Global Ethnography

10 Jun 2002 20:42 AR AR163-12. ex AR163-12.SGM LaTeX2e(2002/01/18) P1: ILV 10.1146/annu e .soc.28.110601.140945 Annu. Re . Sociol. 2002. 28:271–95 doi: 10.1146/annu e .soc.28.110601.140945 Copy igh c °2002 by Annual Re iews. All igh s ese ed GLOBAL ETHNOGRAPHY Zsuzsa Gille1and Se´ an ´ O Riain2 1Depa men o Sociology, Uni e si y o Illinois, Champaign-U bana, Illinois 61801; e-mail: [email p o ec ed] 2Depa men o Sociology, Uni e si y o Cali o nia, Da is, Cali o nia 95616; e-mail: [email p o ec ed] Key Wo ds globaliza ion, ansna ionalism, local-global ela ions ■Abs ac Globaliza ion poses a challenge o exis ing social scien i ic me hods o inqui y and uni s o analysis by des abilizing he embeddedness o social ela ions in pa icula communi ies and places. E hnog aphic si es a e globalized by means o a ious ex e nal connec ions ac oss mul iple spa ial scales and po ous and con es ed bounda ies. Global e hnog aphe s mus begin hei analysis by seeking ou “place- making p ojec s” ha seek o de ine new kinds o places, wi h new de ini ions o social ela ions and hei bounda ies. Exis ing e hnog aphic s udies o global p ocesses end o clus e unde one o h ee slices o globaliza ion—global o ces, connec ions, o imagina ions—eachde inedbyadi e en kindo place-makingp ojec .Theex ension o hesi ein imeandspaceposesp ac icalandconcep ualp oblems o e hnog aphe s, bu also poli ical ones. None heless, by loca ing hemsel es i mly wi hin he ime and spaceo socialac o s“li ing heglobal,”e hnog aphe scan e ealhowglobalp ocesses a ecollec i elyandpoli icallycons uc ed, demons a ing he a ie yo waysin which globaliza ion is g ounded in he local. INTRODUCTION Globaliza ionposesa challenge o exis ingsocialscien i ic me hodso inqui yand uni s o analysis by des abilizing he embeddedness o social ela ions in pa ic- ula communi ies and places. By loca ing hemsel es i mly wi hin he ime and spaceo socialac o s “li ing heglobal,” e hnog aphe scan e eal he socioscapes ha people collec i ely cons uc o global p ocesses (Alb ow 1997), hus demon- s a ing how globaliza ion is g ounded in he local (Bu awoy e al. 2000). A he same ime, globaliza ion also poses p oblems o e hnog aphy. The po en ial and une en delinking o he spa ial and he social unde condi ions o globaliza ion upse s e hnog aphy’s claim o unde s and social ela ions by being he e and hus demands ha we e hink he cha ac e o global e hnog aphy.1 1Appadu ai (1995) poses a simila ques ion o an h opology: how can we unde ake e hnog- aphy in a wo ld whe e locali y is con es ed and shi ing. 0360-0572/02/0811-0271$14.00 271 10 Jun 2002 20:42 AR AR163-12. ex AR163-12.SGM LaTeX2e(2002/01/18) P1: ILV 272 GILLE ¥´ O RIAIN Globaliza ion has exploded on o he sociological agenda in he pas 10 o 15 yea s.2The i s gene a ion o globaliza ion s udies was conce ned wi h how o de ineglobaliza ion;whichaspec so globaliza ion ep esen edhis o icalcon inu- i y and discon inui y; and how o heo ize he ela ionship be ween globaliza ion and mode ni y, pos mode ni y, and pos coloniali y. As such, hese s udies we e conce ned p ima ily wi h unde s anding he cha ac e o globaliza ion as a so- cial phenomenon (Beck e al. 1994, Fea he s one & Lash 1999, Giddens 1991, Ha ey 1990, Robe son 1992–see Guillen (2001), Leme (2002), and Wa e s (1995) o e iews o his gene a ion o s udies). Mo e ecen ly, howe e , schola s ha e begun o ask wha implica ions hese sociohis o ical changes may ha e o socialscience i sel , and heyha eadd essed heme a heo e ical, epis emological, and poli ical implica ions o ha olde body o li e a u e (Abell & Reynie s 2000, Alb ow 1995, Gane 2001, Ha gi ai & Cen eno 2001, Kilmins e 1997, Pie e se 2000, Tsing 2000). A ew s udies ha e e en s a ed heo izing he na u e o global e hnog aphy (Ami 2000, Bu awoy 2000a, E hnog aphy 2001). Ou goal in his e iew is o analyze, e alua e, and syn hesize he achie emen s o hese newe esponses o he challenges globaliza ion poses o sociological inqui y, especially as hey apply o quali a i e me hods and ieldwo k. In he i s sec ion o he pape we analyze exis ing a emp s o e-de ine he cha ac e o social ela ions in an e a o globaliza ion. We pay special a en ion o how he ela ionshipbe weensocie yandspaceis heo izedand heimplica ions o ou unde s andingo e hnog aphic si es.Whe eis he “ he e”whe e hese heo is s imply global e hnog aphe s should be? Some ad oca e eplacing e hnog aphic place-based si es wi h loca ions wi hin ne wo ks and lows, wi hin ansna ional social o ma ions, o a he bo de s o places whe e di e ence is p oduced. We a gue ha place s ill p o ides a ounda ion o global e hnog aphe s, bu as a loca ion om wi hin which e hnog aphe s can explo e he sociopoli ical p ojec s ha a e emaking social ela ions and places. The second sec ion e iews a se ies o global e hnog aphies. He e we’ll di e - en ia eamong h eepe spec i eso globaliza ion: heglobalas o ces,connec ions, and imagina ions. The hi d sec ion u ns o me hodological issues aised by ou ede ini ion o e hnog aphic si es as poli ically cons uc ed. We explo e he impli- ca ions o wo king in si es ha ex end ac oss mul iple places and spa ial scales, ha ex end in ime, and he bounda ies o which a e deeply con es ed. 2Acco ding o he Camb idge Sociological Abs ac s, be ween 1985 and 1990 wen y-nine o hes udiesabs ac edassignedglobaliza ionasakeywo d,incon as o he14abs ac ed be ween 1965 and 1984. The e we e 240 such wo ks in he i s hal o he 1990s, 410 in 1995 alone, and a whopping 985 in 1998. Today he cumula i e o al o sociological s udies (including e iews) add essing globaliza ion is 4,876. While hese da a o cou se can only be sugges i e, he end is clea : F om 1990 he e is a sudden inc ease in sociological e o s s udying globaliza ion, culmina ing in close o a housand annual publica ions and con e ence pape s by he new millennium. 10 Jun 2002 20:42 AR AR163-12. ex AR163-12.SGM LaTeX2e(2002/01/18) P1: ILV GLOBAL ETHNOGRAPHY 273 REIMAGINING THE SOCIAL IN GLOBAL ETHNOGRAPHY E hnog aphy is uniquely well placed o deal wi h he challenges o s udying social li e unde globaliza ion because i does no ely on ixed and compa able uni s o analysis, as do su ey and compa a i e esea ch. Howe e , i also aces signi ican challenges in econ igu ing i sel o a global e a—e hnog aphy explici ly seeks o analyze he social by loca ing he esea che in he space o he social ela ions beinganalyzed,and hisabili y os aigh o wa dlyaccess hesocialbygoing o he local becomes p oblema ic unde condi ions o globaliza ion. In he ollowing we will su ey ecen a emp s in sociology o ede ine he social unde globaliza ion. Disembedding he Social? Thecon en ionalpos wa socialscience iewassumes ha hena ionisacon aine o e e y hing wi hin i , while in e na ional ela ions a e assumed o accoun o all ela ions ou side o he na ional. E en in wo ld-sys ems heo y, he subuni s o he sys em a e almos always na ions, whose ela ionship o each o he is o de ed by capi alis de elopmen and in e s a e compe i ion. E hnog aphy ends o accep hese ca ego ies—ei he , as in sociology, gene alizing o he na ional socie y o , as in an h opology, aking he local as he si e o cul u e, which is o en analyzed in e ms o i s ela ionship o he wo ld o na ions (colonialism, na ion-building, e c.). Howe e , hema ic app oaches o globaliza ion iden i y a new empi ical phenomenon ha has unde mined, o a leas des abilized, hese es ablished hie - a chies o he local, na ional, and in e na ional. E en as deba e ages bi e ly o e he p ecise meaning and ex en o globaliza ion, including he des abiliza ion and ans o ma ion o he na ion s a e, he decen e ing o na ional socie ies is inc eas- inglywidelyaccep ed. Inou de ini ion, buildingonMa o’s(1997) ypology, glob- aliza ion signi ies he inc easing signi icance o ans-local ela ions, local-global ela ions,andglobal-global ela ions a heexpenseo na ional-na ional ela ions.3 Some schola s claim ha globaliza ion undamen ally eo de s he classical e- la ionship be ween sel and he o he , socie y and knowledge (Beck 1992, Beck e al. 1994), local and global (Dickens 1992, Hall 1991a, 1991b), and mos 3Ma oclassi ieslocal,na ional, ansna ional,andglobalagen s,basedon heimpac o hei ac i i y (1997:170–71). Local agen s a e hose indi iduals and o ganiza ions whose social p ac ices a e mainly concen a ed in he same locali y in which hey a e based, al hough om ime o ime hey de elop hese p ac ices beyond his locali y and main ain ela ions wi h social agen s om ab oad. Depending on he le el o analysis his locali y may be ega ded as a small own o communi y, a sys em o owns o communi ies, a s a e o p o ince, o a subna ional egion. Na ional agen s a e hose whose p ac ices a e egula ly de eloped a na ional le els. T ansna ional agen s a e hose whose p ac ices a e egula ly de eloped ac oss in e na ional bo de s. Global agen s a e a subclass o ansna ional agen s whose p ac ices a e egula ly de eloped no jus ansna ionally bu a wo ldwide le els. 10 Jun 2002 20:42 AR AR163-12. ex AR163-12.SGM LaTeX2e(2002/01/18) P1: ILV 274 GILLE ¥´ O RIAIN impo an ly be ween space and socie y. Acco ding o hese au ho s, we mus ede- ine he concep o he social i sel . Giddens (1991) a gues ha unde condi ions o globaliza ion social ela ions a e disembedded om he local and can ope a e in con ex s whe e space no longe ma e s because sha ed sys ems o symbols and knowledge ci cula e globally. While disag eeing wi h Giddens abou he mod- e nis na u e o globaliza ion, Alb ow (1995) la e akes up his e m o a gue mo e b oadly ha social ela ionsa edisembedded omspace;Alb owa gues o acon- cep o “globali y” asa newle el o o ganiza ion ha hasno o ganizingagen , hus eeing sociali y om s a e con ol. Al a e & Mahnkop (1997), a guing mo e s ic ly om an economic pe spec i e, de ine globaliza ion as he culmina ion o he disembedding o economy om socie y ( he o iginal meaning o he wo d in Polanyi), leading o a wo ld ma ke unbound. While we ind ha hese social heo is s ha e a p opensi y o exagge a e he ex en o his disembedding p ocess and o igno e i s une enness, we g an he claim ha globaliza ionb eaks heone-on-onemappingo helocalon o hesocial. This in u n, makes he classic e hnog aphic s a egy o being he e much mo e p oblema ic.Be o eweadd ess hisissue,le usseehowsociologis sha e ewo en he b oken h ead connec ing he spa ial and he social. The Social as Flow o Ne wo k Lash & U y (1994) a gue ha his disembedded “social” is inc easingly con- s i u ed by lows o people, in o ma ion, goods, and pa icula ly signs o cul- u al symbols. Fo hem he s a ing poin o a “sociology a e socie ies” (U y 2000) is hese “mobili ies,” eplacing he hallowed concep o “communi y.” Fo Appadu ai(1990), heen i ies ha “ low”a ound hewo lda e“scapes”o cul u al o ma ions a ound inance, media, ideologies, echnologies, and peoples. Ye ano he g oup o schola s elies on he ne wo k as hei cen al concep . Hanne z (1992) sees socie y as cons i u ed by “ne wo ks o ne wo ks,” down o ne wo ks among indi iduals. Fo Cas ells (1997) he ne wo ks a e be ween places, and a space o lows is being supe imposed upon, and eplacing, a space o places. Those places le ou side he space o lows a e p o oundly disad an aged by hei s uc u al exclusion. Whe eas Cas ells may no ha e ully elabo a ed he implica- ions o he ne wo k me apho and did gene ally igno e he li e a u e on ne wo ks in sociology (Abell & Reynie s 2000), a newe se o s udies consciously bo ows he ne wo k concep om economic sociology and alks o a new geog aphy and he need o d aw new maps (Am. Beha . Sci. 2001). Fo all hei di e ences, each o hese app oaches disconnec s he social om any pa icula place—seeing con empo a y social ela ions as cha ac e is ically s e ching ac oss places. Such app oaches end o ei y hese ne wo ks, lows, and o he mobili ies (U y 2000) as hemsel es de ining socie y. Despi e ecognizing ha ne wo kscanbeexclusiona y, heseapp oachesp o ideli leanalysiso powe ela ions wi hin ne wo ks and he e o e ind i di icul o explain ep oduc ion and change in ne wo ks. Such explana ions equi e ha place-based esou ces and 10 Jun 2002 20:42 AR AR163-12. ex AR163-12.SGM LaTeX2e(2002/01/18) P1: ILV GLOBAL ETHNOGRAPHY 275 p ocesses be included in he analysis. Fu he mo e, hese app oaches neglec he agency o ac o s and hei sense-making ac i i ies as o ces in shaping he lows hemsel es. While he ne wo k is a leas ac i a ed by and e en de ined by he connec ionsamongac o s, heconcep o lowsposi sawo ldo disembodied lows o in o ma ion, signs, inance, and o he esou ces—i is he ac o ’s connec ion o hese lows ha de ines he ac o , no how hey ac i a e connec ions as in he ne wo k me apho . In such a iew, places disappea en i ely. In o de o go beyond heopposi iono “ hespaceo lows e sus hespaceo places”(Cas ells1997),we mus de elopou unde s andingo howplacesandne wo kscons i u eoneano he , a he hanseeing hemasopposingp incipleso socialli e.Thisconcep ualiza ion o he social as luidi y, mobili y, and connec edness dooms he local o a s oppage insuch lows,pe cei esi asas a icplace, ende ingme hods ocusingonconc e e places i ele an . Wi h Sassen (2000), we see globaliza ion as a epa e ning o luidi ies and mobili ies on he one hand and s oppages and ixi ies on he o he , a he han an all-encompassing wo ld o luidi y.4 The Social as T ansna ional O he s ha e sough o e ain he insigh ha c oss-na ional ne wo ks a e inc eas- ingly signi ican while s ill p o iding an analysis o he s uc u ed social ela ions wi hin hosene wo ks(Kea ney1998).Schille (1997)de ines ansna ionals udies as he s udy o a ious ypes o bo de -c ossings by people, ex s, discou ses, and ep esen a ions a a ious geog aphical le els. Po es e al. (1999) limi ansna- ionalism o ac i i ies o immig an s, mig an s, ansna ional en ep eneu s, and cul u al g oups om he sending coun y egula ly a eling o en e ain emig e communi iesin ecipien coun ies.Theau ho spo aya hus-de ined ansna ion- alism as he an i hesis o globaliza ion, which is unde s ood as a p ojec ini ia ed by and o he bene i o mul ina ional co po a ions and by na ion s a es. Fo hese au ho s (Po es e al. 1999, Schille 1997, Smi h & Gua nizo 1998), he emphasis is on s udying globaliza ion o ansna ional social ela ions as a new subjec ma e ,andassuchaconside ableamoun o concep ual igo is equi ed o delinea e wha migh be p ope ly deemed a quali a i ely new social de elopmen o ins i u ion wo hy o a no el e m. Po es e al. (1999) de ine ansna ionalism, a na owe e m han he subjec ma e o Schille ’s ansna ional s udies would sugges , as an eme gen esea ch ield, in ac a measu able objec o inqui y. Theconcep o ansna ionalismp o idesmanyinsigh sin o hes a egicac ion o social ac o s de eloping a new scale o social ac i i y be ween he na ional and he global. Howe e , his comes a he expense o a his o ical iew ha would e eal how ields o ac i i ies (including s ages o p oduc ion, he dis ibu ion o cul u e, egula o y mo es, e c.) a e ans o med by a new di ision o labo among di e en scales. Some ac i i ies ha we e once he legi ima e p o ince o ac o s 4This iew also con as s wi h Ha ey’s (1990) much e e enced idea o a uni e sal ime- space comp ession. 10 Jun 2002 20:42 AR AR163-12. ex AR163-12.SGM LaTeX2e(2002/01/18) P1: ILV 276 GILLE ¥´ O RIAIN a he na ional le el may now ha e shi ed o he scope o au ho i y and expe ise o global ac o s, while o he ac i i ies may now ha e mo ed om he global o local le els, and so on.5On he one hand, he ocus on he ansna ional le el o analysis is a necessa y condi ion o hese o en e ealing s udies and, admi ably, Smi h & Gua nizo (1998) p o ide a clea analy ical and me hodological basis o hei p e e ed esea ch p og am o compa a i e ansna ionalisms (pp. 24–29). Howe e , while he ocus is on unde s anding he ansna ional social o ma ion i sel , i is di icul o mo e beyond his si e o unde s and how he ela ionship among mul iple scales o social ac i i y is being eo ganized. The Social as Bo de Zone O he au ho s a e mo e conce ned wi h social ela ions a he bo de s and bound- a ies o social o de s. Ma cus & Fische (1986) opposed he image y o global e sus local wi h a iew o s ill dis inc cul u al wo lds inc easingly in communi- ca ionwi honeano he .Thei “an h opologyascul u alc i ique”sough oexplo e he ecombinan ,hyb id o mso cul u alli e ha we eeme ginga hesebounda y poin s o cul u es in con ac wi h one ano he and enhancing he possibili ies o o he socie ies o p o ide us wi h ools o cul u al c i ique o ou own socie y. Howe e , concei ing o he social as a bo de zone and emphasizing connec- ions and con ac s means ha he cul u al wo lds ha come in o con ac wi h each o he a e s ill concep ualized as sel -con ained, e i o ial wo lds wi h eadily iden i iable di e ences ha hen clash. Concei ing o he social as a bo de zone o en implies ha bounda y-locali ies a e liminal, hyb id, sync e ic, and luid, an assump ion ha can only hold i we abs ac away om he powe s ha c ea e and main ain bounda ies. Alejand o Lugo’s (2000) e hnog aphy o he Uni ed S a es- Mexico bo de , o example, p omo es a iew o bo de s no as spaces o mobili y and hyb idi y bu as places p oduced by inc eased su eillance a he bo de and discipline in he maquilado as.6Be dahl’s (1999) Whe e he Wo ld Ended is also an e hnog aphy o an ac ual bo de land: ha di iding he o me Eas and Wes Ge many.UnlikeMa cus andFische , shecalls o anunde s anding o bounda ies no as escaping bu a he as deeply enmeshed in exis ing social and powe ela- ions. He bo de land is also less a place o di e si y, luidi y, and hyb idi y han a “place o in ense and in lexible lucidi y,” a si e in which a ious ea u es o he economic, cul u al, and poli ical egime on one side o he bo de a e c ys allized and mani es in hei pu es o m. Bo h he Eas Ge mans’ and Mexican wo ke s’ expe iences o being s uck on one side o he bo de call o h o he imagined bounda ies, acial, e hnic, and bo h in e nal and ex e nal. Based on hese e hno- g aphies, ins ead o he assump ion o liminali y and hyb idi y (Kea ney 1998), 5Sassen (2001) o example alks abou he p oduc ion o new legal subjec s as local ac o s a einc easinglyable oapplyin e na ional ea iesandappeal osup ana ionalo ganiza ions in hei s uggles agains a co po a ion o a na ion s a e. 6Lugo explici ly akes issue wi h Mo ales’ applica ion o Foucaul ’s no ion o he e o opia o he expe ience o li ing in bo de zones. 10 Jun 2002 20:42 AR AR163-12. ex AR163-12.SGM LaTeX2e(2002/01/18) P1: ILV GLOBAL ETHNOGRAPHY 277 we call o a ocus on “ he p oduc ion o local di e ences,” he poli ical p ocesses h ough which places a e p oduced, when s udying social ac ion a he ma gins (Gup a & Fe guson 1997). The Social as Place-Making P ojec s Each o hese app oaches o ede ining he ela ionship be ween he social and he local is limi ed, bu each o e s a di e en a enue o u u e concep ualiza ion. F om he discussion o lows, we see he need o ede ine place in ligh o he mul iple connec ions cu ing ac oss places. F om he s udy o ansna ionalism, we see he c i ical impo ance o he eme gence o new scales o social ac ion and he econ igu ing o ela ionships among he mul iple scales wi hin which places a e embedded. Finally, om he s udy o bo de s, we see he i al impo ance o seeing place as poli ically p oduced and con es ed. Toge he we can combine hese a ious h eads in o a concep o he social as inc easingly emb oiled in place-making p ojec s7 ha seek o ede ine he connec ions, scales, bo de s, and cha ac e o pa icula places and pa icula social o de s. These p ojec s a e he c i ical si es h ough which global e hnog aphe s can in e oga e social ela ions in an e a o globaliza ion. Weha ea gued ha placecon inues obecen al oglobale hnog aphy,albei in a econcep ualized o m. Ou s a ing poin in ackling hese challenges he e o e is o build a e ised de ini ion o place ha builds in la ge pa on geog aphe Do een Massey’s concep o a global sense o place. Massey p oposes a concep o locali y based on ou key a gumen s: (a) places a e no s a ic, (b) places do no ha e he kind o bounda ies ha wa an a simple coun e posi ion o he ou side, (c) he iden i y o a place is no homogenous, ye (d) places a e unique and hei speci ici y esides in he dis inc mix u e o local and wide social ela ions. In sho , he locali y— he si e—is his o ically p oduced in in e ac ion wi h a a ie y o ex e nal connec ions, and his p ocess also p oduces dis inc i e pa e ns o inequali y in e nal o he locali y. Toge he , hese p oposi ions o m he basis o a global sense o place (Massey 1994). Alb ow (1997), simila ly o Massey—and qui e in opposi ion o he au ho s ad oca ing he idea o he social as ne wo k and lows ha imply he ixi y o he local—a gues ha communi ies in globalized places a e luid and scape-like as well. People may li e in he same neighbo hood o own, bu hei meaning ul social li es may each beyond ha locali y o a highly une en deg ee. These eaches o ne wo ks cons i u e wha he calls sociosphe es, “dis inc pa e ns o socialac i i iesbelonging one wo kso social ela ionso e ydi e en in ensi y, spanning widely di e en e i o ial ex en s, om a ew o many housands o miles”(Alb ow1997,pp.51).Whilep io o hecon empo a ye ao globaliza ion, hese sociosphe es usually in e sec ed in he locali y, new in e sec ions a e now 7The concep o place-making appea s in Gup a & Fe guson (1992) and Tsing (2000), bu Appadu ai’s (1995) no ion o he p oduc ion o he local con eys a simila idea. 10 Jun 2002 20:42 AR AR163-12. ex AR163-12.SGM LaTeX2e(2002/01/18) P1: ILV 278 GILLE ¥´ O RIAIN o ming ha he calls socioscapes. Socioscapes a e luid imagina ions o spa ial belonging and o he social o ma ions c ea ed by and making possible he each o social ela ions beyond he locali y. Taken oge he , Massey’s and Alb ow’s con ibu ionis o ad ancea newsense o place ha , while i is ele an olocali ies be o e his e a o globaliza ion, is all he mo e salien oday. Such concep s o place ea all places as i hey occupied he same le el in a spa ial hie a chy. Howe e , as we ha e seen, a di e en pe iods o his o y, social ac ion is legi ima ed a di e en scales. Neil B enne (1999, 2000) a gues ha any unde s anding o space as socially cons uc ed equi es ha we ake in o accoun no only heex e nalconnec ionsandbo de so aplacebu alsohowi isloca edin he“poli ics o scale”— henego ia iono hehie a chy and legi imacyo di e en scales o social ac ion. B enne a gues ha he con empo a y e a o globaliza ion consis s no simply o a shi o powe and o social in e ac ion upwa d om he na ional o he global bu o a des abiliza ion o he exis ing hie a chies o spa ial scales. While c ea ing a c isis in na ional social o ma ions, his also opens up oppo uni ies o social ac o s o de elop new combina ions o local, na ional, ansna ional, and global social ela ions. This spa ial analysis is echoed in ecen discussions o social s uc u e in soci- ology, al hough he wo li e a u es a ely en e di ec ly in o dialogue. In con as o composi ionis iews o social s uc u e, ea ing high le els o social s uc u e as heagg ega eo lowe le els,andhie a chical iews, ea inglowe le elso social s uc u e as he e ec s o highe le els, Kon opoulos (1993) a gues o a iew o socials uc u es ashe e a chical, wi hdi e en le elsin eg a ingin di e en ways in a s uc u ed bu une en manne . Gi en he densely in e wined mul iple le els o analysis, how can we hope o in e oga e social ela ions and social s uc u es om pa icula places? We a gue ha he key o his is o ecognize ha hese shi ing socio-spa ial ela ions be- ween le els o analysis a e hemsel es socially and poli ically con es ed, no only in academia, bu also in he eal wo ld. This in e es in he poli ical con es a ion o place ex ends an h opologis s’ in e es in he p oduc ion o di e ence be ween places (Gup a & Fe guson 1992, Ma cus & Fische 1986). Tsing (2000) a gues, o example, ha schola s assume a global le el o analysis a hei pe il and mus begin hei analysis by seeking ou place-making p ojec s ha seek o de ine new kindso places,wi hnewde ini ionso social ela ionsand hei bounda ies.Places ma e because i is in places ha we ind he ongoing c ea ion, ins i u ionaliza- ion, and con es a ion o global ne wo ks, connec ions, and bo de s. Ins ead o a comp ehensi e accoun o a sel -con ained se o social ela ions, he e hnog a- phe now uses he loca ion o in e oga e a a ie y o in e sec ing place-making p ojec s as hey a e mani es ed in a pa icula spa ial loca ion. Re lec ing changes in he wo ldi sel , loca ion inplace is c ucial o unde s anding hesocial ela ions ha ex end beyond i . The e hnog aphe is less a ch onicle o sel -e iden places han an in e oga o o a a ie y o place-making p ojec s. How he e hnog aphe analyzes he in e sec ion o scales depends in pa on he posi ion in a pa icula se o place-making p ojec s. Such a concep o global e hnog aphy enables us o 10 Jun 2002 20:42 AR AR163-12. ex AR163-12.SGM LaTeX2e(2002/01/18) P1: ILV GLOBAL ETHNOGRAPHY 279 make sense o he a ie y o e hnog aphies dealing wi h global p ocesses and o classi y hem acco ding o how hey iden i y hei subjec s’ ela ions o ce ain place-making p ojec s. GLOBAL ETHNOGRAPHY E hnog aphyisanespeciallysui ableme hodologywi hwhich oin es iga esocial s uc u es ha a e cons i u ed ac oss mul iple scales and si es. E en he mos sophis ica ed s a is ical me hods end o ely on a nes ed hie a chy o scales and uni s o analysis, whe eas e hnog aphy can s a egically loca e i sel a c i ical poin s o in e sec ion o scales and uni s o analysis and can di ec ly examine he nego ia ion o in e connec ed social ac o s ac oss mul iple scales. In his sec ion weou line hiscon ibu ionby e iewinga a ie yo globale hnog aphies h ough he lens o h ee slices o globaliza ion—global o ces, global connec ions, and global imagina ions (Bu awoy e al. 2000)8. In s udies o global o ces he social ac o s and places being s udied a e caugh upinaplace-makingp ojec cons i u edwellbeyond hei in luence ha canha dly be shaped by hem—al hough hey may de elop complex o ms o adap a ion, a oidance, and su i al. S udies o global connec ions show how ce ain social ac o s a e able o ake ad an age o he des abiliza ion o sociospa ial hie a chies cen e ed on he na ion-s a e o build new anslocal and ansna ional connec ions. Thesocialac o swhocons uc globalimagina ions—alesseasilyclassi iedg oup han hose in he o he wo slices—a e mos explici ly engaged in place-making, con es ing de ini ions o local, na ional, and global scales and o he ela ions among hem. None o hese h ee “slices” o globaliza ion can be unde s ood in e ms o a simple shi upwa d in powe , a eloca ion o powe om he na ional o he global, bu each e lec s one way in which he global o de as complex mul iscala place-making p ojec s is expe ienced. Fo his eason, s udies o pa icula social phenomena end o clus e oge he unde a pa icula slice—s udies o mode n- iza ion unde o ces, o mig an s unde connec ions, and o poli ical ini ia i es o en i onmen alp o ec ion, egionalde elopmen ,andespeciallycul u alconsump- ion and p oduc ion unde imagina ions. 8The e a e pe haps only a hand ul o ‘global e hnog aphies,’ na owly de ined. Howe e , we e iew a wide ange o s udies he e in o de o illus a e some o he po en ial di ec ions which global e hnog aphy migh ollow. Many o he s udies a e an h opological due o he impo ance o e hnog aphy wi hin he discipline and he e hinking o an h opological concep s which has been p omp ed in pa icula by pos -colonial hough and which has ocused an h opological heo ies on globaliza ion o qui e some ime now. A ela i ely small po ion o sociological e hnog aphy add esses he kind o mac o p ocesses ha we discuss in his e iew bu we ha e included some s udies (such as Ka he ine Dudley’s The End o he Line) in o de o illus a e how hey a e shaped by pa icula aspec s o globaliza ion, e en i he s udy as a whole could ha dly be called ‘global e hnog aphy.’ 10 Jun 2002 20:42 AR AR163-12. ex AR163-12.SGM LaTeX2e(2002/01/18) P1: ILV 286 GILLE ¥´ O RIAIN ex ension o e hnog aphy in ime h ough he inco po a ion o his o ical analysis; and he changing subjec posi ion o he global e hnog aphe . Ex ending in Space: E hnog aphy Ac oss Si es and Scales In his 1998 olume E hnog aphy Th ough Thick and Thin, Geo ge Ma cus a gues ha he s udy o an inc easingly globalized wo ld equi es mul isi ed e hnog aphy o a leas a mul isi ed esea ch imagina y. He p oposes o ex end ieldwo k o mul iple si es, ex ending he esea ch si e in space, in o de o s udy locali ies ied o he ou side wo ld in complex and consequen ial ways. Mul isi ed esea ch is designeda oundchains,pa hs, h eads,conjunc ions,o jux aposi ionso loca ions in which he e hnog aphe es ablishes some o m o li e al, physical p esence, wi h an explici , posi ed logic o associa ion o connec ion among si es ha in ac de ines he a gumen o e hnog aphy. The ex ension o e hnog aphy o mul iple si es is a seemingly excellen way o mee he challenges posed by globaliza ion o place-based s udies. Howe e , while inding connec ions is ce ainly no di icul , deciding which o hem a e wo h pu suing seems somewha a bi a y, a ea u e o mul isi ed e hnog aphy ha Ma cus acknowledges when he calls i a kind o cons uc i ism (1998, p. 90). Ma cus iden i ies he me hods o such cons uc ion: connec ing si es by ollowing people; ollowing objec s, me apho s, plo s, s o ies, allego ies; ollowing con lic s andbiog aphy.Wha ies oge he ieldwo kloca ionsis hee hnog aphe ’sdisco - e y o aces and clues, he logic o associa ion. The me hodological impe a i e o being he e is eplaced by ha o chasing hings a ound, hings ha a e iden i ied mo e by he e hnog aphe ’s in e es s p io o en e ing he ield han by he ield i sel . Ma cus p o ides li le guidanceand a a he scan y lis o models ha would allow us o answe p essing ques ions such as how o iden i y all he ele an si es o wha weigh each o he si es should ca y. This dilemma is only agg a a ed i we ecognize ha e hnog aphic si es a e always and e e ywhe e emb oiled in an in e meshing ne wo k o mul iple si es o social ac ion, ope a ing ac oss mul iple spa ial scales and le els o social s uc- u e. His o ically, sociology has been la gely guil y o wha , a e Do een Massey (1994), we may call he con usion o he le el o analysis and geog aphical scale wi h he le el o abs ac ion. E en heo is s who ha e made impo an heo e ical con ibu ions o hesociological unde s andingso globaliza ion end oequa e he globalwi h heuni e sal,and helocalwi h hepa icula (Ha ey1990,Robe son 1995, Walle s ein 1991). Howe e , in mul iscala esea ch si es we canno a p io i iden i y a dominan le el o analysis. How do we iden i y he limi s o a commu- ni y we a e s udying when he communi y is cons i u ed ac oss a a ie y o spa ial scales (local, na ional, global, ansna ional e c.)? This in e wea ing o e hnog aphic si es ac oss a ange o spa ial scales, and he e o e uni s o analysis, poses se ious challenges o es ablished e hnog aphic p ac ice—challenges ha ha e ba ely been aised wi hin sociology as a whole le alone among e hnog aphe s. While we do no deny he place o cons uc ionism in 10 Jun 2002 20:42 AR AR163-12. ex AR163-12.SGM LaTeX2e(2002/01/18) P1: ILV GLOBAL ETHNOGRAPHY 287 esea ch, sociologis s a e likely o ind Ma cus’ de ini ion o a mul isi ed esea ch imagina y o be wan ing p ima ily because social ela ions among si es can ne e be educed o he connec ions o ged by he e hnog aphe ’s imagina ion and logic o associa ion. Concei ing o e hnog aphic si es as in e nally he e ogenous and connec ed oo he placesbyamy iad o social ela ions equi es ha heex ension o ieldwo k o se e al si es be dic a ed no by he logic o he e hnog aphe bu by he cha ac e o hese social ela ions hemsel es, bo h wi hin and be ween si es. Among hee hnog aphiesweha e e iewed,onlyasmallnumbe pu sueamul- isi ed app oach. The e hnog aphies o ansna ionalism discussed abo e p o ide use ul examples o he mul isi ed app oach and show whe e i wo ks well—when he e a e clea ly de ined pa e ns o connec ion be ween ela i ely highly con- cen a ed si es, e.g., in he case o s udying mig an s. Donham’s (1999) s udy o Ma xis mode niza ionin E hiopiain ol es wosi es,bu hesea e si es ha canbe unde s ood as clea ly loca ed wi hin a well-es ablished hie a chy o scales— he na ional capi al, which is he cen e o mobiliza ion o mode niza ion p ojec s, and a illage whe e hey a e implemen ed and con es ed. Such si ua ions whe e clea ly de ined ela ions exis be ween wo si es o ac oss wo scales a e ela i ely a e, howe e , and do no add ess he dilemmas o in es iga ing he mul iple se s o ex e nal connec ions, bo de s and scales wi hin which global places a e o en loca ed. Eade and his collabo a o s (1997) ake a di e en app oach— ixing hei e hnog aphic si e in London bu using a a ie y o s udies ca ied ou by a la ge esea ch eam o explo e he mul iple connec ions o hei esea ch si e o many pa s o he wo ld. The need o pu sue ac o s h ough space and ime in o de o explo e place- making p ojec s seems likely o inc ease ou use o in e iews, his o y, acing ne wo ks, and so on and o dec ease ou ime spen simply being on si e. The classic model o ex ended s ays in a si e ex ends o mul isi ed e hnog aphy qui e poo ly— o he easonsweha ediscussedandalso o hepu elyp ac ical easons o ime and o he esou ces (see V. Smi h 2001 o a e ealing discussion o he demands o he “wo k o e hnog aphy” in he “e hnog aphy o wo k”). Becoming pa o asi e emainsac i icalpa o e hnog aphy— heissueo gainingen y—bu he e y na u e o ha membe ship changes o he e hnog aphe as i changes o hose a ound he o him. Place becomes a launching pad ou wa d in o ne wo ks, backwa d in o his o y and ul ima ely in o he poli ics o place i sel . Ex ending in Time: F om Con ex o His o y Social ela ions change, and wi h hem, he si es in which hey a e embedded. Ma cus’ mul isi ed e hnog aphy, howe e , igno es he dynamic p ocess by which si esa e ans o medby hei ex e nalconnec ions.Fu he mo e,mul isi ede hnog- aphy does no allow us a su icien amoun o c i ical a en ion o poli ical e o s o na u alize he local communi y because i p o ides no space om which o no ice ha such cons uc ion occu s. I akes places o g an ed and lea es no oom o accoun ing o he p oduc ion and ans o ma ion o si es. In sho , in 10 Jun 2002 20:42 AR AR163-12. ex AR163-12.SGM LaTeX2e(2002/01/18) P1: ILV 288 GILLE ¥´ O RIAIN mul isi ed e hnog aphy, his o y emains an a e hough a he han a ac o ha has implica ions o wha can be seen as a si e (Gille 2001). Because we ocus on dynamic social ela ions a he han s a ic si es and see locali iesaspoli icallyandhis o icallycons uc ed,ou app oach oglobale hnog- aphy equi es he his o iciza ion o he locali y and o local and ex alocal social ela ions. Social ela ions a e, by de ini ion, dynamic, and as such hey a ec how he issues we s udy mani es hemsel es a a pa icula ime. In sociology, his- o ical analysis has oo o en implied unilinea de elopmen , as spa ial a ia ion is ansla ed in o empo al a ia ion o s ages in social change (see Do e’s 1996 c i ique o wo ld sys ems analysis). In he li e a u e on globaliza ion, his unilin- ea i y exp esses i sel in a model o a (non-Wes e n) local simply eac ing o he (Wes e n) global—while he global emains appa en ly una ec ed by he local- global ela ion (e.g., Mille 1995). Wonde ul co ec i es o his iew o his o y and local-global ela ions a e Ma shallSahlins’s(2000)upse inge hnog aphies,abou whoencompasseswhom in he p ocess o de elopmen , and he wo k o he Coma o s (1992). Thei p ac ice o his o ical e hnog aphy de ies he imposi ion o he mic osociology/ mac osociology dicho omy on he local/global one. “E en mac ohis o ical p o- cesses— he building o s a es, he making o e olu ions, he ex ension o global capi alism—ha e hei ee on he g ound. Being oo ed in he meaning ul p ac- iceso people,g ea andsmall, heya einsho ,sui ablecases o an h opological ea men ” (1992, p. 33) Fu he mo e, his e hnog aphic his o y ea s he agen s o such e en s (missiona ies, se le s, e c.) as a complex collec i i y wi h i s own his o y and p ac ices wi h which hey a ibu e meaning o hei pa icipa ion in one o ano he o hese mac ohis o ical e en s. Ma y Des Chene inds ha his his o ical e hnog aphy is s ill oo bound o a pa icula locali y. As she a gues, “spa ial con igui y is no essen ial o e e y kind o his o ical an h opological e- sea ch” and “ he ield may no be a place a all, bu a pe iod o ime o a se ies o e en s, he s udy o which will ake a esea che o many places” (1997, p. 71). Bo hDes Cheneand heComa o saccep a chi al esea chas pa o his o ical e hnog aphy. Howe e , bo h ede ine i s ole in a no el way— he o me ea ing hea chi es hemsel esas asi e,while hela e ea i asa sou ceo ex ual aces o a ield o a gumen s, which he e hnog aphe can econs uc wi hou ha ing o accep a chi es as objec i e documen a y eco d. While much o compa a i e- his o ical sociology has elied on his o ical documen s, le e s, dia ies, o icial eco d, e c., his app oach equi es ha sociologis s ee alua e a chi al esea ch. E hnog aphic esea ch can be a powe ul en ance in o such ein e p e a ion o a chi alma e ials,o enaidedbyanalyseso socialmemo y.Con empo a ys o ies ega ding his o ical e en s can be measu ed agains he a chi al eco d o e eal how his o ical e en s a e econs uc ed and con es ed as pa o con empo a y cul u e. While e hnog aphic in e p e a ion can be aided by his o ical ma e ials, he de ailed knowledge o he con empo a y si e can cas new ligh on a chi al ma e ials and he in ended and unin ended consequences o his o ical ac ions. O cou se, his o y can be inco po a ed mo e di ec ly in o e hnog aphic e- sea ch, albei o e a mo e limi ed ime span. Donham’s (1999) s udy o Ma xism 10 Jun 2002 20:42 AR AR163-12. ex AR163-12.SGM LaTeX2e(2002/01/18) P1: ILV GLOBAL ETHNOGRAPHY 289 in E hiopia p o ides a ascina ing example o a his o ical e hnog aphy-only in his case inco po a ing e isi s o si es o ea lie ieldwo k.9While such e isi s o he si eo anea lie e hnog aphy a e e ydemandingo indi idual e hnog aphe s,one way o in oduce a his o ical componen o e hnog aphic esea ch is o e isi he si es (o simila si es) s udied by o he e hnog aphe s. Bu awoy (2000b) a gues ha while e isi s ypically seek o debunk he o iginal s udy, hey may be be e deployed o analyze his o ical change—using he ea lie e hnog aphy as his o ical da a, as occu ed h ough good o une o Bu awoy himsel h ough his esea ch on a Chicago ac o y p e iously s udied by Donald Roy. T ans o ma ions o E hnog aphe s: How Do Rela ions wi h Those We S udy Change? The ex ension o he e hnog aphic si e in space and ime sha pens one’s sensibil- i ies o he poli ical consequences o de ining a si e o si es. The subjec posi ion o he e hnog aphe in global e hnog aphy is augh wi h di icul ies. Wha migh be he implica ions o he me hodological dilemmas discussed abo e o he poli- ical posi ion o he e hnog aphe ? Does he classical p oblema ic o gaining en y and main aining us wo hiness change in his new ype o e hnog aphy, in which he ield is composed o mul iple si es and he social ela ions in which he si es a e enmeshed? Ma cus p o ides an in e es ing e alua ion o he shi ing assumed iden i ies o he obse e . He claims ha doing e hnog aphy in mul iple si es amoun s o ac i ism, a he han jus o me e e hnog aphy. Using he example o Emily Ma in’s (1994) Flexible Bodies, he a gues ha in a kind o e hnog aphy in which one is a medical s uden in one si e, an AIDS olun ee in ano he , and a co po a e aineein he hi d, hee hnog aphe will indhe sel some imeswo king wi h he subjec s she obse es, some imes agains hem. These con lic s, acco d- ing o Ma cus, a e esol ed “no by e uge in being a de ached an h opological schola , bu in being a so o e hnog aphe -ac i is ” (p. 98). This ci cums an ial ac i is igu e appea s o be supe io o he “ adi ional sel -de ined ac i is ole claimed by le -libe al schola s” (p. 98) pe haps because i ac i ely pa icipa es in and nego ia es among di e en se s o subjec s (Gup a & Fe guson 1997). Howe e , his mobile ac i ism can be expec ed when he si es a e linked only by he connec ions o ged in he esea che ’s imagina ion. In Ma in’s case, o example, he link is a me apho ic one— ha is, she ollows he me apho o he immune sys em h ough a ious locales, bu he se s o subjec s she connec s a e no necessa ily in a conc e e con lic wi h each o he ( hough hey may ha e 9Donham spen ime in Addis Adaba, he E hiopian capi al, and Maale, an a ea in Sou he n E hiopia. Wi h majo isi s in 1974–75, as he e olu ion began, and in 1983–84, a e he e olu iona y s a e had consolida ed i sel , Donham spen a o al o h ee yea s in E hiopia, sp ead ac oss wen y- i e. Pa ly h ough good luck, a i ing in Maale jus be o e he e olu ion,andpa ly h oughdedica edand ime-consuming ieldwo k,Donhamisable o gi e conc e e o m o he his o ical ans o ma ion o no only E hiopian socie y bu o he meaning o Ma xism and mode ni y i sel wi hin E hiopia. 10 Jun 2002 20:42 AR AR163-12. ex AR163-12.SGM LaTeX2e(2002/01/18) P1: ILV 290 GILLE ¥´ O RIAIN di e ing pe spec i es on he pa icula issue) and may no e en know o each o he . In his case, main aining he posi ion o an AIDS ac i is is ela i ely easy, as long as he a ge s o AIDS ac i ism do no know abou he commi men s and p esence o he e hnog aphe in he o he loca ions. Bu how could one main ain any meaning ul sense o ac i ism when he si es a e in ac ual con lic wi h each o he , when one is isibly a ilia ed wi h ce ain o he pa ies in con lic and when consequen ly opposing pa ies a e mo e likely o conside he e hnog aphe a spy o hei opponen s? Gille (2000, 2001) ound he sel in such a si ua ion. She wen in o he ield expec ing o conduc he esea ch on he poli ics o loca ion o a was e incine a o in an open and ecip ocal manne . In con as , she ound he con lic a ound he incine a o had become so bi e ha she had o e ise many o he expec a ions ega ding he posi ion as an e hnog aphe – ela i ely mundane ma e s as whe e o li e, compensa ing in e iewees, discussing local a ai s, and so on we e deeply poli icized. E en i no loca ed in such a p eca ious poli ical spo , he e hnog aphe who is ollowing connec ions h ough a ne wo k will almos ine i ably ind he sel also making connec ions. Fo o be in a ne wo k is also o p ac ice ne wo king— such is he mode o exis ence in decen alized ne wo ks. The e hnog aphe , as someonewi h manyconnec ions ac ossmul iple cliques, isalso likely o becomea po en ially aluable esou ce o o he swi hin hene wo k—aswellasapo en ially dange ous igu e who knows oo much. The ela ion be ween e hnog aphe and subjec s is also ans o med when he e hnog aphe is much mo e accessible o many o hei subjec s, e en when hey e u n o hei compu e in he uni e si y. The ela ion o he an h opologis who e u ns om he a o illage, and o he sociologis who e u ns om he inne ci y, opeoplein hei si esis e ydi e en om he ela ionship ha exis sbe ween ac i is s in ansna ional social mo emen s and he esea che who s udies hem (see Bickham e al. 2001 o a discussion o simila issues in a p og am designed o c ea e dialogue be ween academics and ac i is s). We a e le hen wi h a ision o he global e hnog aphe ex ending he sel in ime and space o a emp o unco e he mul ile el social p ocesses a wo k in he si e. Bu hese ex ensions ake a oll— hey mus be nego ia ed and ela ionships mus be managed ha a e o en con adic o y o e en di ec ly con lic ual. The e is no easy answe o he dilemmas o powe in global e hnog aphy—i any hing, i is less clea o whom he e hnog aphe should speak unde hese condi ions han i has seemed in he pas . CONCLUSION Ou a els owa d global e hnog aphy ha e aken us ac oss many e ains and connec ions— hechanging ela ionshipbe weensocie yandspace, heimpo ance o loca ing he si e in ela ion o place-making p ojec s, he a ying ways in which e hnog aphe s ha e sliced in o he s udy o globaliza ion, and he dilemmas o unde aking e hnog aphy unde hese condi ions. We ha e a gued o a global 10 Jun 2002 20:42 AR AR163-12. ex AR163-12.SGM LaTeX2e(2002/01/18) P1: ILV GLOBAL ETHNOGRAPHY 291 e hnog aphy ha s ill loca es i sel i mly in places bu which concei es o hose places as hemsel es globalized wi h mul iple ex e nal connec ions, po ous and con es ed bounda ies, and social ela ions ha a e cons uc ed ac oss mul iple spa ial scales. The place-bound si e becomes a pla o m om which a a ie y o place-making p ojec s can be in es iga ed. These p ojec s p o ide a way in o he in es iga ion o he e a chical social s uc u es and deeply in e wined scales o social li e. We ha e sugges ed ha global e hnog aphe s ha e in es iga ed such si es as homes o pa icula place-making p ojec s, leading o he expe ience o globaliza ionsasei he global o ces,connec ions,o imagina ions.Whicho hese expe iences p e ails in a gi en e hnog aphic p ojec has much o do wi h he opic beings udiedand hesocialloca iono hosesocialac o sbeings udied.Finallywe ha e a gued ha while e hnog aphy may be pa icula ly well sui ed o unco e ing global p ocesses in hei mul iple and o e lapping con ex s, signi ican challenges exis o he would-be global e hnog aphe . The ex ension o he si e in ime and space poses p ac ical and concep ual p oblems o e hnog aphe s bu also poli ical ones. G ounding globaliza ion h ough e hnog aphy will p esen challenges and dilemmas bu also ich ewa ds. The Annual Re iew o Sociology is online a h p://soc.annual e iews.o g LITERATURE CITED Abell P, Reynie s M. 2000. On he ailu e o social heo y. B . J. Sociol. 51(4):739– 50 Agnew J. 2001. 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