Remaking the Service Class? Class Relations Among Software Developers in Ireland. National Institute for Regional and Spatial Analysis (NIRSA). Working Paper Series. No. 23

Na ional Ins i u e o Regional and Spa ial Analysis NIRSA Wo king Pape Se ies No. 23 Ap il 2004 Remaking he Se ice Class? Class Rela ions Among So wa e De elope s in I eland By Seán O’Riain Dep . o Sociology, NUI Maynoo h & NIRSA 1 Remaking he Se ice Class? Class Rela ions Among So wa e De elope s in I eland Seán Ó Riain The Dilemma o he Middle Class P o essionals and expe s ha e always posed a p oblem o companies as well as o class analys s. On he one hand, hese wo ke s a e clea ly wage labou e s and employees and he e o e sha e simila unde lying an agonisms wi h hei employe s as less skilled wo ke s. Howe e , hei pa icula skills gi e hem a powe in he wo kplace and in he labou ma ke which dis inguishes hem om less skilled wo ke s. This is he classic ‘p oblem o he middle class’ in class analysis. This ambiguous posi ion is u he complica ed by he way in which p o essionals’ ma ke powe c ea es connec ions be ween he expe wo ke class loca ion and o he class loca ions. While p o essionals and expe s may be wo ke s, hey may also be capi alis s, manage s o in he pe y bou geoisie (W igh , 1989). This combina ion o class loca ions poses a pa icula p oblem o companies as hey a emp o econcile he mul iple, o e lapping and po en ially con adic o y in e es s o hese expe s wi h he goals and s a egies o he i m i sel . P o essional wo ke s ha e been desc ibed, by Webe ian and Ma xis analys s, as membe s o a ‘se ice class’ who exchange no only e o o wages bu a much mo e di use commi men o se ice o hei employe o a mo e gene al and long- e m p ospec o compensa ion and ca ee de elopmen . In he ad anced capi alis economies in he pos -wa ‘Golden Age’ his ‘se ice ela ion’ was secu ed la gely h ough he ins i u ions o he hie a chical co po a ion, he in e nal labou ma ke and he bu eauc a ic ca ee (Gold ho pe, 1982, 2000). Howe e , hese e y ins i u ions ha e been signi ican ly ans o med in ecen decades as ‘delaye ing’ o ne wo k o ganiza ions and dec eased job secu i y ha e weakened he bu eauc a ic ca ee (Sa age, 2000). 2 C ucially, e en he mos skilled o p o essional wo ke s a ely expec o spend hei ca ee s wi h he same employe , e en i hey ul ima ely do so. This pape in es iga es how he se ice ela ion be ween employe and p o essional wo ke is ans o med unde hese condi ions. In d awing on an e hnog aphic s udy o so wa e de elope s in he Republic o I eland du ing he ‘Cel ic Tige ’ boom in 1997, he pape explo es hese ends in an indus y, occupa ion and economic se ing whe e hey can be seen mos clea ly. The so wa e indus y in I eland in he la e 1990s was cha ac e ized by small i ms wi h ela i ely ew laye s o managemen , apid u no e o s a and li le expec a ion o ‘loyal y’ o li e ime employmen on he pa o ei he employe o employee (Ó Riain, 2000, 2004). I a gue ha he ins i u ional changes in he egula ion o class ela ions be ween p o essionals and employe s has no unde mined he se ice ela ion bu has ans o med i o ce ain employees1. ‘Se ice’ is s ill exchanged o he long- e m p ospec o ‘compensa ion’. Howe e , whe e he se ice ela ion o he ‘Golden Age’ es ed i mly on long- e m employee and employe expec a ions, hese empo al ho izons ha e been much sho ened and e en obscu ed. The econcilia ion o he a ious class posi ions in which p o essionals ind hemsel es (wo ke , sel -employed pe i bou geois, owne o sha e capi al) is less and less e ec i ely ca ied ou h ough he empo al s uc u e o he ca ee and is elescoped wi hin he s uc u e o wo k, inc easingly o ganized a ound p ojec eams. This c ea es signi ican ins abili y in class ela ions among p o essionals and he coo dina ion o p o essional class ela ions is inc easingly ca ied ou h ough spa ial a he han empo al ‘ ixes’ – a leas pa ly explaining he inc easing impo ance o egional economies ela i e o co po a e 1 The pape lea es aside he ques ion o how widesp ead hese ans o ma ions a e and ocuses ins ead on he dynamics o hese econ igu ed se ice ela ions. 3 hie a chicies. The high ech egion becomes no only a ‘milieu o inno a ion’ bu also a c ucible o class ela ions and he e-nego ia ion o he e ms o ‘p o essional se ice’. Se ice Class, Con adic o y Class In ecen yea s we ha e seen an inc easing dialogue and e en con e gence be ween Ma xis and Webe ian analyses o class, and pa icula ly o he ‘middle class’. John Gold ho pe a gues, om a Webe ian pe spec i e, ha expe wo ke s a e pa o he ‘se ice class’ de ined by a ela ionship o hei employe s which is e y di e en han ha applying o less-skilled employees (Gold ho pe, 1982). Gold ho pe a gues ha , while less skilled employees a e bound o he i m by hei labou con ac , manage s and expe s a e bound o he i m by a ‘se ice ela ionship’ whe e hey a e p omised no only he immedia e bene i s o sala y and so on bu also he p ospec i e bene i s o a ca ee . Among he wo ke s likely o be in ol ed in a se ice ela ionship a e hose wi h specialized knowledge and expe ise (Gold ho pe, 1982; E ikson and Gold ho pe, 1993). E ikson and Gold ho pe a gue ha “A se ice ela ionship can hus be unde s ood as he means h ough which an employing o ganiza ion seeks o c ea e and sus ain such commi men ; o , ha is, a as a unc ional al e na i e o di ec con ol in ega d o hose employees whom he o ganiza ion mus o some signi ican ex en us o make decisions and o ca y hem h ough in ways ha a e consis en wi h o ganiza ional alues and goals” (1993:42). Gold ho pe is adaman ha class should be de ined a he le el o employmen ela ions, so he dis inc ion be ween se ice and wage employmen ela ions is cen al o his e y de ini ion o he middle class. E ik Olin W igh ’s Ma xis analysis, while using he no ion o he ‘se ice class’, sees he se ice ela ion as a mode o egula ion o class ela ions which a e de ined h ough he owne ship o asse s a he han h ough employmen ela ions hemsel es (W igh , 1997: 25). 4 W igh (1997) a gues ha wo ke s wi h high le els o skill and expe ise, such as so wa e de elope s, a e in a p i ileged app op ia ion loca ion wi hin exploi a ion ela ions. This is because hei skills a e o en sca ce, gi ing hem a s ong posi ion in he labou ma ke , and hei wo k is o en di icul o moni o and con ol, gi ing hem some con ol o e hei wo k si ua ion. W igh ’s accoun he e is e y close o ha o Webe ians such as Gold ho pe2. Howe e , W igh also poin s ou in an ea lie a icle (W igh , 1989) ha such employees ind hemsel es in an ‘objec i ely ambiguous’ class loca ion because o (a) he mul iple loca ions hey may occupy a any one ime and (b) he empo al s uc u e o hei ca ee s. W igh (1989) a gues ha such p o essional and expe wo ke s a e linked in a a ie y o ways o manage s, capi alis s and he pe y bou geoisie (sel -employed). Many p o essionals and expe s occupy ‘mul iple loca ions’ in he class s uc u e - ei he h ough wo king in a second job (usually in a consul ing o sel -employed capaci y) o h ough he owne ship o capi alis p ope y (usually in he o m o s ocks, sha es and o he in es men s). The highe wages o p o essionals and expe s make hem mo e likely o be able o sink money in o capi alis in es men s so ha “bo h in e ms o in e es s in ma e ial wel a e and in e ms o in e es s in ma e ial powe , p o essionals who accumula e signi ican sa ings and in es men s begin o sha e ma e ial in e es s wi h capi alis s” (W igh , 1989: 333). Fu he mo e, he empo al ajec o y o p o essionals and expe s’ ca ee s links hem o o he posi ions in he class s uc u e. Mos p o essionals ind hei way in o supe iso y o manage ial posi ions a some poin in hei ca ee s , p o iding a powe ul link o he in e es s o manage s in ha many p o essional jobs a e “p emanage ial” (W igh , 1989:334). Thi dly, W igh a gues ha many p o essionals ha e a 2 Gold ho pe’s mos ecen discussion o he se ice class g ounds i mo e i mly wi hin ela ions o moni o ing and con ol in he wo kplace (Gold ho pe, 2000; Chap e 10). Despi e Gold ho pe’s g ounding o his discussion in ansac ion cos s analysis his explana ion o why manage s and p o essionals end o ind hemsel es in se ice ela ions is oo ed in an analysis o p oduc ion poli ics and ul ima ely u he s he con e gence be ween Ma xis and Webe ian accoun s. 5 pe y bou geois ‘shadow class’ loca ion in ha many p o essionals can ake ad an age o oppo uni ies o sel -employmen as an al e na i e o wo king as employees unde he con ol o capi alis s and manage s. Fo bo h W igh and Gold ho pe, he empo al anjec o y o he ‘ca ee ’ is cen al o he se ice ela ion. W igh a gues ha “Such empo al ajec o ies ... gene ally place p o essionals and expe s in o con adic o y class loca ions ( he ‘middle class’) e en i a a pa icula poin in ime hey ha e no capi alized any o hei income and a e nei he pa o he manage ial hie a chy i sel no sel - employed. Howe e , gi en he ela i ely unde de e mined cha ac e o such ajec o ies o any gi en indi idual, p o essionals and expe s may ha e, o a g ea e o lesse deg ee, wha can be called objec i ely ambiguous class loca ions” (1989: 347). I is his ambigui y which is esol ed in Gold ho pe’s analysis by he o ma ion o a se ice ela ionship be ween such p o essionals and expe s and hei employe s. Gold ho pe, oo, emphasizes he empo al elemen in he se ice ela ion which “en isages …. a qui e di use exchange o se ice o he o ganiza ion in e u n o compensa ion in which he p ospec i e elemen is c ucial; and, by he same oken, he con ac is unde s ood as ha ing a long- e m a he han a sho - e m basis” (Gold ho pe, 2000: 220). T ans o ming he Ins i u ional Fo m o he Se ice Rela ion Howe e , in indus ies such as so wa e, less hie a chical and mo e decen alized o ganiza ional s uc u es, wi h he la e in e nal hie a chies, weake o in e nal labou ma ke s and he educ ion in he absolu e numbe o managemen posi ions has challenged he adi ional se ice ela ion. While in he I ish economy as a whole he a io o manage s o p o essionals and associa e p o essionals is app oxima ely 1:2.5, in so wa e i is abou 1:11 - indica ing he ela i ely la o ganiza ional s uc u es in so wa e and simila indus ies (Tansey, 1998: 41; so wa e indus y 6 su ey3). The p e alence o job-hopping as a ca ee s a egy and he impo ance o local labou ma ke s is e lec ed in he ac ha a qua e o he i ms in he so wa e indus y su ey had employee u no e o 25% o mo e in 1996-1997 (so wa e indus y su ey). Fu he mo e, he local labou ma ke was almos as impo an a ou e in o senio echnical and managemen posi ions as in e nal labou ma ke s in 1997 (so wa e indus y su ey). Bu his mo e u bulen ela ionship has aken on a ela i ely clea ins i u ional o m - wo k o ganiza ion based a ound p ojec eams wo king o a deadline and ca ee s inc easingly elying on ‘job hopping’ wi hin and be ween i ms. The adi ional ca ee s uc u e leading om expe in o manage ial posi ions has he e o e become mo e p oblema ic and he link be ween he enginee and he employe mo e ambiguous. These ends mean ha he co po a e e o o secu e expe employee commi men h ough building ca ee and cul u al a achmen o he co po a ion ha e been hea ily unde mined wi h such ‘co po a e cul u e’ models o commi men in he mino i y in a eas such as Silicon Valley (Ba on, Bu on and Hannan, 1996). The dominan compu e indus y me apho o IBM’s p omise o li e ime employmen (which collapsed wi h a educ ion o 140,000 in a wo k o ce o 400,000 om 1986-93) has been eplaced by he image o he eewheeling Silicon Valley enginee s who expec li le om hei employe s and will jump ship o mo e money o mo e challenging wo k a he d op o a ha . The eali y o mobili y as a ca ee pa e n and he mul iple class loca ions his in ol es is clea in he wo k his o ies o he membe s o a so wa e eam I wo ked on o 12 weeks in 1997. The eam was pa o he Dublin subsidia y o a Silicon Valley in o ma ion echnology company ( ha I call USTech) and was p oducing a so wa e p oduc unde con ac o a di e en US company. The 3 A su ey o 250 so wa e i ms unde aken in 1997. Fo u he de ails see Appendix A in Ó Riain (2004). 7 eam consis ed o six people (including mysel ) du ing he ime I was he e. Séamus, he eam leade , had been a USTech o 7 yea s. In ha ime he held ou comple ely di e en posi ions - wo king as a compu e es enginee , so wa e sys ems es enginee , in o ma ion sys ems suppo and so wa e de elopmen eam leade . The es o he eam had been assembled o e he p e ious 6 o 18 mon hs. Cono , 6 mon hs ou o college, s ill ecei ed job pos ings om his college ca ee counseling se ice e e y wo weeks. He le USTech 1-2 yea s la e . Jim and Paul we e employed on a con ac basis. Dan had also been a con ac o and ook almos a 50% pay cu o ake up a pe manen pos in o de o ge a mo gage om he bank. Paul’s his o y is one o a ‘so wa e cowboy’, using a se ies o luc a i e sho - e m con ac s o see he wo ld wi hou being ied down by business, social o pe sonal obliga ion. Jim and Dan ha e pu sued a di e en pa h - hey ha e a imes been employees, con ac o s, en ep eneu s o a numbe o hese s a uses a he same ime. They a e almos s e eo ypical examples o W igh ’s mul iple class loca ions among he middle class. Mobili y ou o he i m is hese so wa e de elope s’ key ba gaining chip wi h hei employe s. One lunch ime Cono , mysel and Michael, he g oup manage , ended up si ing oge he o lunch. We had somehow go on o he opic o he di icul y o ge ing people o he jobs ha we e a ailable. Cono wen in o g ea de ail on he job o e s he had ecei ed on lea ing college and on he e e - imp o ing job ma ke o g adua es, un il Michael quie ly inished his lunch and le . Cono u ned o me and asked “wha did you make o ha ? I wan ed him o know he e a e plen y o o he jobs ou he e. Wha I didn’ say is ha I’ e been ge ing job o e s e e y 2 weeks h ough he college”. 8 The high mobili y ca ee pa e n wi h li le a achmen o he employe (o o he employee o he i m) became a eali y o hese pa icula so wa e de elope s in he 1990s - e en in he appa en ly ‘semi-pe iphe al’ egion o I eland. The ca ee s o such so wa e de elope s con e ged signi ican ly wi h hose o hei coun e pa s in he leading high- echnology egions such as Silicon Valley o global ci ies such as New Yo k and London (Saxenian, 1994; Gi a d and S a k, 2002). The limi ed s uc u ed in e nal labou ma ke s in such ‘ la o ganiza ions’ ins i u ionalize in e - i m mobili y as employees can d i e up hei sala y and ge mo e in e es ing wo k by mo ing a he han s aying wi hin he i m. Connec ions o co-wo ke s we e combined wi h a cons an awa eness ha he membe s o he eam migh be dispe sed a sho no ice. This can happen ei he by co po a e decision ( he eam beside us was disbanded o e nigh when USTech in Silicon Valley hal ed de elopmen o he p oduc on which hey we e wo king) o h ough he decision o indi iduals o lea e he eam. Mobili y hen is a double-edged swo d - he ad an age o employees o being able o lea e wi h ew epe cussions is balanced agains he lack o cons ain s on companies changing employees’ esponsibili ies and e en ge ing id o hem (wi hin he bounds o he law). These ad an ages and dange s a e e en mo e signi ican o con ac o s who li e and die by he double edged mobili y swo d (Kunda, Ba ley and E ans, 2002). Al hough some companies y o build a s ong ‘co po a e cul u e’ in o de o in eg a e hese knowledge wo ke s, he e a e se e e limi s o such a s a egy (Kunda, 1993). Fo such skilled wo ke s he high mobili y pa e n is seen as an ad an age as hey can a oid ‘co po a e bullshi ’ as much as possible. Indeed he i onic de achmen om such co po a e mo ale boos ing s a egies which was cha ac e is ic o in o ma ion wo ke s in la ge co po a ions such as Digi al and IBM 9 back o Silicon Valley. Some mon hs a e I le he eam Jim and Paul, he wo con ac o s, wen on o posi ions elsewhe e in he global indus y when hei con ac s we e no enewed. In he pos - elease phase, as he so wa e de elope s ocus on hei ca ee s hei pe y bou geois ‘shadow class’ and hei abili y o u n hei skills in o capi al a e h own in o sha p elie . When Jim desc ibed himsel as ‘ he p oduc ’ (see abo e) he was e e ing o he sel -employed s a us o himsel and Paul bu his also has ele ance o he pe manen employees who a e close o being sel - employed gi en hei s ong dependence on he ex e nal labou ma ke in building hei ca ee s. Companies a e inc easingly ying o cope wi h his mobili y and he eme gence o he pe y bou geois class loca ion om he shadows by o e ing employees s ock op ions - ying o comba he mobile pe y bou geois endencies by c ea ing ‘cap u ed capi alis s’ whose ealiza ion o hei ma e ial in e es s as capi alis s a e dependen on s aying wi h he company o some ime. Because USTech I eland is a subsidia y o a ansna ional co po a ion and he eam a e wo king unde con ac o a sepa a e US i m, s ock op ions a e no widely used. Whe e he ensions and con adic ions be ween he mul iple class loca ions o middle class p o essionals had once been o ganized hough he empo al s uc u e o he ca ee hey a e now managed h ough he empo al s uc u e o wo k as so wa e de elope s mo e be ween hei p e- deadline expe iences as wo ke s and hei pe i -bou geois pos -deadline expe iences. Companies eel inc easingly h ea ened by he eplacemen o commi men o he i m gene a ed h ough a ‘se ice ela ion’ wi h a b oad commi men o a ‘ echnical communi y’ which ex ends beyond he i m and may no e en be s ongly o ganized by p o essional bodies. This shi esul s in a change in he way in which expe s’ con adic o y class loca ions a e econciled - o he se ice class his was achie ed h ough he empo al s uc u e o ca ee s, o echnical communi ies i is achie ed h ough he 16 empo al s uc u e o wo k i sel . In he p e-deadline phase o he p ojec eam he eam membe s a e ocussed on he wo k i sel and a e la gely sel -managing, blending some hing o he manage and wo ke loca ions in a single wo k si ua ion. Howe e , a he same ime, he pola iza ion be ween hei in e es s as ‘wo ke s’ and he in e es s o he company comes o he o e in he con es a ion o e he p essu es o he deadline and he con ol o e ime. I is as his s age o he wo k p ocess ha he language o esis ance and collec i e ac ion eme ges wi hin he eam, al hough in a e y en a i e way. A e he deadline, he wo ke class loca ion seems o disappea as he ‘pe y bou geois’ ‘shadow class’ o hese expe wo ke s becomes mo e salien as hey pu sue a ca ee s a egy based on hei loca ion as an independen agen in he ma ke . Companies a emp o cap u e hese wo ke s back in o he o bi o he company by o e ing s ock op ions o inc eased pay which can la e be u ned in o in es men s - expe s a e asked o choose be ween he aga ies o li e as independen small businesses (wi h hemsel es as he ‘business’) and he commi men s o becoming ‘cap u ed capi alis s’ wi hin he i m, ied in by ‘golden handcu s’ such as s ock op ions (Kunda, Ba ley and E ans, 2002). Recons i u ing he Se ice Rela ion: F om Time o Space Time becomes an e e mo e p essing eali y in he deadline-d i en wo kplace e en as i becomes a less s able s uc u ing o ce in econciling class ela ions. Ce ain cha ac e is ic o ganiza ional p oblems a e likely o eme ge. The in ensi ica ion o ime and he p essu es imposed by he deadline c ea e he condi ions which lead o employee bu nou - mani es ed in he exhaus ion o he eam membe s up o and a e he deadline and also in he decision made by he senio manage o he p ojec (some 5 mon hs a e I le he eam) o esign due o o e -wo k. The p essu e and 17 in o e ed cha ac e o he p e-deadline phase, and he esul ing insula ion o such wo ke s and he o ganiza ion o wo k om any kind o b oade social accoun abili y, make i all he mo e di icul o econcile he eam s uc u e and cul u e wi h b oade social conce ns. This is mos ob ious is he wo k- amily nexus whe e wo k demands come o domina e amily li e, lea ing e y li le space o wo ke s o nego ia e al e na i e wo k and amily ime a angemen s. The pos -deadline phase o high mobili y c ea es a g ea deal o ola ili y and insecu i y in he labou ma ke so ha employees lack s ong employmen gua an ees. E en in he cu en igh labou ma ke o he la e 90s, ‘employmen secu i y’ gi es way o ‘employabili y secu i y’. Howe e , when ca ee gains a e based on he h ea o mobili y his seems o ine i ably lead o inc eased labou ma ke inequali y as he h ea o lea e is only e ec i e when eplacing he employee is di icul . As i is inhe en ly based on sca ci y, he limi s o mobili y as a uni e sal ca ee s a egy a e clea . These new wo kplace ins i u ions ha e c ea ed p essu es o longe hou s and o mo e indi idualised ba gaining o e pay and o he inancial bene i s, con ibu ing o he dominan social p oblems which ha e eme ged in I eland o ising inequali y and inc eased p essu e on he social ep oduc ion o labou (childca e, housing, anspo e c). In his con ex he egion becomes a c i ical space whe e many o hese p oblems become e iden as i ms educe he secu i y hey o e employees and ex e nalize he cos s o social ep oduc ion as much as possible. As in e nal labou ma ke s become less eliable as he basis o ca ee s, ne wo ks ou side he i m become c i ical. Ca ee s a e buil using mobili y be ween i ms o ba gain o imp o ed wages and access o echnical lea ning and hese mobile ca ee s only inc ease he impo ance o close in e ac ions and s ong local coope a ion while wo king on any pa icula p ojec . The eme gence o ‘ he egion’ as a c i ical space o inno a ion also acili a es mobili y as 18 employees ind i ela i ely easy o ‘job-hop’ wi hin he egion and o he s mig a e o he egion, a ac ed by he concen a ion o high echnology jobs (Sco , 1993; Saxenian, 1994). ‘Se ice’, e en in he ace o he p essu es o he deadline, is secu ed h ough he h ea o he des uc ion o a wo ke ’s epu a ion in he local labou ma ke . The CV i sel can be ead o signs o such un eliabili y – he eam membe s po ed o e he CVs o candida es o he posi ion o con ac de elope wi hin he eam, looking o he ell ale signs o such un eliabili y including a se ies o e y sho - e m con ac s and e idence o ha ing le a p ojec be o e i was comple ed. Vas amoun s o in o ma ion low mo e di ec ly howe e – Cono des oyed he chances o one candida e he knew om college, by decla ing ha “he’s a bi wei d. He wouldn’ alk o anyone, ha kind o guy. He used o sca e me ac ually!”. The eam membe s main ained con ac wi h hei own ne wo ks wi hin he indus y – a imes con ac ing iends o echnical ad ice and egula ly sending bad jokes a ound email lis s o iends. The sho - e m con ac s a who li ed in and ou o he eam pu a signi ican amoun o wo k in o main aining hei ne wo ks, cons an ly alking on hei mobile phones abou echnology, upcoming jobs and people in he indus y. Fo all he eam membe s, bu pa icula ly o he con ac o s, social ne wo ks eplaced many o he unc ions o he i m in he se ice ela ion (Na di, Whi ake and Schwa z, 2000). Bu i social ne wo ks we e a esou ce, hey we e also he condui h ough which epu a ion was main ained – and epu a ion in ne wo ks is inc easingly he mechanism ha secu es ‘se ice’ o capi al, e en when se ice o he employe is unde mined. Pa icipa ion in he local and ansna ional ne wo ks o he ‘ echnical communi y’ is c ucial o ca ee s and becomes a new con es ed e ain o he in o ma ional wo kplace. As p o essional class ela ions a e econciled wi hin he empo al s uc u e o wo k, many o he dilemmas o con adic o y class ela ions a e ex e nalized, only o 19 show up as p oblems o insecu i y and unde in es men in he egion. As ma ke mechanisms agmen he i m, he echnical communi y, he egion and ul ima ely he s a e a e d awn e e mo e in o esol ing he p oblems o capi al – and occasionally e en hose o wo ke s - in he new se ice ela ion. Re e ences Ba on, J., M. D. Bu on and M. Hannan (1996) ‘The oad aken: o igins and ea ly e olu ion o employmen sys ems in eme ging companies’ Indus ial and Co po a e Change 5, 2, 239-275. E ikson,R. and J.H. Gold ho pe (1993) The Cons an Flux: A S udy o Class Mobili y in Indus ial Socie ies Cla endon P ess, Ox o d Gi a d, M. and D. S a k (2002) "Dis ibu ing in elligence and o ganizing di e si y in new-media p ojec s." En i onmen and Planning A Vol 34, pp. 1927-49. Gold ho pe, J.H. (1982) “On he Se ice Class: I s Fo ma ion and Fu u e” in A.Giddens and G.Mackenzie (eds.) Social Class and he Di ision o Labou Camb idge Uni e si y P ess, Camb idge Gold ho pe, J.H. (2000) On Sociology Ox o d: Ox o d Uni e si y P ess Kunda,G. (1993) Enginee ing Cul u e Temple Uni e si y P ess, Philadelphia. Kunda, G., Ba ley, S.R., & E ans, J. (2002). “Why Do Con ac o s con ac ? The Expe ience o Highly Skilled Technical P o essionals in a Con ingen Labo Ma ke ” Indus ial & Labo Rela ions Re iew 55(2): 234-261. Na di, B., S. Whi ake and H. Schwa z (2000) “I 's No Wha You Know, I 's Who You Know: Wo k in he In o ma ion Age” Fi s Monday 5, 5 Ó Riain, S. (2000). “Ne -Wo king o a Li ing: I ish So wa e De elope s in he Global Wo kplace” pp. 175-202 in M.Bu awoy e al. Global E hnog aphy Be keley: Uni e si y o Cali o nia P ess 20 21 Ó Riain, S. (2004) The Poli ics o High Tech G ow h: De elopmen al Ne wo k S a es in he Global Economy Camb idge: Camb idge Uni e si y P ess Sa age, M. (2000) Class Analysis and Social T ans o ma ion Buckingham: Open Uni e si y P ess Saxenian, A. (1994) Regional Ad an age Ha a d Uni e si y P ess, Camb idge. Sco , A. (1993) Technopolis Uni e si y o Cali o nia P ess, Be keley. W igh , E.O. (1989) “Re hinking, Once Again, he Concep o Class S uc u e” in E.O. W igh e al. The Deba e on Classes Ve so, London. W igh , E.O. 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