus, associated with cultural, scientific, and economic splendour. This perception includes an appreciation of its aesthetic refinement and its role in transmitting to the West the cultural advances of the medieval Arab world and, through it, the classical Greco-Latin heritage, largely lost in medieval Christian Europe. Consequently, this tendency rejects the amputation of the Andalusian heritage from the history of Spain (or of “the Spains”), and revindicates the period as part of it, with a rich cultural legacy that continues to the present day. The first, or negative, view prevailed until the beginning of the 19th century, as could not be otherwise in an Ancien Régime society structured around the Catholic religion, the ideology that underpinned the social order and regulated everyday life. However, this monolithic image began to break down in the early 19th century with the figure of José Antonio Conde and his work Historia de la dominación de los árabes en España, sacada de varios manuscritos y memorias arábigas (1820), in which he favoured Al-Andalus and even Islam, denouncing its previous unanimously negative image. The following decades saw the aforementioned (see the Introduction section) proliferation of literary and pictorial images created by Romantic artists, which enveloped Al-Andalus in all the elements of Orientalist evocation (Gaete, 2022), undeniably favourable and attractive even if only in aesthetic and superficial terms (refinement, mystery, passion...; W. L. B., 1925). In this respect, Washington Irving must be mentioned, the true architect of the myth of the Alhambra as a fundamental Al-Andalus icon abroad (González Alcantud, 2007), and whose work has left clearly identifiable echoes in all subsequent tourist promotion and in cinematographic works that will be analysed in the following section. Along the same lines, the use of Tales of the Alhambra (1832) in films such as Los claveles de la Virgen (Florián Rey, 1929) or Todo es posible en Granada (José Luis Sáenz de Heredia, 1954) are noteworthy examples. Within this context, it is worth mentioning the lesserknown work of some Andalusian Romantic writers, mostly from Granada, who express sympathy towards the people of Al-Andalus and more specifically towards the Moors expelled from their land, in a clear parallel with the exile they themselves suffered for their liberal ideas (Torrecilla, 2019). Prominent among them were Pedro Antonio de Alarcón and Francisco Martínez de la Rosa, who according to González Alcantud (2014a) achieved notable popularity in the Paris Commune with his play Aben Humeya o la rebelión de los moriscos (1830), received in French revolutionary circles as a general hymn to the freedom of the oppressed. This popularisation of the Moorish theme, from an appreciative perspective of the Moor as a tragic character, heir to a world in decline and expelled from his own country, was brought to life in Spain by the Sevillian Manuel Fernández y González, albeit in popular genres of limited literary value, such as the historical novelette or the serialised novel (Fernández y González, 1859). Along the same positive lines but with historiographical and philological rigour, it is worth mentioning the Sevillian Pascual de Gayangos in the mid-19th century, who is considered the instigator of Spanish Arabism. Through his translations to English from the original Arabic during his long periods of residence as a professor at English universities, he disseminated a betterfounded image of Al-Andalus in the Anglo-Saxon sphere than the one known through romantic narratives. In this respect, and according to Rice (1999), the well-known geographer and explorer Richard Francis Burton, famous A controversial legacy from the Romantic period. Al-Andalus echoes in films featuring tourists (1905-1975) • 5 Culture & History Digital Journal 13(2), December 2024, 254. eISSN: 2253-797X, doi: https://doi.org/10.3989/chdj.2024.254 for being the first Westerner to enter the holy places of Mecca, considered him to be his true master of Arabic language and culture. In the second half of the 19th century, there was a fierce reaction to the image disseminated by Gayangos and the European Romantics. This negative reaction was led by the professor of Arabic Francisco Javier Simonet, who, despite his area of specialisation, expressed a clear antipathy towards the period of Muslim Spain, considering that the attempts to vindicate its achievements were nothing more than unpatriotic attacks against the essence of Spain and a denigration of its true history. Simonet can be considered the contemporary initiator of the intellectual current against Al-Andalus, which from his opposition to Gayangos originated a history of polarity of opposing figures which, as we shall see, reaches the present day (González Ferrín, 2006). This polarity began to take shape at the end of the 19th century, with the devaluation of Al-Andalus by the renowned Generation of ‘98, which, in its search for the essence of Spain after the crisis resulting from the loss of the last remnants of the colonial empire, found in Castile and its values an essence that was intrinsically Christian. In the same way, the rejection of all traces of the past of Al-Andalus by authors such as Unamuno and Pío Baroja (who went so far as to describe the Alhambra as an “orientalist kiosk”) is noteworthy. By contrast, the figure of Ángel Ganivet emerged as a fervent Spanish nationalist but who did not share the “Castilianism” of his contemporaries. Ganivet (1904), above all in his very popular work Granada la Bella, made a vindication of Al-Andalus, linking it to an appreciation of the cultural uniqueness of the Andalusia of his own days. Consequently, he was considered a forerunner by the first contemporary Andalusian nationalists, such as Blas Infante, Isidro de las Cagigas, and Rodolfo Gil Benumeya, who even changed his second surname to claim his Al-Andalus origins (González Alcantud, 2014; Ruiz Lagos, 1985). The turn of the century saw the true consolidation, both in Spain and in the rest of Europe, of the image of Andalusia that has survived to the present day (Puche-Ruiz and Fernández-Tabales, 2019), used intensively in tourism promotion and in which reminiscences of Al-Andalus are a basic component (Cardwell, 2002). This consolidation features two fundamental milestones, coinciding with two international exhibitions. On the one hand, the attraction “L’Andalusie au temps des maures,” at the Universal Exhibition in Paris in 1900 (Fig. 2). This exhibition represents the culmination of the whole clichéd image of Al-Andalus that had been in the making since Romanticism and the paradox is that it was programmed on the initiative of the Paris organisers themselves, out with and against the wishes of the official Spanish representation. This fact is particularly illustrative of the polarity described above: the official Spanish authorities rejected the clichéd image of the Islamic and southward-looking past that was being offered, seeking to project the message of a modern European nation; but the organisers themselves, seeking to boost the attendance of the French public, felt they could not forego the orientalist appeal of Al-Andalus in a showcase of the great cultures of the world (Box Varela, 2015; Moreno Garrido and Villaverde, 2019; Sazatornil, 2019). It should also be noted that this view from abroad is an excellent example of the enduring “phantom image” (Didi-Huberman, 2002) that would be transposed into the French cinematographic replica (Metz, 1975) of Andalusia during the first stage examined here (“Cinema as a Document,” 1905-1922). Figure 2. Poster for the attraction “L’Andalousie au temps des maures,” París 1900. Author: Ulpiano Checa y Sanz. BNF. The second milestone, this time a Spanish initiative, was the Ibero-American Exhibition in Seville in 1929, which definitively consolidated the image of Andalusia that has survived to the present day (Graciani, 2019), despite the opposition of some Andalusian intellectuals (Fernández-Tabales, 2019). This local “phantom image,” made official by the state apparatus with a clear tourist focus, includes among its components neo-Mudejar architecture, which, by incorporating formal elements from the Al-Andalus period, has become one of the Andalusian archetypes to this day. It is even possible to affirm that the rejection of Al-Andalus legacy in some intellectual circles has been exacerbated by its clichéd use in tourist promotion since then, mutually reinforcing the anti-Al-Andalus and anti-tourist backlash, due to the reiteration and vulgarisation in the use of its features reduced to stereotypes. On the other hand, the historicist vision of the Ibero-American Exhibition corresponds stylistically with the attempt to politically create a national cinema without clichés, based on vernacular stereotypes and replicas, as discussed in the second cinematographic period analysed (“Cinema as Propaganda,” 1923-1939). In any case, and line with this positioning of the culture and image of Andalusia at the centre of the debate, whether for or against this recurrent “phantom image,” the first decades of the 20th century witnessed a popularisation, generally of a positive nature, of the Al-Andalus or Moorish past as a recurring theme (Anderson, 2021). This is particularly noticeable in the literary sphere, with examples such as those of Fernando Villalón (“¡Islas del Guadalquivir! / Donde se fueron los moros / que no se quisieron ir!”); Manuel Machado in his poem “Adelfos,” dedicated to Miguel de Unamuno: 6 • Alfonso Fernández-Tabales / Maria C. Puche-Ruiz Culture & History Digital Journal 13(2), December 2024, 254. eISSN: 2253-797X, doi: https://doi.org/10.3989/chdj.2024.254 Yo soy como las gentes que a mi tierra vinieron soy de la raza mora, vieja amiga del Sol que todo lo ganaron y todo lo perdieron. Tengo el alma de nardo del árabe español.1 Or Federico García Lorca: “I believe that being from Granada inclines me to a sympathetic understanding of the persecuted. Of the gypsy, the black, the Jew..., of the Moorish that we all carry within us” (Plaza Chillón, 2009, p. 2). This trend, which places Al-Andalus as an essential part of the current “Andalusian spirit,” culminates, from the point of view of political thought, in the work of Blas Infante, the initiator of contemporary Andalusian nationalism. He claims the history of Al-Andalus as the culmination of European Mediterranean cultures and finds in the Castilian conquest of Andalusia the origin of the social and economic problems of later centuries (“Spain is the prison in which Germanic and feudal Europe placed Andalusia”; Infante, 1931). After the Civil War, and in the context of the debate among exiles on the historical origins of Spain’s problems, another of the polarisations referred to above can be found (Boase, 1989; Monroe, 1970), concerning the “surviving image” of Al-Andalus (Didi-Huberman, 2002). It should be noted that this exacerbation coincides with the height of the Francoist defence of Spanish national “difference” in tourism, reflected by Rafael Calleja (1943) in his Apología turística de España, which links the peculiarities of the Spanish “race” to the exotic Hispano-Arabic characteristic (“The Leaden Years,” 19401959). On the one hand, the Granada-born philologist Américo Castro (Bodian, 2017), who, based on the presence of Semitic borrowings in Spanish literature, conceives the medieval origins of Spanish culture as a mixture of Hebrew, Arab and Western Christian elements; so that the expulsion of the Semitic component (Jews and Moors in the early Modern Age) can be interpreted as a national loss to be considered among the factors causing Spain’s subsequent problems in progressing to modernity. In contrast, the Avila historian Claudio Sánchez Albornoz reacted virulently to the former, becoming the most prominent representative of the historical tendency referred to here as the negative view of Al-Andalus. Specifically, Sánchez Albornoz affirms, on the basis of legal texts, that Spain was shaped, territorially, politically, and socially, in the confrontation with Al-Andalus, which it defeated and whose remains it eliminated, so that it is illusory to claim to find significant features of its heritage in later Spain. In this sense, statements such as the following are revealing, both in content and tone: Spain is not, therefore, a people with an original defect, with a hereditary flaw, the inept offspring of a corrupt father, nor is it an Africanised country, sick with the orien1 “I am like the people who to my land came / I am of the Moorish race, old friend of the Sun / who won everything and lost it all. / I have the tuberose soul of the Spanish Arab.” tal virus, lacking in creative impetus, a reject of Islam. It is [...] Europe’s shield against incompetent and barbaric Africa [...]; a Western people only occasionally cut off from the routes of its European brothers by its own millenary eagerness to reject the contagion of neighbouring Africa (Sánchez Albornoz, 1985, p. 39). These two major opposing currents were to continue in the second half of the 20th century and the beginning of the 21st, through the academic disciples of Castro and Albornoz, just at the moment when the features of “AlAndalus heritage” were showing signs of exhaustion in films featuring tourists after the transfer of national cinematography to the Costa del Sol (“Tourism is a Great Invention,” 1960-1975) and its reworking in a post-Fordist and experiential key after Franco’s dictatorship. Among Castro’s disciples, Sevillian Francisco Márquez Villanueva, a professor at Harvard University, stands out. He finds in Mudejarism and in the cultural policy of Alfonso X the Wise the embers of the cultural splendour of AlAndalus, which, through the enormous translating work of the Castilian king, were introduced into the European cultural tradition, enriching the Renaissance (Márquez Villanueva, 2004). This current was reinforced within Spanish borders by the important work of Emilio García Gómez, considered the father of current Spanish Arabism, who disseminated essential works of Al-Andalus literature through his translations. Finally, the tendency to understand Al-Andalus as a fundamental contribution to Spanish and even European culture continues in the 21st century with authors such as Emilio González Ferrín (2018) from the University of Seville and José Antonio González Alcantud (2014a) from the University of Granada. By contrast, the negative view of Al-Andalus was carried forward through the followers of Albornoz’s Castilianist line, the most noteworthy of whom in the last decades of the 20th century was the Valladolid medievalist Miguel Ángel Ladero Quesada. This line has even become more radical in recent years, leading to the appearance of works such as that of Serafín Fanjul (2000), whose best-known book, which was praised in its foreword by Ladero Quesada, bears the significant and definitive title of “Al-Andalus contra España” (“Al-Andalus against Spain”). In conclusion, the dual existence of a “positive myth” and a “negative myth” of Al-Andalus can be discerned. Considering the concept of myth in the sense given by the anthropologist J. A. González Alcantud (2014), following Lévi-Strauss, as narratives, not necessarily false, that lead to actions in today’s world (p. 25); myths, on the other hand, “that constitute the magma on which a society is based, its collective ethos” (p. 19). This issue will be addressed again in the Conclusions section. Lastly, although this section is devoted to visions and approaches in Spanish intellectual spheres, it should be noted that there are many contributions to the debate from an international perspective. Among the most recent are studies that analyse the vision of Al-Andalus from today’s Arab world (Calderwood, 2015; Civantos, 2018); A controversial legacy from the Romantic period. Al-Andalus echoes in films featuring tourists (1905-1975) • 7 Culture & History Digital Journal 13(2), December 2024, 254. eISSN: 2253-797X, doi: https://doi.org/10.3989/chdj.2024.254 the role of Al-Andalus in the general vision of Orientalism from the Western world (González Alcantud, 2021); or some works in the line of post-colonial studies that analyse the use of a common past by Spanish colonialism in Morocco (Calderwood, 2018). Also worth mentioning is the work of Charles Hirschkind (2021), on the transmission, and even continuity, of Andalusian culture in later Spain, in which he reaches more ambitious conclusions than the usual ones in Spanish historiography on the survival of this culture. RESULTS. AL-ANDALUS HERITAGE IN “TOURIST POSTER” FILMS (1905-1975) It is worth noting that the sample of films shows a balanced distribution of references to the “Al-Andalus heritage” between domestic and international films. Thus, 47.28% of the references correspond to the former, while the remaining 52.72% are observed in international productions. However, as can be seen in Figure 3, a total of 239 references are unevenly distributed throughout the four periods under study. Figure 3. Graph showing the evolution of the “Al-Andalus heritage” during the four periods studied. Authors’ own work. Therefore, the period from 1905 to 1922 (“Cinema as a Document”), with 50 references, is 16.32% below the average.2 In this period, the references mainly allude to the concept of “Andalusian paradise” (López Ontiveros, 2001) and the vision of Andalusia is that disseminated by the nineteenth-century universal exhibitions (Moreno Garrido, and Villaverde, 2019). The last stage (“Tourism is a Great Invention,” 1960-1975), on the other hand, with 54 references, was 9.62% below the average, and its capacity to disseminate the features concerning “AlAndalus heritage” declined, as the epicentre of tourist ac2 Given the unequal number of films in each stage (8, 13, 45, and 38), it was decided to obtain a theoretical average value of films and references, and to plot the results according to their deviation from this average, showing their growth or decline concerning the previous stage. The theoretical average number of references for the “Al-Andalus heritage” node stands at 59.75. tivity shifted from the heritage cities to the coast (Afinoguénova, 2007; Crumbaugh, 2007; Fuentes Vega, 2015). It is in the middle stages where the greatest changes can be seen, from a decrease of 15.06% concerning the previous stage (period “Cinema as Propaganda,” 19231939; 41 references) to an increase of 88.70% (“The Leaden Years,” early Francoism, 1940-1959; 94 references). It is worth remembering that Francoism shaped its own national identity for tourism, combining the concept of Spain as an exotic destination for Europeans with a longing to recover its imperial and colonial past (Martín Márquez, 2008); simplifying the theoretical polarity of the myth of Al-Andalus and its “phantom image” to emphasise Spanish exceptionality by putting the focus on Andalusia, together with Castile, as a showcase of cultural wealth (Ramón Gabriel and García Álvarez, 2016). The sudden increase during “The Leaden Years” may be due to the promotion of the Spanish “difference” theory advocated by Rafael Calleja (1943) in his Apología turística de España, a “difference” stressed through the tourist “liquid border” between the region of Andalusia and the Moroccan Protectorate (González Alcantud, 2014b); and also, to a lesser extent, to the softening of the official negative image of the “Moor” after the use of Maghrebi troops as a shock force for Franco’s side in the Civil War (Bolorinos Alard, 2016; Velasco de Castro, 2014), an example of what is the documentary film “Romancero marroquí” (Elena, 1996). Gradually, the national “difference” was diluted with the promotion of the “typical Spanish,” so that references or replicas of the Al-Andalus legacy in cinema with tourists took a slight downturn during the democratic period, just at the moment of greatest vindication of Al-Andalus, reaching a resounding low point after the Universal Exhibition in Seville (1992). A paradox whose causes will have to be the subject of another study. “Cinema as a Document” period (1905-1922) The first stage is determined by the creation of the National Tourism Commission (1905) and the Royal Commission for Tourism (1911) during the reign of Alfonso XIII. As has been indicated, this period was dominated by references linked to the French image-replica of Spain; visions that were still linked to the promotion of a Hispano-Muslim “phantom image” rooted in the universal exhibitions of the 19th century (Moreno Garrido, and Villaverde, 2019). Thus, 88% of the references concerning the aforementioned features of “Al-Andalus heritage” are concentrated in international films, which at the beginning of the twentieth century were responsible for disseminating these images of exotic otherness. Thus, beyond the Edenic compositions of the Alcázar of Seville and the Alhambra of Granada in Blasco Ibáñez’s own version of Sangre y arena (1916; Fig. 4), the French productions Les fiancés de Séville (Louis Feuillade, 1914), Chichinette et Cie (Henri Desfontaines, 1921), El Dorado (Marcel L’Herbier, 1921), Soleil et Ombre (Jeanne 8 • Alfonso Fernández-Tabales / Maria C. Puche-Ruiz Culture & History Digital Journal 13(2), December 2024, 254. eISSN: 2253-797X, doi: https://doi.org/10.3989/chdj.2024.254 Roques, 1922) and, to a lesser extent, La Fête Espagnole (Germaine Dulac, 1919), as well as the first American version of Blasco Ibáñez’s novel (Blood and Sand, Fred Niblo, 1922). Figure 4. Doña Elvira visits the Patio de las Doncellas in the Alcázar of Seville in Sangre y Arena (Vicente Blasco Ibáñez, 1916). BNF. In Les fiancés de Séville (known in Spain as Amoríos sevillanos), the Alcazar of Seville and its gardens take on particular prominence as an orientalised setting (López Ontiveros, 2001), so that, from the images that have come down to us, it could be said that the plot is merely a vehicle for Louis Feuillade to introduce the French public to a dream-like space, a setting through which his characters wander (Fig. 5), and in which the tragedy of jealousy is unleashed due to the attention that a French painter pays to the young protagonist. Figure 5. Orientalised scene in Les fiancés de Séville (Louis Feuillade, 1914). Authors’ personal collection. It is not surprising, then, that one of the abiding themes which Romantic travellers associated with the South of Spain and its Arab heritage now emerges in this film: the “predominance of sentiment over reason” (López Ontiveros, 2001). So, Currito, a budding bullfighter, is driven to attempt to murder the harmless painter. Significantly, this vengeful passion is also linked to the quintessence of Al-Andalus architectural heritage, the Alhambra, in another French production that is the epitome of this trend: El Dorado (1921), shot by the expressionist Marcel L’Herbier on location in Granada and Seville. In this film, the Alhambra plays an essential role and even becomes another character. The Nasrid palaces become the obsession of a Swedish painter whose mission is to capture their romantic mythification on canvas. Once in the city, the young artist hires the services of a flamenco dancer, Sibilla, who serves as both guide and model amid the fabulous Al-Andalus gardens and for whom he feels both attraction and aversion (Fig. 6). Figure 6. Rejection of backwardness and ignorance in El Dorado (Marcel L’Herbier, 1921). CF. The Alhambra thus becomes the workplace of a woman of tragic existence (Sibilla, the dancer) and the painter, who takes advantage of the gardens to have furtive encounters with his sweetheart. One night, Sibilla, overcome by jealousy and a desire for revenge, locks the two young lovers in the Sala de los Abencerrajes, forcing them to succumb to the terror of the ghosts that supposedly inhabit the Alhambra. In this way, the Nasrid palaces are transformed into a space of expressionist terror, under Sibilla’s bloodshot gaze. L’Herbier employs geographic substitution to achieve a fabulous backdrop; thus, he does not hesitate to place the Giralda tower in Granada, making a clear Andalusian synecdoche of Spain, and he recreates in the labyrinthine Albaicín. Another film that uses this supplanting is Soleil et Ombre, the first film directed by the French Jeanne Roques “Musidora” (1922), in which the Mudejar buildings of Toledo are used to create an Andalusian replica of Spain, where love and death once again go hand in hand. Here also, the Spanish protagonist will fall prey to jealousy in a setting of Hispano-Muslim influences, elevating sentiment over reason (López Ontiveros, 2001), and murdering the American A controversial legacy from the Romantic period. Al-Andalus echoes in films featuring tourists (1905-1975) • 9 Culture & History Digital Journal 13(2), December 2024, 254. eISSN: 2253-797X, doi: https://doi.org/10.3989/chdj.2024.254 tourist who has stolen the affection of her bullfighter sweetheart. In La Fête Espagnole, the Hispano-Arabic reminiscences are provided both by the protagonist’s garden and by the Flamenco-style and neo-Mudejar sets of the “modern” city described in the script (“perhaps Seville”), as the background to a story that once again vindicates the tragic character of the Spaniard (the protagonist’s suitors do not hesitate to fight a duel to the death; Fig. 7). In this respect, it is worth highlighting the influence that the orientalised settings (the physical environment) have on the cliché of the exaltation of sentiment over reason (behaviour), which fosters the display of “anti-western” attitudes (both by the indigenous people and by tourists visiting the region), and which could be considered more typical of a people from a country that is not yet fully civilised rather than of a European country well into the 20th century. Figure 7. The suitors’ duel to the death in La Fête Espagnole (Germaine Dulac, 1919). Pierre Henry. CF. In this early period, we also find two films of diametrically opposed genres that nevertheless offer a similar vision of Hispano-Muslim Andalusia: on the one hand, Henri Desfontaines’ French comedy Chichinette et Cie, in which the male protagonist, Philippe, travels to Spain and falls in love with a Flamenco performer; on the other hand, the first Hollywood version of Blood and Sand. Interestingly, both films conceive of the Spanish woman as a pleasure-loving houri, disguising her vices and passions among cushions and Moorish pouffes. In the same vein, it is worth noting the characterisation of the roles of La Carmela and Doña Sol herself (Fig. 8). Thus, while the former reclines among sumptuous fabrics and is the victim of her own jealousy, the latter, as soon as she sets foot on Andalusian soil, is attended by servants in Moorish costumes and dresses like the favourite of a prince from Tales of the Alhambra. Figure 8. Doña Sol as a modern odalisque in Blood and Sand (Fred Niblo, 1922). WCFTR-69689. “Cinema as Propaganda” period (1923-1939) This second period witnessed the fragile continuance of the Royal Commission for Tourism (until 1928) and the birth of the National Tourist Board, as well as the dictatorship of Primo de Rivera (1923-1930) and the advent of the Second Republic (1931). Surprisingly, this period is the one with the lowest number of references to “Al-Andalus heritage,” particularly when, as mentioned above, it is a period of promotion of neoMudejar architecture and propaganda in preparation for the Ibero-American Exhibition of 1929. This, however, may be because a large part of the period corresponds to the Second Republic (1931-1939) and the Civil War (1936-1939). Whatever the reason may be, there is an increase in references to the aforementioned features of “Al-Andalus heritage” in Spanish films (58.54% of the total), with two contemporaneous films standing out (one French, the other Spanish), which both depict locations from the great Ibero-American event but which are diametrically opposed in their message and their interpretation of the “phantom image” of Andalusia: La Femme et le Pantin (Jacques de Baroncelli, 1929) and La Copla Andaluza (Ernesto González, 1929). Thus, while La Femme et le Pantin, a French production, used the orientalist Mudejar Pavilion to stage the protagonist’s palace, in the Spanish production La Copla Andaluza, the vision was turned 180 degrees to show the audience the Neo plateresque Pavilion (now the Archaeological Museum), both located in the Plaza de América, a key focal point of the Ibero-American Exhibition. Similarly, the spirit of the two films diverges: while the former continues to correspond to the romantic vision of French travellers about Andalusia, the latter attempts to create a national cinema without clichés, dignifying the folklore of the region, by the wishes of the new National Tourist Board (1928). 16 • Alfonso Fernández-Tabales / Maria C. Puche-Ruiz Culture & History Digital Journal 13(2), December 2024, 254. eISSN: 2253-797X, doi: https://doi.org/10.3989/chdj.2024.254 “The Route of the Almoravids and Almohads” (TarifaGranada), which have been awarded European Cultural Itinerary status by the Council of Europe. Finally, two last conclusions. On the one hand, the obvious difficulty of integrating, even today, the AlAndalus period into a national Spanish historical narrative, chiefly due to its Islamic nature, in contrast to the traditional conception of Spain as a nation forged on the ideological and symbolic axis of the Christian religion. And, on the other hand, aside from internal debates, the power and validity of the features of AlAndalus heritage as an identifying feature of Andalusia in the eyes of foreign tourist markets. This is a reality that goes beyond the degree of historical accuracy that sustains the Al-Andalus myth, as it has been engraved in the Western popular imagination for generations, and is, therefore, an image that impacts on present-day Andalusia, which calls to mind a well-known quote by Ashcroft: “stereotypes as well as being a reflection of reality can transform it, since reality creates discourse as much as discourse creates reality” (Sazatornil, 2015, p. 83). ANNEXES: LIST OF FILMS Table 1. Cinema as a document (1905-1922). FILM YEAR DIRECTOR Le coffret de Tolède 1914 Louis Feuillade Les fiancés de Séville 1914 Louis Feuillade Sangre y arena 1916 Vicente Blasco Ibáñez La fête espagnole 1919 Germaine Dulac Chichinette et Compagnie 1921 Henri Desfontaines El Dorado 1921 Marcel L’Herbier Soleil et ombre 1922 Jeanne Roques Blood and Sand 1922 Fred Niblo Table 2. Cinema as propaganda (1923-1939). FILM YEAR DIRECTOR La malchanceuse 1923 E.M. Donatien La Terre des Taureaux 1923 Jeanne Roques Currito de la Cruz 1925 Alejandro Pérez Lugín El Niño de Oro 1926 José María Granada El Patio de los Naranjos 1926 Guillermo Hernández Mir La hermana San Sulpicio 1927 Florián Rey La Femme et le Pantin 1929 Jacques de Baroncelli La Copla Andaluza 1929 Ernesto González Los claveles de la Virgen 1929 Florián Rey La hermana San Sulpicio 1934 Florián Rey Currito de la Cruz 1936 Fernando Delgado María de la O 1936 Francisco Elías La Reina Mora 1937 Eusebio Fernández Ardavín Table 3. The leaden years (1940-1959). FILM YEAR DIRECTOR Martingala 1940 Fernando Mignoni Blood and Sand 1941 Rouben Mamoulian Pepe Conde 1941 José López Rubio Tierra y cielo 1941 Eusebio Fernández Ardavín El frente de los suspiros 1942 Juan de Orduña Misterio en la marisma 1943 Claudio de la Torre La boda de Quinita Flores 1943 Gonzalo Delgrás Ídolos 1943 Florián Rey Olé torero 1948 Benito Perojo Fifa e arena 1948 Mario Mattoli Jalisco canta en Sevilla 1949 Fernando de Fuentes La guitarra de Gardel 1949 León Klimovsky Currito de la Cruz 1949 Luis Lucia Le désir et l’amour 1951 Henri Decoin Una cubana en España 1951 Luis Bayón Herrera La hermana San Sulpicio 1952 Luis Lucia El seductor de Granada 1953 Lucas Demare La Belle de Cadix 1953 Raymond Bernard Puebla de las mujeres 1953 Antonio del Amo Nuits Andalouses 1954 Maurice Cloche Châteaux en Espagne 1954 René Wheeler El duende de Jerez 1954 Daniel Mangrané Todo es posible en Granada 1954 José Luis Sáenz de Heredia Sucedió en Sevilla 1955 José Gutiérrez Maesso La Cruz de Mayo 1955 Florián Rey La Reina Mora 1955 Raúl Alfonso Para siempre amor mío 1955 Tito Davison Congreso en Sevilla 1955 Antonio Román Suspiros de Triana 1955 Ramón Torrado Good-bye Sevilla 1955 Ignacio F. Iquino Curra Veleta 1956 Ramón Torrado Les girls 1957 George Cukor Il conte Max 1957 Giorgio Bianchi Saeta del Ruiseñor 1957 Antonio del Amo La Femme y le Pantin 1958 Julien Duvivier Pane, Amore e Andalusia 1958 Javier Setó A controversial legacy from the Romantic period. Al-Andalus echoes in films featuring tourists (1905-1975) • 17 Culture & History Digital Journal 13(2), December 2024, 254. eISSN: 2253-797X, doi: https://doi.org/10.3989/chdj.2024.254 Les bijoutiers du clair de lune 1958 Roger Vadim El Cristo de los Faroles 1958 Gonzalo Delgrás Villa Alegre 1958 Alejandro Perla Taxi, roulotte et corrida 1958 André Hunebelle El hincha 1958 José María Elorrieta Tenemos 18 años 1959 Jesús Franco Honeymoon 1959 Michael Powell Tommy the toreador 1959 John Paddy Carstairs It Started with a Kiss 1959 George Marshall Table 4. Tourism is a great invention (1960-1975). FILM YEAR DIRECTOR Holiday in Spain 1960 Jack Cardiff Despedida de soltero 1960 Eugenio Martín The Magic Fountain 1963 Fernando Lamas The Running Man 1963 Carol Reed The Pleasure Seekers 1964 Jean Negulesco Amador 1964 Francisco Regueiro Donde tú estés 1964 Germán Lorente En Andalucía nació el amor 1966 Enrique López Eguiluz Los duendes de Andalucía 1966 Ana Mariscal Camino del Rocío 1966 Rafael Gil Granada, addio! 1966 Marino Girolami El próximo otoño 1967 Antonio Eceiza Días de viejo color 1967 Pedro Olea Amor a la española 1967 Fernando Merino Operación Cabaretera 1967 Mariano Ozores Fathom 1967 Leslie H. Martinson Una chica para dos 1968 León Klimovsky Objetivo BI-KI-NI 1968 Mariano Ozores Stress-es tres-tres 1968 Carlos Saura El turismo es un gran invento 1968 Pedro Lazaga Cuidado con las señoras 1968 Julio Buchs Una vez al año ser hippy no hace daño 1968 Javier Aguirre Hard Contract 1969 S. Lee Pogostin El abominable hombre de la Costa del Sol 1970 Pedro Lazaga El coleccionista de cadáveres 1970 Santos Alcocer Coqueluche 1970 Germán Lorente La novicia rebelde 1971 Luis Lucia Les Charlots font l’Espagne 1972 Jean Girault Secuestro a la española 1972 Mateo Cano Night Child 1972 James Kelley Me has hecho perder el juicio 1973 Juan de Orduña Manolo La Nuit 1973 Mariano Ozores Una vela para el diablo 1973 Eugenio Martín Qué cosas tiene el amor 1973 Germán Lorente Stardust 1974 Michael Apted Fin de semana al desnudo 1974 Mariano Ozores Una chica y un señor 1974 Pedro Masó Professione: Reporter 1975 Michelangelo Antonioni DECLARATION OF COMPETING INTEREST The authors of this article declare that they have no financial, professional or personal conflicts of interest that could have inappropriately influenced this work. FUNDING SOURCES This paper is part of the project TED2021-131577B, funded by MCIN/AEI/10.13039/501100011033 (Spain) and the European Union NextGenerationEU/PRTR. 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