Participation in Development: The Question, Challenges and Issues a Symposium Background Paper

Pa icipa ion in De elopmen : The Ques ion, Challenges and Issues. A Symposium Backg ound Pape Abs ac Tha ull1 pa icipa ion is essen ial o sus ainable de elopmen , bo h domes ic and o e seas, is now widely accep ed; bu he e is li le ag eemen abou wha i is. De ini ions and ypologies o ull pa icipa ion un he gamu om communi y collabo a ion in p e-de e mined p ojec s, all he way h ough o ecognising ha communi ies mus de e mine and con ol hei own de elopmen p ojec s. All communi ies, e en he leas ad anced, can encoun e obs acles o de elopmen such as, among o he s, di icul physical en i onmen s, adi ional gende oles, he cul u e o ela ionships ( ha is, hie a chies o powe ) and o ganisa ional in lexibili y. Based on a numbe o in e iews and a su ey o he li e a u e, his pape examines he meaning o ull pa icipa ion and iden i ies he p incipal obs acles o i . Nine key ques ions, cen al o de e mining he le el o commi men o pa icipa o y de elopmen , ha e eme ged om his pape : 1. Is he e awa eness o and commi men o he cen ali y o pa icipa ion in de elopmen among g ass oo s and public o ganiza ions? 2. Is he e an openness o pa icipa ion in policy o ma ion and decision making? 3. Is he e a ocused commi men o esou ces? 4. Is he e capaci y building aining in he skills o g ass oo pa icipa ion? 5. Is i necessa y o inc ease on- he-job and ounda ion aining in pa icipa i e skills among olun a y and paid de elopmen wo ke s and o os e a high le el o expe ise in pa icipa i e aining? 6. A e he e adequa e de elopmen ools o enhance pa icipa ion? 7. Will s uc u es, p og ammes and p ojec cycles acili a e and ewa d pa icipa ion? 8. A e he e adequa e ools o measu e eal pa icipa ion2? 1 The e m “ ull” could be eplaced by he wo d “comple e” o o he wo d ha implies a o al commi men o inclusi eness om he incep ion o he hough o idea. 2 The e m eal pa icipa ion is a subjec i e e m o achie ing ull and meaning ul in ol emen as compa ed o cosme ic in ol emen . 1 9. Will s uc u al change acili a e pa icipa ion? This pape is in ended o p o ide he amewo k wi hin which expe iences and iews may con ibu e o he p ocess o mo ing close o ully pa icipa o y and sus ainable de elopmen . The Con ex This pape was p epa ed o he symposium en i led "Pa icipa o y De elopmen ; The Ques ions, Challenges and Issues" o ake place a S . Pa ick's College, Maynoo h, Co. Kilda e, s a ing a 6 pm on Thu sday Feb ua y 20 h, 1997 and concluding a 1.30 pm on Feb ua y 22nd. The aims o he pape a e o:  p o ide an o e iew o he de ini ions o pa icipa ion;  desc ibe models o pa icipa ion;  commen on he issues ela ing o pa icipa ion in de elopmen pe inen o bo h domes ic (in I eland) and o e seas con ex s;  iden i y he cu en challenges o achie ing ull pa icipa o y de elopmen . W i en wi hin a h ee mon h pe iod, he pape does no se ou o o e jus one de ini ion o , o he mos app op ia e ypology o , e ec i e pa icipa o y de elopmen . I simply p esen s a ange o de ini ions and ypologies, and hen aises ques ions, challenges and issues o discussion by he symposias s. The au ho has add essed he issues as hey a ise in o dina y, peace ul si ua ions. The au ho chose o exclude Con lic s o na u al disas e s si ua ions because hey would change he con ex . The esou ces and me hodology used in p epa a ion o he pape included:  he de elopmen expe ience o he au ho ;  he cumula i e expe ience o he wo king g oup; 2  a se ies o s uc u ed in e iews wi h de elopmen wo ke s wo king ei he o e seas o a home, in pa ne ship o ganiza ions, in go e nmen al and non-go e nmen al o ganiza ions. In e iews we e conduc ed wi h aine s in communi y o ganiza ions, membe s o issue based g oups, indi iduals in o ganisa ions add essing subs ance abuse, unemploymen , ma ginalisa ion and di ided communi ies.  In e iews we e also conduc ed wi h adminis a o s o local and o e seas de elopmen p og ammes; g oup discussions wi h u al de elopmen g oups, g oups o communi y wo ke s and communi y olun ee s;  li e a u e e iews om lib a y sea ches and ma e ial p o ided by de elopmen ac i is s. The pape is hea ily in e spe sed wi h e e ences and quo a ions which migh make i mo e di icul o ollow, bu eade s a e asked o accep his limi a ion in he in e es s o p o iding a pape which can be a sou ce o e e ences o hose symposias s who would like o de elop he concep o pa icipa o y de elopmen u he . The symposium is expec ed o esul in an ac ion plan o imp o ed p ac ice in u u e pa icipa o y de elopmen . 3 Pa icipa ion in De elopmen : The Ques ion, Challenges and Issues A Symposium Backg ound Pape 3 1. In oduc ion The issue o pa icipa ion, o he lack o i , is, acco ding o Reynolds and Healy (1993, p 5), o cing i s way on o na ional and in e na ional agendas. Awa eness ha pa icipa ion is a "c ucial ing edien in success ul de elopmen " (De G aa , 1986, pp 12-14 quo ed in B ehony, p 31) is g owing. So oo, is he awa eness, a all le els o de elopmen , ha sus ainabili y is e y closely linked o he ull and eal pa icipa ion o bene icia ies in he de elopmen p ocess. As a consequence, in many pa s o he wo ld, in e es in esea ch and de elopmen in o pa icipa o y de elopmen app oaches is inc easing (Thompson, 1995, Pla , 1996). While ha in e es is welcome, i is na ow and does no adequa ely add ess he "in eg a ed-ness" and "holis ic-ness" o pa icipa o y de elopmen . I pa icipa ion is e ec i ely o unde -pin ue de elopmen o hose mos in need, hen i will ha e o e lec a global pe spec i e wi hin local ac ion and communal o communi y p ocesses. The need o his ision and comple eness is adequa ely e lec ed in he li e a u e. Reynolds and Healy(1993) quo e John Rawls highligh ing he need o a jus socie y based on he win p inciples o he equali y o basic igh s and du ies and compensa ion o inequali ies in weal h and au ho i y, pa icula ly o he leas ad an aged membe s o socie y. Reynolds and Healy poin ou ha when hese p inciples a e applied o he whole o socie y, hey lead o he p inciple o equal pa icipa ion whe e "all ha e he common s a us o equal ci izens" (Rawls, 1971, p.227). Rawls is w i ing abou heo y; in p ac ice he e is no equali y. E idence, bo h global (see UNDP, any yea ) and local (see Annual Repo o he Comba Po e y Agency, 1995), inc easingly shows a widening gap be ween he con en ed and he ma ginalised in an 3 This pape was p epa ed a a symposium en i led "Pa icipa o y De elopmen ; The Ques ions, Challenges and Issues" in S . Pa ick's College, Maynoo h, Co. Kilda e (now NUI, Maynoo h), on Thu sday Feb ua y 20 h, 1997 4 unjus socie y. Reynolds and Healy, quo ing Galb ai h (1992), ema k ha as he con en ed ha e now become he majo i y, he "agendas o he con en ed" a e mo ing democ acies away om aspi a ions o equali y and a e ni y and owa ds sho e m incen i es. These a e designed o encou age e e yone's in ol emen in ma ke d i en p ocesses ha a e supposed, e en ually, o esul in widesp ead bene i om he e ec s o ickle down (Reynolds and Healy, 1993). The esul is "go e nmen ha is accommoda ed no o eali y o common need bu o he belie s o he con en ed" (Galb ai h, 1992, p 170). T ue de elopmen will be communal in na u e. The con as be ween app oaches based on indi idualism4 and collec i ism5 is discussed in he con ex o empowe men in Cullen, (1996, pp 94-97). "Powe ...is no o ally indi idualized and is inex icably linked o a collec i e p ocess" acco ding o Cullen. He poin s ou ha de elopmen will, he e o e, be "p ima ily conce ned wi h building collec i e o ganiza ions and e ol ing s uc u es ha a e capable o inc easing people's capaci y o con ol hei li es and handle communi y p oblems." He goes on o ema k "Howe e he achie emen o such ou comes is elian on he pa icipa ion o indi iduals, many o whom, gi en hei economic ci cums ances, can ill a o d ex ensi e in ol emen in communi y de elopmen on a pu ely al uis ic basis." This is a cons aining di icul y o pa icipa i e communi y de elopmen because " In he long e m...communi y o ganiza ions a e sus ained h ough ac i i ies wi h a wide collec i e dimension." O ganiza ions ha a e no pa icipa o y o do no enjoy he suppo o he wide communi y a e no sus ainable in e ms o he g ea e good. Pa icipa ion is gene ally conside ed a co e alue in communi y de elopmen (Cullen, 1996 and ADM, 1996b). While communi y de elopmen has o a long ime been ecognized as a bene icial p ocess, he impo ance o pa icipa ion wi hin communi y de elopmen has been inadequa ely s essed. This is pa ly due o he lack o a clea 4 “ he belie ha people can succeed on he basis o hei own indi idual e o s” (Cullen 1996, pp94-7) 5 in e p e a ion o de elopmen , and, he e o e, o he key cons i uen s o e ec i e de elopmen . The need o a new pa adigm o add ess his de iciency, and he new in e na ional con ex , was highligh ed by he UNDP in i s Human De elopmen Repo , 1994, (see also OECD, 1994). Among he elemen s in he UNDP's pa adigm we ind ha i :  "pu s people a he cen e o de elopmen ";  " ega ds economic g ow h as a means and no an end";  "p o ec s he li e oppo uni ies o u u e gene a ions as well as he p esen gene a ions". In making he poin ha O icial De elopmen Coope a ion is an ins umen o ad ancing sha ed objec i es, UNDP calls o "A new design o de elopmen coope a ion" which would lead o "a new e a o de elopmen co-ope a ion whe e economic pa ne ship is based on mu ual in e es s, no cha i y; co-ope a ion no con on a ion; equi able sha ing o ma ke oppo uni ies, no p o ec ionism; a sigh ed in e na ionalism, no s ubbo n na ionalism". The De elopmen Assis ance Commi ee (DAC) o he OECD p oposes ha his model should p o ide a concep ual global amewo k wi hin which he pa ne s in de elopmen can wo k o inc ease aid e ec i eness (OECD, 1994). This in e p e a ion can also be applied locally, bu he ques ion is whe e will his ision come om? Collins no es ha " he e is a undamen al ede ini ion occu ing in I ish socie y...a new ision o he u u e...happening a he inges o I ish socie y a he han a i 's cen e...a he bo om a he han a he op...mo e likely o be ound in communi y g oups a he han in uni e si ies; amongs women han amongs men and amongs olun a y g oups a he han in s a e bodies (Reynolds and Healy, 1993, p 103)." Hulme, Upho , Fowle and Ko en (quo ed in Thompson, 1995) e e o he "Thi d Sec o " as he inno a o o pa icipa o y esea ch and de elopmen . Collins (Reynolds and Healy, 1993, p 104) goes on o no es "Thi d Wo ld de elopmen app oaches ha e long ecognised he cen ali y o pa icipa ion no only as a de elopmen s a egy bu as a de elopmen objec i e." On 5 “T ans o ma ion o pe sonal conce ns in o common issues which become he ocus o g oup ac ions” (Cullen, 1996, pp 94-7) 6 page 111, he ema ks "Pa icipa ion is pa o a pa adigm shi in de elopmen p ac ice and is undamen ally signi ican o de elopmen wi hin a pos -indus ial e a." A de ini ion o de elopmen is in eg al o he new pa adigm and while de elopmen i sel will no be discussed in his pape , i is necessa y o emphasise ha pa icipa ion wi hin de elopmen is essen ial. Eyben (1996, p 1) s a es ha he sus ainabili y o de elopmen "depends on aid helping people o ac o hei own de elopmen ." Ac ing " o hei own de elopmen " implies ac i e pa icipa ion a a communal a he han a an indi idual le el (see Cullen, 1996, Collins, 1988, and Thompson 1996). C ickley, in he ADM Communi y De elopmen Fo um Repo (1996a, p.9), no es ha "The e is a need o dis inguish be ween sus ained economic g ow h and sus ainable economic and social de elopmen ". She goes on o s a e "A communi y de elopmen app oach will by necessi y in ol e pa icipa ion and inclusion...capaci y building, pe sonal de elopmen , adul educa ion, and aining p og ammes." Re e ing o Donnison, Cullen (1996, p 85) no es ha he g ow h in communi y based app oaches o de elopmen " e lec s he ailu e o 'con en ional se ices' o sol e p oblems in 'con en ional ways'" Thompson(1995) no es ha la ge scale s a e ins i u ions a e inc easingly emphasising pa icipa o y me hodologies in de elopmen . Thompson ci es ou easons o his end:  The desi e o ensu e he su i al o de elopmen p og ammes and p ojec s a a ime when s a e o ganiza ions a e being expec ed o do mo e wi h less. Pa ne ship models a e a good means o his end.  P essu e on s a e agencies o adop pa icipa o y models has come om na ional and in e na ional dono s.  Recogni ion o he ailu e o pas esea ch and de elopmen me hodologies o add ess he complex " eali ies o poo people...locally speci ic, di e se and dynamic" .  The widely held no ion ha "mos s a e agencies a e cen alized, au ho i a ian, o malis ic, ine icien bu eauc acies incapable o 7 We a e a a ime when i is becoming mo e widely accep ed ha pa icipa ion is essen ial o sus ainable de elopmen , pa icula ly o he mo e disad an aged and ma ginalised, bu we a e also a a ime o sea ch, h ough deba e and pilo p ojec s, o a de ini ion and a model o de elopmen ha will be e ec i e a he local and he global le els. 8 2. Pa icipa ion De ined The impo ance o pa icipa ion has been ecognized o a long ime - A is o le said ha i was essen ial o he de elopmen and ul illmen o he human pe sonali y. The cen ali y o pa icipa ion as a human igh in de elopmen was highligh ed a he FAO Con e ence on Ag a ian Re o m and Ru al De elopmen in 1979, and in publica ions such as C owley (1985) and Nye e e (1973). The impo ance o pa icipa ion was s eng hened by a numbe o case s udies, like hose o Sibanda, Mo ss and Alzimi (all quo ed in B ehony, 1989) and Ce nea, 1985. Nelson and W igh (1994) no e ha a call o pa icipa o y de elopmen was made a he UN Economic Commission Con e ence o A ica in "Economic Co-Ope a ion and T ans o ma ion" a A usha, Tanzania, in 1990. E en hough he cen ali y o pa icipa ion is widely accep ed he e is no common unde s anding o i . Williams (quo ed in Nelson and W igh 1994) no es ha pa icipa ion is a wa mly pe suasi e wo d, while Oakley e al. (1991) no e ha pa icipa ion de ies any single a emp a de ini ion o in e p e a ion, and Ce nea (1985) e e s o pa icipa ion as a "cloud o he o ic". Tu bayne (in Nelson and W igh , 1994) e e s o a case s udy om Gua emala and no es "O ganiza ions wi h e y di e en ideologies (mili a y and popula mo emen s) bo h use he language o pa icipa ion and empowe men ". As such he e m pa icipa ion can be used in a a ie y o con ex s and can imply a a ie y o meanings. B ehony (1989) e e s o ag eemen among commen a o s, such as Oakley (1987) and Cohan and Upho (1980), ha i is impossible o es ablish a uni e sal de ini ion o pa icipa ion. Lee (Communi y Wo ke s' Coope a i e, 1996) s a es ha he de ini ion o pa icipa ion is unclea . Pla (1996, p 10) poin s ou ha "a common unde s anding o he concep is o en assumed" and goes on o say ha , in p ac ice, "de elopmen ac ions a e o en based on di e ing pe cep ions o pa icipa ion...[and on he] le el and quali y o pa icipa ion being sough ". This clea ly can gi e ise o p oblems. 9 P e y(1995) p esen s a se en le el ypology o pa icipa ion: Table 4.; Typology o Pa icipa ion Typology Cha ac e is ics o each ype Manipula i e pa icipa ion: Pa icipa ion is a p e ence wi h people's ep esen a i es on o icial boa ds bu who a e unelec ed and ha e no powe . Passi e pa icipa ion: People pa icipa e by being old wha has been decided and has al eady happened. I in ol es unila e al announcemen s by an adminis a ion o p ojec managemen who do no lis en o people's esponses. The in o ma ion o e ed belongs only o ex e nal p o essionals. Pa icipa ion by Consul a ion: People pa icipa e by being consul ed o by answe ing ques ions. Ex e nal agen s de ine p oblems and in o ma ion ga he ing p ocesses and so con ol analysis. This p ocess does no concede any sha e in decision making and p o essionals a e unde no obliga ion o adop people's iews. Pa icipa ion o Ma e ial incen i es: People pa icipa e by con ibu ing esou ces, e.g. labou , in e u n o ood , cash o o he ma e ial incen i es. Func ional Pa icipa ion: People's pa icipa ion is seen by ex e nal agen s as a means o achie ing p ojec goals, especially educ ions in cos s. People may o m g oups o mee p e-de e mined objec i es. This pa icipa ion may be in e -ac i e and may in ol e sha ed decision making, bu ends o a ise only a e majo decisions ha e been made by ex e nal agen s. Local people may only be co-op ed o se e ex e nal goals. In e ac i e pa icipa ion: People pa icipa e in join analysis, de elopmen o ac ion plans and he o ma ion, o s eng hening, o local ins i u ions. Pa icipa ion is seen as a igh , no jus as a means o achie ing p ojec goals. The p ocess in ol es in e -disciplina y me hodologies ha seek mul iple pe spec i es and make use o s uc u ed and sys ema ic lea ning p ocesses. As g oups ake con ol o e local decisions and de e mine how local esou ces a e used, so hey ha e a s ake in main aining s uc u es and p ac ices. Sel Mobiliza ion: People pa icipa e by aking ini ia i es, independen ly o ex e nal ins i u ions, o change sys ems. They de elop con ac s wi h ex e nal ins i u ions o he esou ces and echnical ad ice ha hey need, bu e ain con ol o e how he esou ces a e used. (Sou ce: P e y, 1995. Adap ed o his pape ). 16 In 1989, No ad desc ibed pa icipa ion as a se ies o di e en le els om passi i y o comple e esponsibili y. This was subsequen ly desc ibed in a diag am by Pla (1996): Figu e 1; Le els o Pa icipa ion Comple e Responsibili y Sha ed Leade ship Responsibili y Real Pa icipa ion in Planning & Meaning ul P oblem Sol ing Exchange Pa ne Dialogue o Ideas in pe o ming Si ua ion Analysis Ca ying Ou Assigned Tasks Passi e Recei e Adap ed F om Pla (1996) In summa y, he Conce n Wo ldwide ypology desc ibes pa icipa ion as anging om p o iding in o ma ion and pe mi ing limi ed consul a ion h ough o pa icipa ion o di e en ou comes, and o sel -mobiliza ion ( able 1). Wall desc ibes simila ypes o pa icipa ion, desc ibing hem as unning om passi e o sel -mobilisa ion ( able 2). CARE's ypology e e s o passi e pa icipa ion, bu also desc ibes nego ia ed, spon aneous and ac i e pa icipa ion ( able 3). P e y p esen s a ypology ha in oduces he concep o manipula i e pa icipa ion as a s age be o e passi e pa icipa ion ( able 4) and hen desc ibes six o he ypes o pa icipa ion concluding in sel mobiliza ion as in ables 1 and 2. No ad (Fig. 1) p esen s he ypes o pa icipa ion as s eps leading om passi e pa icipa ion o aking comple e esponsibili y. Pa icipa ion, in his ypology, anges om passi i y and comple ing assigned asks (co-op ion) o a p ocess o dialogue and exchange. I p esen s pa icipa ion as an ongoing and dialogic model and he s eps lead o " eal" pa icipa ion as a esul o dialogue and exchange. They also lead o sha ed 17 esponsibili y and hence he ypology add esses con ol and esponsibili y. Clea ly No ad, in his ypology, p esen s op imum pa icipa ion as aking comple e esponsibili y. Cullen (1996, pp 116-18, and able 5) builds on he p e ious ypologies ( ables 1-4 and igu e 1) and p esen s a ou ypes o communi y pa icipa ion, all iden i ied om I ish based, communi y-de elopmen unded p ojec s. Cullen's ypology is in keeping wi h he e hos o pa ne ship and pa icipa ion wi hin he pa ne ship de elopmen model6. An Taoiseach7, John B u on, in his add ess opening he EU An i-Po e y P og amme in Ap il, 1995, desc ibed his e hos as "You ha e go o, o some deg ee a leas , emo e he con ol ea u es in you hinking...[and] apply a di e en app oach...[ ha ] allows people o mas e hei own des iny, make hei own mis akes and lea n om hem" (OECD, 1996, Annex 1, p 95). Cullen (1996) dis ils ou ypes o pa icipa ion om he g ounded expe ience o pa ne ship p og ammes ha seek o add ess social exclusion h ough a "mo e lexible, decen alized and pa icipa i e" app oach: he iden i ies lea ning pa icipa ion, end-use s/consume pa icipa ion, ad oca es and media o s consume pa icipa ion, and s uc u es pa icipa ion. In his, he cap u es he wide in eg a ed-ness and whole-ness o pa icipa ion. The p e ious ypologies ( ables 1-4 and igu e 1) a e pa o he wide lea ning, consume and s uc u es-pa icipa ion ypology. 6 The implemen a ion o he Global G an (1992-5) p og amme in ol ed a model o local de elopmen ha was ela i ely new in I eland and Eu ope and was pilo ed in he Thi d EU An i-po e y p og amme(1989-4) and he a ea based ini ia i e o he PESP(1991-3). This model had he ou co e p inciples o “ ... Pa ne ship, pa icipa ion, planning and mul i-dimensionali y ...” (ADM, 1996b, p.VI) 7 The e m o p ime minis e in The Go e nmen o he Republic o I eland 18 Table 5; Typology o Pa icipa ion  Lea ning Pa icipa ion: Disad an aged g oups a e pe cei ed as being unable ully o pa icipa e wi hou i s acqui ing he echniques (knowledge and skills) and gaining he capaci y (con idence and collec i e spi i ) o doing so.  End- use s/Consume Pa icipa ion: This o m o pa icipa ion exis s whe e hose who a e di ec bene icia ies ha e ongoing oppo uni ies o pa icipa e in deciding he aims, objec i es, policies and me hods o wo king.  Ad oca es & Media o s Consume Pa icipa ion: Va ious g oups and o ganiza ions a e in ol ed in ad ocacy and media ing oles in he communi y.  S uc u es Pa icipa ion: This app oach ad oca es he ounding o new communi y s uc u es o media e be ween he ex e nal agencies and he communi y. (Sou ce; Cullen 1996. Adap ed o his pape ) The e is a na u al c osso e and in e - ela edness be ween he ou o ms o pa icipa ion as desc ibed by Cullen. In some p ojec s all ou a e e iden whe eas in o he s he e is a signi ican absence o any o hem, ha is, minimum pa icipa ion. 19 4. Conclusions om Selec ed In e iews As an in eg al pa o he p epa a ion o his pape , he au ho unde ook a se ies o in e iews wi h p o essionals and olun ee s ac i e in de elopmen wo k and expe iencing, in one o m o ano he , pa icipa ion o exclusion. These we e conduc ed on he clea unde s anding ha no commen s would be made abou indi idual p ojec s o si ua ions. In e iewees we e d awn om bo h local and o e seas de elopmen wo k, bu we e all, a he ime, li ing ei he in he Republic o in No he n I eland. The ou come o he in e iews is po ayed diag amma ically: Skills Issues in Pa icipa ion Sus ainabili y Poli ics wi h a small p Resou ces S uc u e Cul u e Lan g ua g e In i a ion Access Knowled g eAcce p abili y O p en & T ans p a en Mani p ula i e Ex p ec a ions Mos in e iewees aised he issue o in i a ion, by which hey mean he ques ion o who ini ia es and concei es he de elopmen p og amme and i s p ojec s. In he in e iewees’ expe ience he e a e ew si ua ions whe e hose who a e o pa icipa e make he ini ial in i a ion. No mally he de eloping agen has assumed ha a pa icula esponse o he si ua ion o a gi en communi y is called o , e en i such a esponse is only o be a apid u al app aisal o a communi y esou ce audi . Some communi ies a e becoming i ed o audi s. 20 Se e al in e iewees aised he issue o access. Access is impo an because g ea skill and knowledge a e equi ed i us , which is a he hea o pa icipa ion, is o be gained. Accep abili y is ano he issue. De elopmen wo ke s a e o en ou side s who do no unde s and he cul u e and may lack he language o he people among whom hey a e wo king. This is ob iously ue whe e o e seas de elopmen is a issue, bu i also applies in domes ic de elopmen whe e he de elopmen wo ke s' unde s anding o he local cul u e can also be inadequa e. Many cul u es ha seem o be open and anspa en a e, in ac , manipula i e. I is also he case ha agen s o de elopmen seeking o in oduce openness and anspa ency, may ac ually be manipula i e. I is e en common o ind he agen s o de elopmen being manipula ed by he communi ies wi h which hey wo k. Ins i u ional and socie al s uc u es a e a majo issue and each in e iewee old s o ies o happy p og ess un il some s uc u e ba ed he way. They concluded ha in all si ua ions some s uc u e o ano he will es ic pa icipa ion. They sugges ed ha pa icipa o y me hodology should concen a e mo e on acili a ing s uc u es o in e ac wi h people a he han he o he way ound. In e iewees all ag eed ha he long- e m aim in all de elopmen is sus ainabili y, bu ques ioned many o he assump ions commonly made abou how i is o be achie ed. They sugges ed ha pa icipa ion and sus ainabili y a e e y closely linked, some o hem main aining ha i he e was ull and eal pa icipa ion, hen he e would be sus ainabili y. They also ema ked ha he e ec s o s uc u es and he expec a ions o agencies and indi iduals in he de elopmen cycle di e o a g ea e o lesse deg ee. These esul in di e en iews abou who should in i e he agencies o de elopmen , abou who should pa icipa e in he p ocess, abou who should con ol he esou ces o de elopmen and abou who should de e mine he ou comes. 21 5. Commen a y on Implemen a ion The o egoing discussion on de ini ions and models o pa icipa ion assumes ha people and o ganiza ions wan pa icipa ion, bu his is no necessa ily he case. Faughnan and Kellaghe (Reynolds and Healy, 1993 p 94) no e ha "The issue o pa icipa ion did no appea o be a cen al one ei he in e ms o policy o p ac ice excep in a small numbe o o ganiza ions...26% o he o ganiza ions we e qui e explici ha he issue was ei he no ele an o hem o ha no hough o a en ion had been di ec ed o i ." This is a majo conce n when he e is adequa e e idence ha sys ems ha do no acili a e pa icipa ion "se iously damage peoples li es" and as a esul people become "demo alized and disa ec ed" (Thompson, 1996). Howe e , we mus ealize ha pa icipa ion is linked o powe ela ionships, his o ical expe iences and cul u al no ms. Oakley e al. (1991, p.4) no e ha "Cen u ies o domina ion and sub e sion will no disappea o e nigh because we ha e disco e ed he concep o pa icipa ion." Illich (1969) ema ks ha "Unde de elopmen is...also a s a e o mind" and F ei e (1972) highligh s he cul u e o silence, "No oice, no access, no pa icipa ion." Exclusion can happen in many ways and as a esul people a e p e en ed om pa icipa ing. The sou ces o exclusion may be physical, economic, cul u al, gende , bu eauc a ic, e c. An Taoiseach (in his 1995 add ess) said ha hose who ha e powe , including adminis a o s, mus "be willing o gi e up some powe ...[so ha o he s in need] can exe cise some powe ". Challenge An awa eness o , and a commi men o, he cen ali y o pa icipa ion in de elopmen among g ass oo s and public o ganiza ions is needed. 22 The e is a commi men o pa icipa ion in an inc easing numbe o o ganisa ions. Fo example he ocus o he I ish Aid S a egy Plan, (DFA, 1993, p7), and he model o pa ne ship e ol ing in local de elopmen si ua ions, ecognize ha enewed e o s and imagina i e app oaches a e needed wi hin he concep o sus ainable de elopmen . Thompson (1995, p 1522) no es ha oday he ques ion o many public sec o ins i u ions is no "why o apply pa icipa o y esea ch and de elopmen app oaches, bu how o go abou i ". Cullen (1996, p 109) poin s ou ha "while in po e y p og ammes he maximum pa icipa ion o he disad an aged and ma ginalised" is expec ed, " he e has...been an absence o spelling ou exac ly...how hese expec a ions a e o be achie ed." Rhe o ic is no adequa ely ma ched by he de elopmen o me hods and skills o acili a e pa icipa ion. Nelson and W igh (1995, able 3) poin ou ha wen y-nine ac i is pa icipa o y esea ch me hods ha e been de eloped since he 1970s and ha he e a e examples o success in pa icipa o y ex ension, esea ch, na u al esou ce managemen , and u al app aisal among u al communi ies and a me s in pa icula . While Chambe s (1994) s a es ha ac i is pa icipa o y esea ch me hods ha e h ee p inciples in common: "Tha poo people a e c ea i e and capable...[and] can and should do much o hei own in es iga ion analysis and planning". "Tha ou side s ha e oles as con ene s, ca alys s and acili a o s". "Tha he weak and ma ginalised can and should be empowe ed". mo e wo k is needed o consolida e he accep abili y o pa icipa i e models. Chambe s iden i ies i e p oblems in pa icipa o y de elopmen wo k ha mus be add essed:  de elopmen p ojec s miss he poo ;  de elopmen p ojec s ush de elopmen , hus no allowing he necessa y ime o p ojec s o g ow;  p ojec s a e buil on a sel sus aining my h because people ell de elopmen wo ke s wha hey hink he wo ke s wan o hea ;  ou ine and he ules limi lexibili y;  pa icipa ion may be cosme ic. Jennings (1995, p 24) says ha " he p ojec based app oach has placed signi ican cons ain s on pa icipa o y, g ass oo s app oaches o de elopmen ." She a gues o a p og amme app oach. 23 This a gumen is la gely accep ed bu , again, he skills, he ools and he acili ies necessa y o a p og amme app oach o be adop ed a e, as ye , in he ea ly s ages o de elopmen . Much o he wo k on pa icipa o y me hods is ocused on skills o esea ch, consul a ion, pa icipa i e managemen , moni o ing and e alua ion. The issue o pa icipa o y dialogue, discou se and nego ia ion is only now eme ging as an impo an componen o pa icipa o y de elopmen . As discussed abo e, he aim in pa icipa o y de elopmen is o he people o ake ull esponsibili y, o con ol hei de eloping en i onmen and, p e e ably, o con ol he in i a ion o de elopmen assis ance. Howe e , e en he p ocess o empowe men is lawed by pa e nalism. Nelson and W igh (1992), in hei in oduc ion, quo e Rowlands: "How can empowe men be ini ia ed by hose who ha e powe o e o he s." I is necessa y o de elop, in de elopmen wo ke s and adminis a o s, pa icipa o y skills in dialogue, discou se and lis ening. W i e s such as F ei e (1972a), Habbe mass (1989) and Giddens (1994)8 a e de eloping dialogic models. Ins umen s such as de elopmen con ac s, i-pa i e models o pa ne ships, and mu ually bene icial con ac s a e beginning o open a g ea e ange o op ions o dialogue. The e a e guiding p inciples such Ami s Con ac Hypo hesis (O'Dwye , 1996) ha guide dialogic pa icipa i e de elopmen ha is locally speci ic and locally app op ia e as ad ised in B ehony (1989). Acco ding o Thompson (1996), i is h ough hei pa icipa ion ha people will ge a oice. Challenge Adequa e de elopmen ools o enhance pa icipa ion and imp o ed capaci y building skills in pa icipa ion a e needed by de elopmen wo ke s. ADM (1995) no es ha o equali y and ull pa icipa ion he e mus be equali y o knowledge. In his discussion we a e concluding ha inc easing le els o skill a e equi ed by de elopmen wo ke s o pa icipa o y de elopmen . Oppo uni ies o 8 F ei e, P, in “Pedagogy o he Opp essed” e e s o dialogue. Habbe mass, J., in “The New Conse a ism” e e s o communica i e ac ion & he ideal speech si ua ion. Giddens, A., in “Beyond Le and Righ ” e e o dialogic democ acy. 24 aining in pa icipa i e me hodologies a all le els o educa ion a e lacking. Pa icipa i e me hodologies a e highligh ed in communi y de elopmen aining, in de elopmen s udies and in de elopmen educa ion aining. Skills such as lis ening, communica ion, acili a ion, cul u al sensi i i y e c., a e p o ided o s uden s o all le els. The e a e also inc easing le els o in-se ice aining o enhance pa icipa ion skills. I should also be no ed ha signi ican lea ning has aken place (ADM, 1996b). Despi e all his, aining in hese ma e s o s uden s o echnical subjec s (bo h as unde g adua es and ma u e s uden s) is inadequa e and wha he e is o i is inadequa ely g ounded in p ac ice. Thompson (1995, p 1523) s a es ha "The e m aining... e e s o he c ea ion o in e ac i e lea ning en i onmen s and con inuous lea ning oppo uni ies a he han simple class oom based eaching and ins uc ion...implemen ing o ganisa ion becomes a lea ning o ganisa ion". Challenge On- he-job and ounda ion aining in pa icipa i e skills among olun a y and paid de elopmen wo ke s mus be inc eased so as o os e a high le el o expe ise in pa icipa i e aining. As a consequence o he need o highe le els o skills he e is a need o g ea e esou cing o pa icipa i e de elopmen . This should no be in e p e ed simply as a call o mo e. Ra he i is a call o a e-di ec ion o esou ces o a mo e sus ainable model in an in o med, expe and s a egic way. The ime is oppo une because in I eland we now ha e a Whi e Pape on o eign policy (Depa men o Fo eign A ai s, 1996) o which pa icipa ion du ing i 's compila ion was sough and which does include many o he key e ms o pa icipa i e de elopmen . Simila ly domes ic de elopmen agencies a e open o e-designing local de elopmen models o enhance pa icipa ion. The ou come o he 25 pa icipa i e skills among olun a y and paid de elopmen wo ke s and o os e a high le el o expe ise in pa icipa i e aining? 6) A e he e adequa e de elopmen ools o enhance pa icipa ion? 7) Will s uc u es, p og ammes and p ojec cycles acili a e and ewa d pa icipa ion? 8) A e he e adequa e ools o measu e eal pa icipa ion? 9) Will s uc u al change acili a e pa icipa ion? Each ques ion is ela ed o a s age in he p ojec cycle and he e o e o he p og amme planning cycle. As he s ages a e sequen ial and in e dependen his is a challenge o he commi men o he p ocess o pa icipa o y de elopmen . As no ed in he ex he e is e idence o commi men o pa icipa o y de elopmen in some aspec s o he de elopmen cycle. In his pape i is eme ging ha he commi men o a whole and in eg a ed pa icipa o y de elopmen model mus be comple e. e e yday use by local and o e seas de elopmen agencies. The e o e he au ho p oposes ha i is ealis ic o p esen he challenges, ques ions and issues wi hin he p ojec cycle o he pu poses o his pape . 32 Figu e 2. Key ques ions on Pa icipa o y De elopmen Rela ed o he P og amme De elopmen Cycle 1. Is he e awa eness and commi men on he cen ali y o pa icipa ion in de elopmen among g ass oo and public o gansia ions ? 2. Is he e a ocused commi men o esou ces P og amme De elopmen Cycle P ojec De elopmen C y cle |P ojec De elopmen C y cle P lannin g I m p lemen a ion Moni o ing & E alua ion 8. Is he e openness o pa icipa ion in policy o ma ion and decision making? 3. Will s uc u es, p og ammes and p ojec c y cles acili a e and ewa d 7. A e he e adequa e ools o measu e eal pa icipa ion? 9. Will s uc u al change acili a e i i i ? 4. A e he e capaci y building skills o pa icipa ion? 6. Is he e adequa e de elopmen ools o enhance pa icipa ion? 5. Is he e is need o inc ease he emphasis on- he- job and ounda ion aining in pa icipa i e skills among olun a y and paid de elopmen wo ke s and o os e a high le el o expe ise in pa icipa i e aining? Concei in g o 33 6. Conclusion This pape summa ises he mos commonly ci ed and expe ienced de ini ions and ypologies o pa icipa ion. The aim is o gi e he eade an o e iew ha will enable he deba e abou he mos app op ia e model o enhancing pa icipa o y de elopmen o p og ess. In many deba es pa icipan s ge bogged down in de ini ions, o hei discussions do no engage because hei in e p e a ions di e . No conclusions abou he mos app op ia e de ini ion o ypology o pa icipa ion a e a emp ed in he pape , bu he eade should ind ha he e olu ion o bo h he de ini ions and he ypologies b ings us o a common s age in unde s anding pa icipa o y de elopmen . I is om ha s age ha we should mo e in ou delibe a ions in he symposium. The pape aises nine key challenges, ques ions and issues ela ing o pa icipa o y de elopmen . These eme ged om he li e a u e e iewed and we e con i med by a se ies o in e iews wi h de elopmen agen s, bo h sala ied and olun a y. These indings sugges nine key ques ions, and also indica e ha p og ess will no be made owa ds sus ainable de elopmen un il he ba ie s o pa icipa ion a e emo ed. END 34 7. Re e ences A ea De elopmen Managemen L d.(ADM), 1995. Local De elopmen Planning. P oceedings o a Semina held in Lucan, Oc obe , 1995. A ea De elopmen Managemen L d.(ADM) , 1996a, Communi y De elopmen Fo um. P oceedings o a Semina held in Kilkenny A ea De elopmen Managemen L d.(ADM) , 1996b. Local De elopmen S a egies o Disad an aged A eas: E alua ion o he Global G an in I eland (1992-1995) A Repo p epa ed by T u z Haase, Kie an McKeown and S ephen Rou ke, Febu a y, 1996. Agency o Pe sonal Se ice O e seas(APSO), 1996. No es om Wo kshop on he P ojec Cycle and E ec i e Aid. UCD, Sep embe , 1996 B ehony, E., 1989. P ojec s o he People o o he People: A S udy o Village s' Pa icipa ion in Th ee Selec ed P ojec s in Two Villages inTanzania. Unpublished Mas e s in Ru al De elopmen hesis, Depa men o Ag ibusiness, Ex ension and Ru al De elopmen , UCD. B yan C., and C. Whi e, 1980, Managing Ru al De elopmen : Peasan Pa icipa ion in Ru al De elopmen . Kuma iaan P ess, Connnec icu . CARE, 1994. Pa icipa o y Moni o ing and E alua ion in Ru al De elopmen : Case S udies om Eas e n A ica. CARE In e na ional Ce nea, M.M, 1985. Sociological Knowledge o De elopmen P ojec s, in Pu ing People Fi s : Sociological Va iables in Ru al De elopmen . Ox o d Uni e si y P ess. Clowa d R., and F. Pi en, 1978. Poo Peoples Mo emen s: Why hey Succeed, How hey Fail. Rancloun, New Yo k. Cohan, J.M, N.T. Upho , 1980. Pa icipa ion’s Place in Ru al De elopmen : Seeking Cla i y h ough Speci ici y, in Wo ld De elopmen Vol. 8, pp213-35 Collins, T. 1988. Communi y En e p ise: Pa icipa ion in Local De elopmen . Unpublished Phd Thesis, S . Pa ick’s College, Maynoo h. Communi y Wo ke s Co-ope a i e, 1996, Pa ne ship in Ac ion; The Role o Communi y De elopmen and Pa ne ship in I eland. CWC, Galway Conce n Wo ldwide, 1995, Guidelines in he P oduc ion o P ojec P oposals C owley, 1985. Go o my People: an A ican Expe ience I Educa ion o De elopmen . Gaba Publica ions, Eldo e , Kenya. 35 C ickley, A., 1996. ‘Communi y De elopmen in he 1990’s’ in Communi y De elopmen Fo um. P oceedings o a Semina held in Kilkenny. A ea De elopmen Managemen L d.(ADM) , Dublin. Cullen, Ba y, 1996. Communi y De elopmen Fund Re iew Repo . Comba Po e y Agency, Dublin DeG aa M., 1986, Ca ching Fish o Libe a ing Man: Social De elopmen in Zimbabwe, in Jou nal o Social De elopmen in A ica, Vol. 1 No. 1. pp12-14. Depa men o Fo eign A ai s, 1996. Challenges and Oppo uni ies Ab oad: Whi e Pape on Fo eign Policy. DFA, Dublin. Eyben, Rolalind, 1996, The Con ibu ion o Social Analysis o Sus ainable De elopmen Assis ance as Illus a ed by he Wo k o Social De elopmen Ad iso s in O e seas De elopmen Adminis a ion FAO, 1979. Repo on he Wo ld Con e ence on Ag a ian Re o m and Ru al De elopmen . July, 1997. FAO Rome. F ei e, P., 1970. Cul u al Ac ions o F eedom” Penguin, Middlesex. F omm E., 1976. To Ha e o To Be. Abacus, London Howa d, T., & H.R. Bake , 1984. Cons uc i e Public In ol emen , in Ex ension Handbook. D J Blackbou ne Ed. Galb ai h, John Kenne h, 1992, The Cul u e o Con en men . Sinclai S e enson Giddens, An hony, 1994. Beyond Le and Righ . Poli y P ess, B idge S ., Camb idge. Habbe mass, Ju gen, 1989. The New Conse a ism. Poli y P ess, B idge S ., Camb idge. Illich, I. 1969. Celeb a ion o Awa eness, Penguin, Middlesex. Jennings, M., 1995, New Challenges o No he n NGO’s in T ocai e De elopmen Re iew 1995, pp13-27, T ocai e, Boo e s own, Co. Dublin Kenny, Michael, 1995. The I ish Bila e al Aid P og amme Policy: Wha i is, How i Wo ks and Recommenda ions o he Fu u e. An unpublished S udy conduc ed o he I ish Aid Policy Sub-Commi ee o he I ish Aid Ad iso y Commi ee(IAAC) Augus , 1995. Madelely, John, e al., 1991. When Aid is no Help: How P ojec ail and How hey could Succeed. In e media e Technology Publica ions, London. 36 Nelson, N. and S. W igh (Eds), 1995. Powe and Pa icipa o y De elopmen : Theo y and P ac ice. In e media e Technology Nye e e, J.K., 1973. F eedom & De elopmen . Ox o d Uni e si y P ess Nye e e, J.K., 1968. A usha Decla a ion and TANU’s Policy on Socialism and Sel Relaiance. Publici y Sec ion, TANU, Da -es-Salaam. Oakley, P, e al, 1991. P ojec s wi h People: The P ac ice o Pa icipa ion in Ru al De elopmen . ILO, Gene a Oakley, P., 1987. Sa e o P ocess, Means o End? The Concep o Pa icipa ion in Ru al De elopmen . in Reading Ru al De elopmen Communica ions. No.21. OECD, 1994. De elopmen Assis ance Commi ee Repo on De elopmen Co-Ope a ion. OECD, Pa is. OECD, 1996. I eland: Local Pa ne ships and Social Inno a ion. P epa ed by P o esso Cha les Sable and he LEED P og amme OECD, Pa is Pla , I ene, 1996. Re iew o Pa icipa o y moni o ing and E alua ion. Repo p epa ed o Conce n Wo ldwide, Augus . P e y, Jules, 1995, Pa icipa o y Lea ning o Sus ainable Ag icul u e in Wo ld De elopmen , Vol.23, No.8. Rawls, John, 1971, Theo y o Jus ice. The Belknap P ess o Ha a d Uni e si y P ess, Camb idge, Mass, USA. Reynolds, B igid, and Sean Healy, (Eds), 1993, Powe , Pa icipa ion and Exclusion. Con e ence o Majo Religious Supe io s(CMRS), Dublin To le , A., 1981. The Thi d Wa e. Pan Books, London. Thompson, Jane, 1996. Keyno e Add ess a he Cen e o Adul & Communi y Educa ion/Aon as/Na ional Commi ee o De elopmen Educa ion Con e ence; A New Agenda o Li elong Lea ning. Oc obe , 1996, Dublin. Thompson, John, 1995. Pa icipa o y App oaches in Go e nmen Bu eauc acies: Facili a ing a P ocess o Ins i u ional Change, in Wo ld De elopmen . Vol. 23, No. 9. pp 1521-1547. Uni ed Na ions De elopmen P og amme(UNDP) Annual Human De elopmen Repo . Ox o d and New Yo k: OUP. 37 Upho , N., 1992 Pa icipa o y E alua ion o Ru al De elopmen P ojec s: Lessons o m Expe ience and Implica ions o Dono Agencies. Pape o he Moni o ing and E alua ion Panel o ACC Task Fo ce on Ru al De elopmen . Repo No.0385. IFAD 38 Pa icipa ion in De elopmen : The Ques ion, Challenges and Issues A Symposium Backg ound Pape P epa ed o he Symposium held om 20-22 Feb ua y 1997 a S Pa ick's College, Maynoo h, Co Kilda e. P epa ed, by Michael Kenny10 The Symposium is o ganised by a wo king g oup is made up o indi iduals who a e conce ned abou capaci y o enhance pa icipa o y de elopmen in I eland and o e seas. The g oup consis : Cen e o Adul and Communi y Educa ion, S . Pa ick’s College; Comba Po e y Agency; Conce n Wo ldwide; 80:20; ETC I eland and UK; Ox am I eland and T ocai e. 1. Michael Kenny is a lec u e and p ojec manage a he Cen e o Adul and Communi y Educa ion, S . Pa ick’s College, Maynoo h, Co. Kilda e. M . Kenny has wo ked in local de elopmen since 1980 in I eland wi h he excep ion o o e i e yea s spen in u al and communi y p ojec s in Cen al and Eas A ica. M . Kenny is ac i e in a numbe o local and o e seas de elopmen p ojec s in which he wo ks o de elop pa icipa o y de elopmen and communi y p ac ice. He is also ac i e a policy le el in a numbe o de elopmen o gansa ions. 39 40 06 Feb ua y 1997 RE; Symposium on “Pa icipa ion in De elopmen : The Ques ion, Challenges and Issues”. Dea Symposias , Thank you o you booking. I enclose he backg ound pape ha will be p esen ed a he symposium. The pape seeks o gi e an o e iew o he de ini ions and ypologies o pa icipa ion. E en hough I will make a b ie p esen a ion o he pape and he e will be a esponse om a gues , he pape will be aken as ead. This will enable you, he symposias , o en e in o he symposium p ocess immedia ely. I will be sending ou a mo e de ailed ime able nex week. I also enclose a lis o B+Bs and Gues -houses/ho els, a ain/bus ime able whe e ele an and a eceip o deposi /paymen , unless you applica ion o m eques ed ha he eceip be sen o a pe son esponsible. The emainde , whe e ele an , is payable a egis a ion (6 o 6.30pm on Thu sday). Any que ies call 01-7083757 o ax 01-6289370. Bes wishes, ______________________ Michael Kenny on behal o he wo king g oup.