Engineering, management, and ethics - two hats or three?

ENGINEERING, MANAGEMENT, AND ETHICS - TWO HATS OR THREE? HAi S LE:--JK y MATI'TllAS MA!UNG l" ni ·e si ii Ka ls uhe (Alemania) Abs ac : The no ion o indi 'idual esponsihili y is e en in o u cu en e a o ins i u ional and c o po a e dec i sio ns and e n e p ises o much impo an d o pa1 icub impo11ann: o e chno logy. H owe e . p oble ns o co ll ec i e :ind co o a c es ons ibili y :1 e becoming an cl s ill will become mo e and mo e opical. Eng inee ing e hics cm l es sh ould he cl e eloped. imp o ed and ope a- ionall im l emen ed in he u u e. Th e ules ske ched ou h e e o p io i ies o handling espo nsib ili y cun lic s ha e subseq u en ly o be e bho a c d muc h u he . Ali his. hen. would he necessa1y o m ee he ideal equi emen s o ou join ami indi i dual es o ns ih il i y o ec hnol ogy in ou soc ie y. Resumen: En nues a ac ual e a de emp esas y decisiones co po a i a~ e in s- i ucionaks , la noción de es po nsabilidad i ndi id ual l'S dl' g an signi icado y de pa icul: impo ancia pa a la ecnología. No obs an e. l os p oblemas de la esp onsa bilidad colec i ·a y co po a i a se o nan, y se o na án cada e z. más ac uales y d eds i os. Los cód ig os éiicos de la ingenie ía deb e ían , pues. desa- olla se. mejo a se y hace se e ec i os ope a i amen e en el u u o. Po eso, las eglas esb oz adas aquí s ob e p io ida de s pa a el manejo de los con 1ic os de espon~abilidad han de se elabo ad as con muc ho más de alle. Todo e ll o se ía nen :~ a io. p o an o. p: a encon a los eq uisi os idea les de nues a es - pons ab il idad indi 'idual y co l ec i ·:i e spe c o de la ec no logía en n ue s n sode- la l. PROBL E :O.IS OF HESl'O'. SIBILI TY 1'.' A:-.ID FO R TE CH 0 1. 0G Y Economics and Engin ee ing a e di c en ields. Do he e hi cs ques ions as a conscqu en ce di e b e wee n bem? Mo al judgemen s ancl e hical p oblems wi h espec o echno logy cmd eco nomy a e usually p o blems o bea ing, a ibu ing and dis ibu ing e sponsihili y. 'í/e can un de s and man o woman as he no ma i e being which mea ns h a he o s he is mo ally dis inguishecl om o he c ea u es by 50 1 IANS LENK Y MAT H JAS MAHING he capaci y o bca , acknowledge, cons ci ously iden i y and accep es- ponsibili ies o hc ou come o hi s o he ac ions and ole u l ilmen s. Humans a e so o speak he mo al heings. Ye , mo a l esponsibili y is hu eme so o csponsibili y which migh he l oca ed wi hin a a he co nplex ea lm o di e en esponsibili ies, e.g. engende ed by co n- ac s o so ne o he mu ual ag ecmen s which migh no nec essa i ly he mo al in he na o we sense, i.e., ha hey migh noc a ec he li e, limhs, psyche, a nd well- heing o o h e pe ople o li ing heings in gene- a l. These e hically speaking no mo a ll y ele an esponsihili ies migh be called e hically neu al. Bu hey a e s ill no ma i e and p íma acie o he abi ded by he e spe c i e pe sons who h a e aken o e hese non-mo al csponsibili ies. In ad <li ion, hese e hically neu al espon- sihili i es migh ge in o con lic wi h mo al du ies and e hica ll y ele an ohliga i ons, i.e. mo al du ies in he na owe se nse. Shou kl a m anag e jus ollow up Vi h manage ial an d ec on omic s a eg i es o maximizing p o i o p essi ng o ime in isky op e a ions and s a eg ie s o im ple- men a ion o a ne w echnology o so? O shoul <l he e ain om any isk o li es am i li nbs o o he peo ple in acceding o ope a iona l plans o implemen a ion o a new ecbnol ogy ? Is sa e y o be aluecl i s - e en despi e so ne se -hacks wi h e spec o economic d e elo p- me n am i a possible maximiza ion o gains o p o i s? Should o ins- ance an engine e ho is empl oyed in a dependen posi ion. in cas e o a isky decisi on o occu " blow he whis le .. -as he esp ec i e me apho eads - and gi e a wa ning in o ma ion o he pub l ic ab ou he ex pec ed i sks o haza ds o nega i e po en ial ou com es? Shou ld loyal y o his i m o supe iso s o he aking in o consi<le a ion o his pe sonal ca ee wi hin he i m o e ide his mo al esponsibili y o co espo nsibili y o he sa e y o he puh li c? O has mo al es pon sibi- li y o ake p cced en ce o e bc espo nsibili y o con ac ual kin cl s al - houg h e en he ab iding by c on ac s cc ainly also has a mo al hue o i o e en a mo al dim en sio n inso a . e.g., as we a e also mo a ll y obli- ged o ahi<le hy he l aw . The e is also a ques ion whc he o no mo al es pon sihili ies occu ing in economy a nd cchnology a e iden ical o o e la pping o mayhe a s ains wi h one ano he . An a i ma i e ans - we would amo un hen o he hesis ha e hi cs in econo ny a nd mo al ju dgem en s in echnology could be a i me s in con lic wi h one ano - b e o a leas di e ge wi hin some egion o o e lap. In deed, one co ukl we ll a gue ha e h ical p oblems in eco n omy a e u h e - ea - ching han mo al p obl ems in ec hn ology, hecause he e a e many p o- blems in he eco nomic managemen ami dis ibu i on o j obs e c. wh i ch a e no <li ec l y ele an o o in luenced by echnological ac o s. E'.'IG I NE EHL G. I ANACE1 1E:-.:T. AND ETHICS - TWO H ATS OR TH REP 51 Howe e , basically hen : is a la ge o e lap he ween he wo iekls, an d as a as echnology is in ol ed ami e chno logical im ple nen a ion a s ake wi bin economic decision-making. he p ohlems o e hi ca l ele- ance o bo h ields a e p e y much he same o a leas na owly con- nec ecl w i h one an o he «: . Lenk/Ma ing 1995a). I seems, howe, ·e , h:ll wi h esp ec o hc ques i on o sa e y man ag e s somc imes would igno e his da edness. Tbis nigh d ama- ica lly be llighligh ed by he analysis o he ca as ophe o he US spa- cec a Cballe11ge in 1986. when 73 sec onds a e ake-o om Ca pe Cana e al he manned spaceship exp lo ded and se en as onau s los hei li es. A di ec c aus e was a h i le sealing ing o ubb e which acco ding o expec a ion and wa nings o h e enginee s om he oc- ke p oduce i m Mo on Thiokol h oke und e he condi ions o low empe a u e below ee7. ing po in . One <lay be a e ake-o he engi- nee s. mos no ably Allen MacDonald, he p ojec leade . and Ro ge Roi sj oly. he e1y expe o sealing ings in ocke y, hacl wa ned and p o e s ed agains ake-o plans o be nex day. They in o med NASA abo u he clange lia he sealing ings would b eak below eezing poin . They we c :1ssis ed by he clepu y di ec o o he enginee ing depa men o he ocke y i m, Rohe Lund, who also in onned Je y Mason. a supe o dina e enginee wi hin he same i m. Mason howe - e silcnced Lund and inished he deba e by saying, ''Take o yo u enginec ing ha and pul on you m anagemen ha ''. Lund ga e in an d ga e his con sen o he ake-o which he no i iecl o he p ojec leade o NASA ho okayed he ake-o wi hou men ioning any douh s. Th e ca as oph ic acciclen ensued. (La e on he enginee s who hacl laun- ched he wa nings, MacDonald and Boisjoly, we e - e en a e he accid en - ans e e cl o ano he depa m en which hey cl eem ccl a ki nd o quasi-punishmen a e he a c .) Do indeed manage s decide di e e n ly om eng inee s? b his a case Vhe e app a en ly e hical aspec s o decision-making and ac ual judging di e ge o he e hics o e chno log y an d economics? A e h e managemen ha ancl he enginee ing ha indeed di e en ha s - in e hical espec s? In any case, he examp le shows immed ia ely how in iguing he p oh l ems o esponsih ili y and i s in e p e a ion as well as i s dis ibu- ion a e: Xlho was he es ponsihle on e in his case? E e1 yhody who had h een in ol ed ? Jus N ASA , no one incli idually? Each o a ce ain deg ee? Hm much, hen? (C . helow o he ques ions o clisu'ihu ing esponsihili y.) Le us u n i s o ques ions o esponsibili y in gen e- 52 HANS LENK Y MAITHlAS MARI NG a l, especially o he p ohlems o de ini ion and delinca ion o espon- si bili y and speci í c: espons ibili ies. 1. Respo11sihi/iZ1' as Rela io11al Concep "Responsihili y" is no jus a con c:ep so lely o be us ecl desc i p i- n:ly - so m co ne is esponsihle - hu also abo e all an e alua i e a i- hu i e conc ep - somehody is hek l o he esponsihle. I is hís a ibu - i on which opens h e no ma i e. e en e hical dimension o ac ion in a s ic e sense. The concep o e sponsi h il i y i sel is a di e se concep o s uc u e o cla i on ha is l inked o assignmen , a ibu i on an d impu a ion, a scheme hac needs o he analysed and in e p e ed wi h espec o he ollowing elcmen s: someo 11e-. he suhjec o h ea e o espo nsibili y (a pe son o a co po - a i on) is e.,j)()nsihle o : some hill/!, (ac ions, consequences o ac ions, si ua ions, asks. e c.) in 'ie1 q an ad.d essee ("objec " o esp onsibili y) u11de supen .lisüm o judgeme11 q a juclging o san c i on ing i11s ance in ela ion o: a (p esc ip i e, no ma i e) c i e im z o accou n ahili~~, i 'i hi11: a ,,peci ic ealm o esp011sihiliz)' ancl ac ion. Responsibili y is i s ly a concep ha igu es wi hin a ela ional a i- bu i e nonn (con olled expe c a ion o ac ion am i heha iou ) . Responsibili y means ha a pe son mus jus i y ac ions, consequ ences o ac ions, si ua ions, asks, e c. in onc o an add essee an d he o e an ins ance o jus i ica ion, ho h no heing necessa ily iden ical Vi h one ano he , o whom he o she has ob liga ions o du ies o ende ing jus- i ica ion, in acco d ancc w i h s anda d s, c i e ia, n o ms , e c. The es - po nsible pe son is accoun ahle o bis o he own ac ions, o unde speci i c condi ions also o ac ions pe o med by o he s o whom he o s he is ica iously esponsible. (Pa en s, o exa nple, a e liable o hei yo ung child en a a ce ain w ong con duc by hese. maybe in ch e sense o he iola ion o hei s upe iso1y du y.) The co ncep o espo nsihili y would gi e s uc u e o he soc ial eali y (o no ns an c ac ions) and o social ela ions. One can di e en ía e be ween he y pi - cal hea e s o esponsibili y in enns o ac i e oles a nd ohse e oles. One imp u es o a ibu es a speci ic esponsibil i y o onesel as an ENGJNEERJNG. MAl"Al;EMENT. AND ETH ICS - TWO HATS OH T HREE~ 53 ac o o o o he s om he pe spec i e o pa icip an , obse e o scien is , in ela ion o ules and no ms ha apply beyon d he indi i- dual. The a ihu ion (in a pa11icula case) ac i a e s, ha is, ins an ia- es. he gene al pa e n o esponsi bili y in a speci ic ins a nce . Impu a ion o esponsibili y lies as mu ch in sel -in e p e a ion as in he in e p e a ion o he ac ions o o he s. Responsihili y is he e o e a ibu ed o impu ed: on he one hand one es ab li shes om he pe spec i e o ohse a iou ha somebody (A) is esponsihle, causally o acco ding o a c i e ion, o an ac ion ( o ac ing o e aining om ac ion), o he consequences o an ac ion, o o he occu ence o an e en . On he o he hancl, he ac o (A) can also be made esponsible. This a ihu ion can hus be unde s ood ei - he desc ip i ely o no ma i ely; i is desc ip i e o no ma i e. Bo h can be di e emia ecl by a ca e ul analysis, e en i in e ec bo h a i- bu ions a e o en consicle ed simul aneously . Th e discussion abou he a ibu ion o esponsibili y shows ha he dis inc ion b e ween he desc ip i e and no ma i e a i ude and a desc ip i e o nonna i e assump ion o he a ibu ion o impu a ion, espec i ely, has hus a no heen su icien ly aken in o co nside a ion . A necessa1y co ndi i on o he desc ip i e a ihu ion ( o des c ibe A as esponsible o X) and o he no ma i e a ibu e ( o make A espon- sihle o X) is ha he (in en ional) ac o (A) is he causal agen , o is a leas capable o in e ening in he ca usal chain ha leacls o X. An e alua ion o A can be mad e. wi h e e ences o (n o ma i e) c i e ia; i is inde ed only acco ding o a c i e ion ha he bea e o esponsibili y can o could be held esponsible. The o igin o he desc ip i e con- cep o esponsibili y also, as close anal ys is will show , can he aced back o he no ma i e one , i.e ., o social and con en i onal no ma iza- ion o o a equi emen es ablished by an au ho i y. As one dis inguis he s be we en a gene al esponsibili y o he esul s o an ac ion om a kind o ole- esponsihili y and ask- es pon- sihili y, and om he pu iew o legal and mo al esponsibili y, a second aspec o i n e p e a ion b ecomes clea : he es ponsibili y o he esul o an ac ion is a i s jus see n as a s up e o dina e, schema- ic, o mal ca ego iza ion; i mus be ela ed, h ough he con ex ual speci ica ions o asks o oles o b ough (uni e sal) mo al o legal in e p e a i on, o he app op ia e ealm o su bs an ial alues and no ms. Only hen can i s con en and sense be comp ehensible. Dis inc y pe s o esponsi bili y would ende s uc u e o he social, h a is, he no ma i e, ea li y in di e en ways. They ha e spe- 54 HA NS L ENK Y 1 IATl' llAS MAIUNG ci i c s u c u al implica ions1. Co ncep ual ins um en s o analysis such as ins i u ionalized no ma i e ule s and c i c ia o ( ypes o ) n :s po nsi- bili y a ls o may s uc u e he conc e e e sp ons ihili y a ibu ions and hc i consequences. Tbus, speci ic and mo e conc e e exp ec a ions an d demands ollow om he el e an ap pl ica i ons o h e a ious ypes o espo nsihi li y. Ce ain asks and du ies, o exa mpl e, a e i ed o a ole ha ela es exclusi ely o he ol e-hea e , and a e no so pe son- o ien ed as, e.g., in he cases o an ac i a ed mo al esponsihili y. 2. D{/le en Ana~ ic TJ11es o Re., ponsihilizy The mos oh ious am i gene a l le e! o how o desc ibe espo nsí- bili ies is e e ing o one's bcing esponsihle o he esul s and con- sequences o one 's o wn ac ions. Y./e may call his ype che ac ion es- pc msihili( ( see Fig. 1 ): Ac ion es ponsib i li y <Fig. 1) 1 1 '<>,lli ' : ClllS~ l l c""po n:-. ihili y o p:1 1 1 ni la :1<.: 1on~ 1 1 1 Ncg a i c ca u~il '~[>< IJ1S lh l y Cc.g o ()JTi l~S H>Jl. ") 1 H 1..· . .. < ms1hili y I< > ac· in : p e · 'cn um o ha m. :1<. idenb 1..: : 1 lnc.h · idual a c. : u m e:-;p<m:-. ibih y 1 1 1 cc .. n:spon- s1 hili y o c:o ll cc i e. co - O K ~ T: llVC. C Oí (X J :. ü .. • acli ons 1 (~ .' Ol ' :.l ( :~(>( m:-.i·hJlll lo l on¡: ~ ang njl. ~ll' i •i y p;:ll e n ~ 1 1 !c, p on " hili y lo m ... nu íonal. e<> p<H: c .u.: ons 1 Hc. .: p e:-;cn a um : l an l / o lea<lc s hip c.' l< >n s ib h y 1 Co· <: . ,po n· '1 hih )" o C"O· ;K ng ¡. ou p meml >c ; Cg ou p c,p<>nsih11i y) 1 R .·~pon...;1 l)lli )· <> c.:o pu . Ui >n s 1 S nicm al implica ion~ in his con ex meani ng s nic u ally p oduced, ha is, a ss lln ::d o impli< :d (analy ic) consequences o he h:isic he ny o o n ep . ENGINEERING. MANAGEME: iT. AND ETI ll CS -T '<10 HA!~ OR TH REE? 55 An agen is o he held esponsihle o he ou co nes o his o he ac ions by an íns ance o which (s)he is accoun able. An eng in ee desighi ng a b id ge o a dam is esponsible o he supe iso , e nplo- ye , clien and /o he public o he espec i e design in e ms o ech- nical co ec ness, sa e y, cos , easibili y e c. F equen ly, accoun abili y ques ions a e aised in ex ampla y nega i e cases, by ailing in one o so ne o hese espec s. The b eaking o a dam may be due o alse s a ical compu a ion o o ca eless, negligen o e en chea ing wo k o poo c a smanship o using cheap ma e ial. The e o e, i is impo an o emphasize nega i e ac ion esponsibili y in he o m o esponsibi- li y o p e en ion - and a imes o p ese1 a ion espec i ely. P o essionals, e.g., ha e he esponsibili y o he puh l ic o ensu e high s anda ds in hei wo k and o a oid isks o disas e s as a as possi- hle a a easonable cos . The esponsibili y o a oid mis akes, ailu es, pu e quali y o wo k e c. is pa and pa ce ! o causal esponsibili y hu also an ins ance o he espec i e oles and ask esponsibili y o be men ioned la e . A nega i e causal esponsihili y would analy ically be di ec ed al a oiding ca eless omissions. The e is an ac i e espons ibili y o aking he ini ia i e ac i ely o sea ch o po en ial sou ces o dange s and isks which can he called p e en ion(-o i en ed) es ponsibili y. The enginee in cha ge o qu ali y con ol h as sys ema ically o sea ch o echn ical we aknesses. In his case, he p e en ion esponsibili y becomes pa o his ole esponsi- bili y o mally connec ed wi h his job ac i i y. F om he ac ion es- ponsibili y in he na owe indi idual (ac u ili a ian) sense we ha e o dis inguish he gene al esponsibili y o longe anging ac i i y pa - e ns. (E.g., as a pa en one is no only esponsible o indi idual ac ions and hei consequences wi h espec o one's child en bu in a much mo e comp ehensi e manne encompassing many possi ble ac io ns as well as omi ssio ns.) Ve y o en, we ha e ins i u ions o co po a ions ac ing collec i ely. The e o e, he e is a esponsibili y o ins i u ional o co po a e ac ions: I may coincide, hough no be iden ical, wi h he indi idual esponsi- bili y o a pe son being in a e p esen a i e pos i i on ( he ep esen ing ac o be i in an indi idual g oup o a ins i u ion o co po a ion). Leade ship esponsibili y wi h espec o ou side add essees and ins- anc es a e bu one example o his kind o esponsibili y. The mos usual case o esponsibili y deal wi h so a is indi i- dua! ac ion esponsibili y. Bu i a g oup is ac ing collec i ely o indi- iduals pa icipa e in a join g oup ac ion, be e is he co- esponsibili y 56 HANS LENK Y i IA 11 li!AS MAJUNG o pa aking membe s , o he co -ac o s, so o speak. The esponsihi li y o g oup ac ions is som e imes called colle c i e o g o up espons ibili y (Ladd) (c . he l ow ). Ac ion e spons ibili y would s ill eside on he mos gene al le e! o ahs ac ion. l has s ill o be subs an ia ed by con en , be i by o le asc ip ion/desc ip ion, legal, o mo al conside a ions. The e o e, he second le e! is comp ised o he ypes o ule and ask espcmsihi i~ (see Fig. 2): Role and Task Responsihili y (Fig. 2) lksp"n'il"l 1 o o k·- l;llllmc n ( ole :-ipe< :ilic a .,1'. l'-'- pc:m :-.1h1- li y 1-- ---l in o ma l ln "i i u ional ole c: ~pon- ·" b ili y o n .·¡i c.s<.> n al1 ' C' oles Oead<: ,Jup. bo :mJl o mal in o mal Loyalily es p< n - ,¡l,1 1i y Ca in g '--- -- -+- -----'- -- - --- --! csponsih 1-l 11y L abili e sp< n~ih i- li y o ~a m z; 1 uc 111al l' S p lll- c() p c lí :. h: n. :s p ms 1b1h 1y o 1 "illl UCi ons <wi h cj .1 d o n1emh ..· ~. !'oo- ne y. ~ e.: . > mo a l l <: ¡.( al -:NG INEEl{! NC. '. .IANAliE~IE:' T. AND ETHICS - T X () HATS OH THHEP 57 (l does no seem necessa y o gi e ex;.imples he e, since e e y- body akes o e ami ul íls oles and asks assigned o him o he o chosen by onese l .) In aking o e ami ul illing a ole o a ask (e.g. in a job) a ol e-ho ld e usually bea s a n :: spons ihi li y o (no mal, i.e. accep abk, o op imum) ole- ul il nen . These ole du ies migh he assignecl in a o mal way o be mo e o l ess in o mal. They can e en be legally asc ihed o a leas be legally ele an . I he ole- ake is a ep esen a i e in co po a e o ins i u ional ole pa e ns his esp onsih i- li y may he connec ed wi h he espec i e in s i u ional ole esponsibi- li i es (e.g. in leade ship). A ole Clike ha o a pa en ) migh comp ise he esponsihili y o a depenclen 's well-being , i.e. a ca ing esponsi- bili y ( hich is a a he in e es ing ype o he mo al poin o iew). I3esi<le gene al ole esponsihili ies we encoun e also esponsibi- li ies co ela ed jus wi h speci ic asks, he h ese de i ed om a ole pa em o no . Lo yal y o a pe son o ins i u ion need no he connec- e<l wi h a pa icula ole. The e o e, a loyal y esponsibili y is o be deal wi h on di e en e ms. I may come in he o m o a ca ing es- ponsibili y, oo. In addi ion, e lla e he co po a e esp onsibili y o ins i u ions o co po a ions, i hese ha e a special ask o obliga ion o pe o m wi h espec o clien s, he public o membe s o he o ganiza ions e c. This ype o esponsibili y can he o legal, mo al o neu ally o ganiza ional cha ac e . The e may again he a coinciclence wi h a g oup esponsihi- li y (o a g oup heing in cha ge o he ins i u ion o co po a ion). Role- holde s and ins i u ions o co po a ions migh be held liahle in e ms o legal, mo a l o so cial quali ica ions - e.g., wi h espec o social con- ol o he la e . The liabili y migh be an accoun abili y o incu punishmen o o pa y an inclemni ica ion o o eins a e a o me con- di io n. The hi d le e! o esponsihili y co nsis s o ypes o wzi1·e sal 111u al esponsihilí y (see Fig. 3F. A i s , hen, we ha e be di ec mo al esponsibili y o he agen 's ac s and esul s o bis o he ac ing as ac i a ed by he ac ion si ua ion. This esponsibili y is di ec ed O a cl pe sons o li ing beings whos e well-being ( li e and limh as well as psychical and emo ional s a e) is a ec ed hy he agen "s ac i- i y. CThe mo al poin o iew is al ways co ncei ed in e ms o he ! To be su c. :1 ou11h ll' d o csponsih i li y ypcs ·oul l ha e o co e a l ia - g1~11111nc o he a ianb o legal csponsih ih y in duding hei c la ionsh 1p o legal liahili y ami guil . A i h ype o n.:sponsihili y is hc ehgious csponsihili y o he ai h ul. llA'.'IS l.ENK Y , IAlTHIAS MARING .3.4 A second and di e en ca ego y wi h espec o he p ohlems o n.:sponsihili y dis ihu ion i ncludes he ex e na] e spon sihili y o co - po a ions. i.e .. he co po a ion ancl some o ali o i s membe s ( ep e- sen a iw esponsihili y ,.s. p:11 ic ipa1 o y esp on sihili yl. and co po a- ion nembe s al une ( educible o lll' speci ic ypes o es pons ibi!i y); in e na! esponsih ili y in di e en ly s uc u ed co po a ions ( hi e a - chi es de.) as indi idual esponsihili y and co- espons ihi li y: he dele- ga ion o esponsibili y; a ncl a 1y ing ypes o esponsibi li y. Mo al espon sihili y - his is he main and leading hypo hesis - is usually, in ega d o (a leas ideal l co po a e ac ion, cli e en iable and am i ied: i is co po a ions as such, co po a ion membe s. o he co - po a ion and i s me mh e s among o he s ha ca n be held mo a lly es- ponsih le. The a ibu i on o indi idual mo al esponsihili y mus be sepa a ely jus i ied in each case. In gene al , one shouk l makc.: a dis- inc ion he wL'en he ex e na! (mo a l, legal, ole) esponsibil i y o he co po a ion~ ami he ko L'spondingl in e na] esp onsihi li y di s ihu- ion. Besidc.: hL' ole o ask -spe ci i c. hL' legal and he co po a i e ac ion esponsihili y. co po a i ons ami ins i u ions do ha'-e a mo al es - ponsihili y o an accoun ahili y analogous o mo al es punsibili y. This mo al esponsihili y c an also he uncle s ood as a hi ghe le e! espon- sihili y: il wou ld ex is in addi i on o ancl inclepenc!L'n o he speci ic indi idual esponsihili ies o he indi idual co po a ion nemhe . Indi idual esponsihili y and co po a e L'sponsihili y do no ba e he same meaning: hey canno simply be mu ually e cl uced o one ano - lie . The esponsihili y o eme ki nd o ype cloes n o eplace he o he o m. al h ough in gene al. hese an aly ical y dis inguished nodel con- cep s my o e ap in social eali y. Co po a ions can ac .. in c.:n ionally", hough in a manne non- c.:ducible o indi,·iclual ac ion ( i. e .. hey ac in he seconda 1y sense , on a highe le e! o social ic i on , on a symholic o seman ica lly s uc u- ed ami in e p e ecl plane; hei ac ions hecause o his a ncl he social co n se qu ences a e no less eal han a pe son's ac ions). Such a co p o- a e espo nsihili y. ha is no eq ui ale n! o he immedia ely hea ah l e, di ec . pe sonal esponsib ili y applie s o husinesses. he s a e and co - po a ions as wdl as o ecl nical and scien i k o ganiza ions. Un il now. he acli ional a p io i combina ion o he a ihu ion o mo a l esponsihi li y o na u al pe sons, i.e ., he concep s o es pon sihili y lin - kecl o incli iduals, appea ed o he insu moun ahle ha ie s ega ding he a ihu ion o mo al esponsibili y o co po a ions ami si ua ions. ENCINEEIUNG. J . IA 'ACEl .IENT. AND Ell- llCS - ·1 wo H ATS OR THHEE~ Mus ha be so? We hink. no. Ra he . he exclusi e limi a ion o he indi idualis ic modd bwa ed. Should one no a he de elop a hi e- a chical model ha adequa ely and cli e en ially pu s he esponsihi- li ies on he a ious le els? Making o holding co po a ions esponsib le may also cons i u e a i s s ep o a ihu ing esponsihili y in co po a e ac ion; he (c:o po a- ion in e na]) dis ibu ion p ohlem can be deal wi h in a sec:ond s ep. The la e is di ic:ul o deal Vi h acco ding o esponsibili y ypes. The ollowing wo king hypo beses a e o mula ed o add ess his poim. 1. On ly gene al dis ihu ion ules can he laid down wi h ce ain y. 2. These ules a e (idea ll y) o he applied o each indi idual case Vi h ex a p o isos ega ding he special con di ions. 3. The esponsibili y dis ihu ion is de e mine<l by he s u c u es o he o ganiza ion, decision-making s uc u es (In e na! Decision Uni s) ami p incipies (indi idual and collec i e ins ances ancl uni s; unanimi y o majo i y p incipies). (This applies o he social s uc u e in ge ne a l. oo.) 4. The ex e na! esponsibili y in iew o hi d pa ies, socie y and o hei de an ins ances. is <lependen on he co po a e s uccu e, on he in luence and con ol o in di idua ls, on he con ibu ions o (ind i idua]) agen s and in gene al on he in e na! es p onsib ili y dis i- hu ion (in che sense o co npe ency and ask dis ibu ion and ole- s uc: u e ). 'i. The in e na] esponsihili y o he ul ilmen o asks and oles " V i h cspec o colleagues is also p ima ily de e mined by he co po- a e s uc un:. l is p ima ily an accoun abili y o supe io s and a spe- cial case o he ole and ask esponsibili y. (The ohse a i on o h ese du i es is gene ally legally equi ed, usually in o m o a con ae ; i can also he mo ally equi ed.) 6. Tasks and compe encies ancl he accompanying esponsibili y can he delegaced. The esponsibili y o he delega ing pe son cloes no (necessa ily) end he e. In gene a l, howe e . mo al esponsibili y, can- no be delega ecl. 7. The (no ma i e) esponsibil i y o che conseq uences o ac ions is p ima i ly a esul o he indi idual con ihu ions o ac i on ancl p o - duc i on. T he indi idual di ec o o he C hie Execu i e O ice , as we ll as he pe o me o execu i e, would ac in cl eed. (The pe o mance o an o de o a command <loes no , howe e , gene ally exculpa e he 66 HANS LENK Y . JA'ITI llAS MAlUNG pe o mc: .) The dis ibu ion o such an ex e n a! o he espec i e in e - na) c:sponsibili y, which assum es o he esponsib ili y dis i bu ions, esul s om he espe c i e con ibu ion o h e ac ion o p od uc ion and om he in o l emen o he ac o o con i bu o . 8. Ro le and ask espo nsibili y esul s om o mal as well as in o - mal oles ami asks; he c: sponsib ili y and i s (e x e na) o in e na!) dis- ihu ion de pc: nds on co po a e s uc u e , hi e a chy ancl posi ion. 9. Mo al esponsihili y (in a na owe se nse) as simply cli ec ly and pe sonally a ihu ahlc: e spons ib ili y in iew o ex e na! o in e - na ! ad essees is made opical by i s own ac ion and possihili i es o ac ion. Mo al esp onsib il i y is a unc ion o powe , i n l ue nc e and knowledge. The co - es pons ibi li y de e min es i sel co esponcling ly wi h ega d o he s a egic pl aceme n o an indi idual in a co po n- i on. I is inc easing wi h g owing o mal au ho i y o he bea e an d he le e! o po si i on wi hin he hie a chy o co po a e decision s uc- u e. The mo al esponsibili y o A can he Ja ge , sma ll e o equally la ge as ba o 13 . H owe c , e spons ibili y dis ibu ion is no sui ecl o pe cen age dis ibu ion analysis; i is be e s ui ed o compa a i e s a- emen s. Mo al esponsib il i y is nol ea ll y di isible; i is o pen o sha- ing hough. l can he ho me solely (c:xdusi c:ly) o join ly (eac h pe - son ully o pa ly). In he dis ibu i on mo<lel o mo al esp onsib ili y he inc.li ic.l uali y o he a ibu i on an<l he no ally equi ed non -d isap- pea ance o hc co - es ponsib ili y i is necessa y o ake s e iously he mo al accoun ahili y e en in i ew o a g owing num he o pa i cipan s ( which migh ac ually encl o minimize he pe sonal sha e o he es- ponsibil i y). 10 . Thc lc:gal cli s ibu ion o esponsibili y is d ea l wi h s ep a a e ly ac co ding o legal o na u al pe so ns, o hc espec i e ci il o c imi- na l law, o l ega l aspec s o adm i ni s a ion o he s a e o co ns i u iona l app oaches. In his way he legal pe son is, as a ule, liable o hi d pa ies o h ose who ac on i s hehal acco ding o (Ge man) ci il law ho ugh n o (in Ge m any o in s anc e) acco di ng o he c iminal law. In e nally speaking, he co po a ion may ha e claims agains na u al pc: sons (e.g. membe s). This is no he case wi h co po a ions w bi ch a e no "legal pe sons"' acc o ding o he Genna n ci il law. 4.5 The e is a u he p obl em o he es ponsibili y dis ibu i on eme ging om he u se o expe and in o ma ion sys ems (c . Le nk 19 89). Can hese be espo nsible? Resides he " esponsihili y !...] in he sys ems" (Hae ne ); can wc: mak e comp l ex in o ma ional cleci si on- making sys ems a nd expe11 s ys ems esponsible? Is ha no an unno- E>i< ~l>iE E IW CI . ~ I ANA< ; EME: T. : ND ETHICS - T VO HATS OH THHEE' 67 i ced in oduc ion o i esponsihili y wi h no one o he appoin ed guil y. an in i ngemen o ansg e ss i on o a ahoo o e e n a ca ego i- cal mis ak e on he side o he analyse ' l is ind eed meaning ul and impo a n o make comp u e sys em s mo e dia hle. bu i is no neaning ul o a ibu e mo al us wo hi- ness and e:-. )()nsibili y o hem . Indeecl, ha ' ould be ahsu d and s oun d o<ld! Compu e s a e no m o a l be in gs, j us as in o ma ion sys - ems a e no soc ial beings. ln sp i e o hei a - eaching soc i al impli- ca ions. human beings nus ca y hc ull esponsibili y o he use o misuse o echnical sys ems - hu which hum an heings? T he p og a n - ·me ? TlH.: di ec o o he comp u ing cen e? The en e p en eu ? The po li ician? ... The n :spo nsih il ily may, in iew o he possihle a - ea- ching implica ions o esponsible decisions o humans, espec ially indi iduals. ha cl ly seem bea able. bu mo a ll y i s ill ex is s. Hum an heings canno mo ally d ep i e h emse l es o hei powe o dec i sion ancl hei a ccou n ahili y , hey canno and should no ce de hei mo al espon si hili y o compu e s and in o ma ion sys ems. (This h es is mus , howe e . s ill he es ahlished and wo ke d ou ). In i ew o he ac ual expansion o au oma ecl condi io ned decisions, his esponsihili y clilemma. which he pa icipan s a mi he highe clecision-make s can - no a oid. will become mo e a nd mo e p ess in g in he u u e. Iksponsihili y can no he all owe d o be dilu ed , ei h e in anonymi y o unde he p o ec ion o commi ees, o in he in o ma i on and d ec i- sion -m aki ng sys ems. Possibili ies o a coun e - eac ion exis in a hig - h e se nsi iza ion o hc esp on sih il i y awa eness, in he d e elop men o a Code o E hics o compu e expe s, in he in e disciplina y ese- a ch a mi in an a ll iance in eachi ng and ain i ng o ali knowledge -o i en- h .:d disciplines. e c. 4. E11 !.ÍIZl!e i11 !. Codes o .' hics mu! he Reso/u m o Res¡xmsihili y Coi(/lic s We eco de d app ox ima ely 450 Co des o E hics o simila egu la - ions like scien is s' o enginee s' oa hs. Th e eco ded co cl es com e o n a ious p o essional o ganiza ions (mos ly Ame ican), especially om associa ions ancl socie ies o en gin ee s and scien is s. lni ial com pa i- sons and o e iews i nd i ca e d la ge co esponde n ces in he Fundamen a l P incipies and Canons; di e ences a e ound mos ly in he speci i c Guideli nes . The con en s o e mo e o a so n o e hos o he espec i e p o essi on han a genui ne cod e o e hics (i "e hics" is 68 llAO' S L ENK Y i l lTlllAS MAl{[N ; unde s ood in he s ic sense ela ing o uni e sa l mo al nonns). A disa d an age in espec o he ap pli cab ili y a lea s o he espec i e p o essio ns in Ge many is ha h e codes a e oo s ongly o ien ed o en ginee s as sel - emp l oyed o op manage s; mos (Gennan) engine- e s do no i hese ca ego ies (hu his seems o be ue in he USA, oo). A u nd amen al unc ion o he Codes is he sensi i za i on o engi- nee s, scicn is s. enginel' ing unions. ancl science and echnical p o- L--;sionals ami o ganiza ions o c hical p oblems ami o con lic s be - " een e bi o; and. o example, economic goals. Fu h e possihili i es o implemen ing, applying, ins i u ionalizing and ope a ionalizing he co d es sh ould he can: ully consid e ed and, i mc:: aning ul. he i mp o ed Cod c:: s shou lcl h en he ins a llc::cl and en o ced. Rega ding p o essional Cueles o E hics he ollowing hesis can he p esen ed o pos ula ecl (c . Lenk 1 99 1 ): P o essi onal egula ions and ules o heha iou such as he Codes o E hics should no jus he ega - cled as ep esen ing he cu en p o essional e hos; comp ehens i e e hical consicle a ions induding unie sal applicabili y and commi me n , gene a l so cial aluc::s and go als ha l' also o be ecognized and e o - m ula e d wi hin he Codes as s omehow obli ga o y o e ec i e guideli - nes; be o ien a ion o he co mmon goocl(s) should he s eng henecl, a i ous ins i u ional con ols and possibili ies o oh aining ami u h e- ing discipli ne:: wi hin hc:: g o u p. co po a ion, o g aniza i on o ins i u- ion sh ould he induded; pa icula no i ce shoulcl he gi en !O he ques- ion o he s uc u al in e ela ions wi h he ma ke and in wo king li e (in husines s es and co po a i ons as c::ll as ins i u ions), o ins i u ional co po a e esponsih ili y an d o mo al ideals ( ep esen ing i ue s hich ca nno be lega ll y en o cecl, ins ilu i ona liz ed o con o ll ed) . I he c odc::s sh ould s ill ind s onge and inc ease cl en 1y i nco hc:: posi- i e law am i gain a kind o kgal s a us (mayhe ia clauses ha need o he:: illed in like .. goo d cus oms .. <§ 138 BG B, Gc:: nan Ci il La w)), hc:: chances o he ealiza ion o he endes wo ulcl he ehy be g ea ly enhance d. hecaus e appeals alonc:: and susn :p ahili y ami he sensi iza- ion o he indi iduals -especíally o depende n! employees - do no seem o he su icien , as n ecessa y as hey a e indeecl. Ins i u ional s up po ing measu es a e also equi ecl. ll emains i mp o an o incl u- de e h ic al ami mo al hasic ins uc i ons in ed uc a ion as well as in ech- no logica l, echnical :md on - he-job- a in ing and o p o i de o acco m- panying measu es. i.e., simila ily he discussi on and pu blica ion o case s u di es , o es abli sh e hics co n uni ees. o design and ende com- mi ing p o essional hi ppoc a ic oa hs o analogous ows e c., ami o gi e legal su o o e hic:al emp loyees unde p essu e, so ha he EM~l: EEHlí' ll . IAl AC ; E IENT. AND ETHICs - TWO H ATS Oll TH REE' 69 p o i.:ssionaJ E hics C:o des do p o e no o be jus p e e n ces o ine -- ec i,·e alihi appeals ha ha e no hing o do w i h eal li e. (Ou hooks -'J'eclwik 1111d E bik ( Techno/op,y aml R hics) (ed s. H. Lenk, G. Ropohl, S u ga 1987. 2nd edi ion 1993), YVisse11schají 1111d E hik ( Science and E bics> (e<l. H. L en k. S u ga11 1991) and Wi lscbaJi und E hik ( J:'co1w 111i cs cmd F. hics) kds . H. Len k. M. Ma in g, S u ga 1992) -o e lo s o m a e ial on his opic.) The e is a s011 o social aps in 'ol e d in abicling by o p o i ing om e hical co<l es : People who ollow he ules muse o en d ea l wi h disad an ages, while hosc ho ansg ess hem can bene!} om ad an ages (espec ially when he in in geme n can hc hidclen). P oblems o con ol, sanc ion. us and secu i y also a ise; hese can-- no be sol ed h ough cml es alone. Adcli ional ins i 1 io na l measu es a e in cl e ed necessa y. Rega ding esp ons ib il i y con li c s in p a c ice, he e a e no iso la ed solu ions o sug ge s ions o suc h cases; in s e ad , applicabili y ules o p ac ica! guidelin es on an in e med ia e le e! should he de eloped. These ules shouk.1 di e en i a e, o exa mple , be ween mo al ideals (co e ing i ues as men ioned abo e) and mo al (obliga o1y ) uks (H e nnes sey /Ge ). A co nbina ion o indi i dual ancl ins im ional mea -- su es is necessa y: To u he ancl s eng hen indi idual e h ical com- p e ence is a necessa y, bu by no m ea ns a su icien s e p o he d i- cien solu io n o csponsih il i y p ohle ms and co n li c s. An impl emen- a ion o e hical conside a ions in b and poli ics woulcl supplemen ancl en han ce his s ep. In pa icula , he cod es should explici l y se p i o i ies an d decisi on c i e ia, wh i ch wo uld aid in he solu ion o c he espec i e esponsibili y con lic s. As men ioned aho e , mos enginee s ancl scien is s n owa days wo k as cl ep en den employees in indus y. In so a he espec i e com- pan y en des, p incipies o managemen , as well as gu idelines o s pe - ci ic johs, e c., a e ele an o hem. Inch endes a e usua ll y cli scussed in busi ne ss e hics. Jn p ac ic a! job si ua ions echnology- ela e cl and science-o i en ed qu es i ons and p ohlems a e combined, so ha a d ean-cu se pa a ion o hese is nei he ben e i cia! no meanin g u l in his eal n . Responsibili y o ecbno logy and scien ce (o ese a ch ac i- i y) is pa icula ly conc e i zed in co po a e ac ing in an<l o busines- ses. The e o e, bu si ness e h ics and enginee ing e hics as we ll as he ex e na] esp ons ih ili y o he esca che a e cloesly ela ed. 70 HANS l. ENK Y l lA' ITH!AS MAHING 5. P io i y Rules In c on si d e i ng di e en yp es o e sponsib ili y, we w ill also ha e o de elop p io i y ules. as o exa m ple , ha mo al espo nsibili y a kes p ecedenc e o e o le- espons ihili y. We wou ld like o p opas e he ollowing 10 u les o p d e ence am i p i o i y whi ch a e no sys e- ma ically a anged in a suc cess i e o de and alid un de p i ma - acie- cond i i ons ( ha hu excc p he i s ou ones p esen ed ju s is hey may he o c - ulccl hy highe ancl mo e hindin g mo al ohliga ions). ( The i s ou ul es a e a dap ed om We hane 1985, pp. 72 .) 1. To Ve igh mo a l igh s o he n:spe c i e indi idual; h ese m o a l i gh s a e n on-a li enahle p edis ibu i e o p imo dial igh s o e i di ng u il i y conside a ions. 2. To seek a co m p omise aking in o cons id e a ion in e es s o e e1yo ne on an equal basis; in c ase o an u nso l ablc o scemi ngly unsol able con lic be ween equally de an ba sic igh s he co n di i on m en ioned in he dause is espe cially impo an . 3. Onl y a ' e cunsi de ing h e mo al igh s o each pa y o ne s hou ld o e o hc so lu ion which causes he leas damage o maxi- mi zcs u ili y o ali in ol ed pa ies. 4. Only a e applica ion o ule l., 2. and 3. u ili y co nside a ions a e o be we i gh ed a ga ins p o en ial ha m . Tha m eans in ge ne al: Non-ali ena ble (p edi s i bu i e) mo al igh s a e p io o co nside a io ns o a oicling ha m ancl damage and hese la e a e p io o u ili y co n- si de a ions. 5. In p ac ica ll y un sol ah le con lic s one should look o ai co m- p o mises ( ha is o co mp omises wh i ch in ol e p oxima ly eq ua ll y dis i bu ed o p opo ionally jus i ied dis ibu ions o disad an ages and u ili ies es pec i ely.) 6. Gen e al (highe l e el) mo al es pons ib il i y is o oh ain a p e- e ence o e es ic ed nonmo al p ima- acie-obliga i ons. 7. Uni e sal mo al es pon sibil i y g en e n ll y a kes p e e ence o e ole and ask e spon si bili y. 8. Di ec o p ima y mo al espons ihili y is usua ll y bu no al ways o be considc ed p io o incli ec esp onsibili y o emo e co nse- quences. (This is ue b eca use o u gency h u s houl d a imes and in cases be modi ie cl acco ding o i mpo ance a nd im pac o co nseq ue n- ces and lo ng a nge e e c i eness .) (S ee also u le I 7 bdow.) ENG!N E EH I NG . MANAGEMENT. A:'-:D ETHJC-; - T VO HA TS OH THHEE' 71 9. P ima y ami pe sonal mo a l espo nsibili y p eced es he seco n- d a1y o second-l e d co po aie esponsi bili y. 10. The puhlic wea l as we ll as " he commo n good" su passes all o h e sp ec i ic, special, specious a nd pa icula in e es s. 11. In echnical ul es and egula ions o applied sc ience i mpo - a n p incipies o p io i y a e o mu la ed e ga ding sa e y egula ions, e.g. Ru le DIN 31.000 o he Ge man Tec hni cal Regul a ion DIN ex pli- ci ly s a es: "'W i h espec o sa e des i gn (i is impe a i e ha ) ha sol u- i on has o be p e e ed o which he sa e y goals will be eache <l in a echno logically meani ng ul way and he be s economi ca l manne . In case o doub sa e y eq ui emen s ake p e ce d en ce o e ec onomical conside a i on ." 12. Sa o y goes on op o echnical- un c ional and econom ic con- side a ions (as o ins ance DI N 31.000 wo ulcl pos ula e). 13. Global o con inen al as wdl as egional and local cn i on- men a l com pa ib ili y a e o he di e en ia ed a nd ha e o be aken in o accoun : sys em- ele an o decisi e e n i onmen al compa ibili y an d usua ll y h e com pa a i e ly speak ing mo e comp e hen si e compa ibili y s ay in on . Sus ainable de el opm en o ecosys ems is pa i cula ly u gen on ea ch o hese le els. 14. U gency o ec ocompa ibili y an d sus ainabili y ( esp ecially a sys em-dec is i e on e) a e o op econ omic u ili y. 15. Social and h um an co mpa ibil i y would in he case o con li c p e ce de aho e en i onmen al a nd na u e o spec i es com pa ihili ies which a e howe e s ill o be co nside ed by he way o eaching o meani ng ül co np omises. 16. Human and social acce p ah ili y su pass unc ional e iciency and u ili y. 17. Co nc e e humani y and huma n eness sh ould go in on o abs ac equi em en s an<l o mal uni e sal p inci ple s. Such ul es o p i o i i es a e con duc i e o acing an d p ob ab ly so l- ing co nílic s be w ee n di e en ypes o espons ibili i es o h aining in a pa icula ac u al si ua i on o co n üc . Whe eas di e en ia ing be ween he l e e!.-; an<l ypes o e spons ibili ies is necessa1y o he disco e1y and icle n i ica i on o co n lic s, he ul es o p io i ies co uld help u ll y be appliecl in so l ing o a leas cg ul a ing and assessing he espec i e con lic -si ua ions and in acing hei spe cial sou ces. Ye , in his ealm m uc h wo k h as s ill o he done in he u u e. 72 HA'. IS LE NK Y 1 I A1T I llA~ MAlONG RF l'l u: :-.;c..: s : ; !) LITEHATl 'JU' Eddy. H. - Pone . F. - l' age . 13. 09 76): D 's i11a io11 Disas e . New Yo k 1976. F enc h. P.A. ( 1984 ): Collec il•e mu! Cui¡xmlle Respo11sihi/i y. New Yo k 19 84. H:1e ne , K. (1984): Me11sch wui C< m1p11 im J ab e 2000 . Base! - Bos on - S u ga1i 1984. H a din , G. (1968): The T a ge dy o he Commons. Pp . 1243-1248 in Science 162 ( 1968). H ennessey, J.W. - Ge 11 . B 0985): Mo al Ru l es and Mo al Ideals: A Use ul Dis in c ion in Bus in ess an i Pm essiona l P ac ice. Pp. 105-115 in Jo11 11ul o B11 si11ess l!' hics 4 ( 1 985) . Jiih . W.A. (1976): Die kul/e/dil'e Selhs schiidigun, .¿ d ch Ve jdgung des eige - 11e11 l/o11eils. Pp. 127-l 'i9in Neum a k. F. - Thal h dm, K. - Hiilz le , H. <Fcls.): e hell'e /J. Konze11 a i<J11 1 11d 11 · i scbajili c he Machi. Be lin 1 976 . L dd . J. (1975): Th L' E hics o Panidpa ion . Pp. 98 -125 in Nomos 16 0975). Lenk, H. (197'i): l' agmalis c be Philu.·wphie. Hambu g 1975. Lenk. H. (l 979l: P agma iscbe Fen11mji. S u ga 1979. Lenk, H. ( 1982): Zu Sozialphílosophie de Techn ik. F ank u a.M. 1982. Lenk. H. ( 1989): Künnen In on na i onssys eme mo alisch e an wo li ch sc i n' Pp. 248-255 in !11.. o 111a ik- Sp e k um 12 0989 ). L cnk . H. (E !.) (199 1 ): Wi ssemcbci . 1md E bik. S ul ga 1i 1991. L cnk , H. ( 1991 l: E hikkodizes - zu:iscben scb<Jnen Sc hein wul ' ba e ' All ags ealilii . Pp. 327 -353 in Le nk. H . - Ma ing, M. ( Eds.): Tech 1ik11 e a11 '<> 111114. Gü e ah11'iig1111g Riskiuh e 11 1 l!l' 11ng Ve bal enskodizes. F ank u11 a. M. 199 1. L enk. H. 0992>: Z11•iscbe11 Wissensc haj 111ul E hik . F ank 111 a.M . 1992 Le nk , H. ( l 994 a l: Vcm De11 1111ge11 z 11 We111111g en. Eine Ei11ji ' ihnmp, ill ak ue/les Philosopbie e 11 . F an k u 1i a.M. 199 4. Lcnk. H. Cl99 4bl : Machi u11d Macbba l<.ei de Tech11ik. S u ga 1994. Le nk , H. - Ma in g, M. ( 1 990 ): Ve a n wo un g und soziale Fa ll en . Pp. 49- 57 in E hik wu So z iulu 1 i.wmscbaji 1 ( 1990). Lenk, H. - Ma ing , M. CE d s. ) 099 2): Wi scba. 1md E hik . S un gan 1992. L enk , H. - Ma ing. M. (1995a): Z um Vc hiil nis on Tec hnik e hik und Wi sc ha s c hik. Pp . 33- 40 in Gescbic h e und Gep,e1mw 14 0995) . Lcnk, H. -Ma ing, M. 0995b) : We sol! Ve an ul(}/1 mg agen? Pmbleme de l 'l:n1 11 11·m 11 11gs1•e11eii1111g i11 k0111plexe1 1 ( sozio ech11iscben-soz i<>ük<nw - E ' C l:-.J E E IU' (~. , JANACE ENT. : : D ETHICS - T X 10 HA TS OR T HH EP 73 111i scb<' ll J S)•s e 111 e1 1. Pp. 241-286 in Ba Yl.! z, K. <Ed. ): 1 'e cm 1/'1J 1 11u. P i11zip ode l' oh /e11 i.> Da ms ad 1995. Lcnk. H. - Rop ohl. <~ . CEds.> < l987): Tecbnik und E hik. S u ga 1987, 21993. Ma ing. :Vi. ( 1989 ): Mod clk ko p o a i ' e Y e a n w o un g. l'p . 2)-41 in Cc111cep 111s 2~ e 1989 ). Pe o w. C. ( 1987): .Vomwle Ka as u¡1be11 . F a nk u a.l L - i ew Yo k 1987. l'ngc . S.H. <1982): 0 111 oll i11g Tech1wlup,y: E hics mul he R e.1}J1m síhle E11p,i11ee . Ncw Yo k u.a. 1982. We hane. P.H . ( 19 8) ): Pe s<ms. Righ s. mul Co pu ali ms. Engl ewoo d Cli s, NJ 1985.