States and Markets in an Era of Globalization

S a es and Ma ke s in an E a o Globaliza ion Annual Re iew o Sociology, Volume 26 Seán Ó Riain, Depa men o Sociology, Uni e si y o Cali o nia, Da is, CA 95616. E-mail: [email p o ec ed] D a : Please do no ci e wi hou au ho ’s consen Key wo ds: neo-libe alism, wel a e s a es, de elopmen , capi alism, socialism Running Head: S a es, Ma ke s and Globaliza ion Send co espondence o: Seán Ó Riain, Uni e si y o Cali o nia, Depa men o Sociology, One Shields A enue, Da is, CA 95616. Tel.: (530)752-3182 Fax: (530) 752-0783 E-mail: [email p o ec ed] Pe spec i es on S a es and Ma ke s Globaliza ion is ans o ming he ela ionship be ween s a es and ma ke s. E en as some au ho s p edic he demise o he s a e in he ace o inc easingly global ma ke s, o he s ocus on he ole s a es play in cons uc ing ma ke s hemsel es and making sus ainable ma ke in e ac ions possible. As he imes change so do ou heo ies, gene a ing new concep s which can be used o be e unde s and he p e ious pe iod. This pape unde akes such a p ojec . I a gue ha s a e, ma ke and socie y a e embedded in each o he and cons uc ed by hei in e ac ions wi h one ano he 1. The pape b ie ly e iews wo ld-sys ems and compa a i e poli ical economy analyses o he ela ion be ween s a es and ma ke s. This e iew p o ides he amewo k o a discussion o he a ie y o models o s a e-ma ke in e ac ion in he pos wa ‘Golden Age’ o capi alism. Finally I e iew he challenges which globaliza ion poses o hese models and conside con empo a y expe imen s wi h s a e-ma ke ela ions in a ans o med in e na ional o de . In he e a a e Wo ld Wa II a pa icula se o ela ions be ween s a e, socie y and ma ke was ins i u ionalized in e na ionally, c ea ing a sys em o ela i ely s able na ional economies o ganized h ough an in e na ional o de o ‘embedded libe alism’ 1Al hough he ocus o he pape is on he ela ionship be ween s a es and ma ke s his ine i ably leads us o a discussion o how hese wo modes o social o ganiza ion in e sec wi h he o ganiza ion o socie y a la ge. ‘Socie y’ is o cou se a b oad and ambiguous e m. He e I use i in wo senses. I e e s o social g oups which become ac o s ele an o he shaping o s a es and ma ke s unde pa icula ci cums ances, e.g., he ole o he wo king class in mobilizing o wel a e s a e expansion. Howe e , I also use i o e e o he pa e n o social in e ac ion beyond he ealm o he adminis a i e e o s o he s a e (and co po a e hie a chies) and he exchange ela ions o he ma ke - ha is in he mo e Polanyian sense o he associa ional li e o socie y. An a en ion o ‘socie y’ is demanded by ecen ends wi hin economic sociology which ocus on he social basis o ma ke ac i i y and wi hin poli ical sociology owa d he analysis o ‘s a es-in-socie y’. 2 (Ruggie 1982). These economies we e ied oge he h ough a nego ia ed egime o mul ila e al ade bu bu e ed om he ull e ec s o hese in e na ional ma ke s by ins i u ions limi ing ade and capi al lows. A di e si y o na ional models o s a e- ma ke in e ac ion co-exis ed uneasily wi hin hese ins i u ions e en as in e na ional ma ke s g adually expanded in scope. The globaliza ion o he economy has consis ed in la ge pa o he weakening and e en des uc ion o hese ins i u ional bu e s be ween na ional economies and global ma ke s. S a es ind hemsel es ying o espond o p essu es om local socie ies and global ma ke s simul aneously wi hou he b ea hing oom p e iously o e ed by con ols on ansna ional ade, inance and p oduc ion. These de elopmen s pose signi ican challenges o ou cu en unde s anding o he ela ion be ween s a es and ma ke s. Wi hin he adi ion o compa a i e poli ical economy, esea ch on s a es and ma ke s has ocused on a ia ions be ween di e en con igu a ions o s a es and ma ke s (E ans & S ephens 1988; Be ge & Do e 1996; Boye & D ache 1996). The >old pa adigm= o compa a i e poli ical economy esea ch analyzed s a es and ma ke s as sel -con ained sepa a e en i ies ba ling in a ze o-sum game o hei sha e o a ini e economic space (Block 1994). S a e adminis a ion, he associa ional li e o socie y and ma ke exchange we e seen as ela i ely dis inc o ms o social ela ions which compe e as he dominan o ms o social ac ion. Whe e he e i o ial dimension o s a e-ma ke ela ions was conside ed a all, he assump ion was ha hey ope a ed la gely wi hin a de ined na ional economic space. The ques ion became one o >how much= s a e in e en ion in he na ional economy was ad isable. While esea ch in his adi ion p o ided a g ea deal o insigh in o he sou ces o di e si y in na ional models o capi alism i was 3 weake in analyzing how s a es and ma ke s shaped each o he , bo h wi hin he na ional economy and in e na ionally. Wo ld-sys ems heo y explici ly add esses hese weaknesses as i emphasizes he ways in which s a es and ma ke s shape one ano he a he le el o he wo ld-sys em. S a es and ma ke s a e inex icably in e wined a he le el o he wo ld-sys em in h ee dis inc bu ela ed ways. Fi s ly, s a es a e in eg a ed in o ma ke s h ough he hie a chical s uc u e o in e na ional ade and p oduc ion (Walle s ein 1974, 1989). Secondly, s a es compe e wi h one ano he o a ac mobile capi al and ‘co e’ s a es s uggle o e he powe o o ganize he global economy (A ighi 1994). Fu he mo e s a e and ma ke expand in a symbio ic ela ionship: “Each bou o co po a e and s a e expansion seems o ha e ollowed he same gene al cou se. A wa e o echnological change enabled an expansion in co po a e size and con ol, s imula ing popula demands o compensa o y egula ion on a co esponding go e nmen al scale . . . Each ound has lead o an expanded s a e chasing a e an expanding co po a e size.” (Chase-Dunn & G imes 1995: 402). Thi d, models o s a e-ma ke in e ac ion may di use h ough he wo ld-sys em h ough he in e ac ion o s a es and pa icula ly h ough he in luence o ansna ional o ganiza ional ac o s. In pa icula , he ‘wo ld socie y’ pe spec i e a gues ha a ‘Wes e n libe al democ a ic’ model o he o ganiza ion o he libe al s a e and he ee ma ke a e di used ac oss he na ions o he wo ld (Meye 1980, Meye e al 1997). Fu he mo e, Meye e al a gue ha “globaliza ion ce ainly poses new p oblems o s a es, bu i also s eng hens he wo ld- cul u al p inciple ha na ion-s a es a e he p ima y ac o s cha ged wi h iden i ying and managing hose p oblems on behal o hei socie ies” (1997: 157). This heo y hen sugges s a p ocess o la gely consensual adop ion o common cul u al and 4 ins i u ional o ms (e.g., s a e-ma ke ela ions) in a wo ld o na ions which is inc easingly unde he in luence o a wo ld socie y o s a eless o ganiza ions and p o essionals (Meye e al 1997). As such, i is almos di ec ly con adic o y o Walle s einian wo ld-sys ems heo y. Wo ld-sys ems heo ies p o ide an analysis o some o he elemen s lacking in compa a i e poli ical economy s udies. Howe e , while wo ld sys ems heo y is aluable in o ien ing esea ch owa d sys em le el p ocesses, he heo y is much weake in explaining he mechanisms a wo k wi hin subuni s o he sys em. Wi hin his b oade s uc u e o s a e-ma ke ela ions a he wo ld-sys em le el he e a e a a ie y o possible domes ic a angemen s, a angemen s which hemsel es play a c i ical ole in shaping he wo ld-sys em. Consequen ly he heo y also ends o be o e -de e minis ic and weak in iden i ying openings o poli ical mobiliza ion o al e na i e economic s a egies. Resea ch in wo ld-sys ems and compa a i e poli ical economy appea o p o ide complemen a y insigh s in o how s a es and ma ke s cons uc he in e na ional economic o de and in o he di e si y o na ional models o s a e-ma ke in e ac ion wi hin ha in e na ional o de . Howe e , un il ecen ly, he e has been ela i ely li le dialogue be ween exponen s o each adi ion. This lack o dialogue lead E ans and S ephens o call o an ‘in e ac i e ision’ in poli ical economy which aims “ o explica e he poli ical and social s uc u al ac o s ha enable indi idual coun ies o ans o m [in e na ional] ies o hei bene i , while simul aneously analyzing he way in which he changing s uc u es a he in e na ional le el acili a e o limi possibili ies o ans o ma ion” (E ans & S ephens 1988: 757). 5 This ‘in e ac i e ision’, combining na ional and wo ld-sys em ac o s, was well sui ed o he e a o embedded libe alism whe e domes ic and in e na ional a enas in e ac ed bu we e bu e ed om one ano he . Howe e , as hose ins i u ional bu e s ha e been weakened by globaliza ion we need a new ‘in eg a i e ision’. This ision will see local, na ional and global p ocesses as shaped by each o he bu also as in e wined on a con inuous basis. S a e-ma ke in e ac ions and egimes will be buil no be ween he local and global bu ou o he local and he global. Unde embedded libe alism, s a es could main ain a ‘janus- aced’ pos u e, dealing ela i ely sepa a ely wi h nego ia ing in e na ional ma ke s wi h o he s a es and wi h balancing domes ic social and poli ical p essu es. Now ha he bu e ing ins i u ions o embedded libe alism ha e been weakened, s a es a e inc easingly aced wi h he in eg a ion o domes ic and in e na ional policy (Ruggie, 1995) and wi h nego ia ing he mul iple connec ions o local socie y o ansna ional ma ke s. Con empo a y app oaches in poli ical economy emphasize no he ela i e weigh o s a e, ma ke and socie y bu he ways in which hey shape each o he (Block 1994, E ans 1997). Building on his esea ch, I a gue ha he sphe es o s a e, ma ke and socie y a e shaped by each o he and canno exis in isola ion om he o he s. Each sphe e is mul iply embedded wi hin he o he s. Howe e , he ela ions be ween hem a e ine i ably ense, due o he inhe en dilemmas o econciling ma ke , socie y and s a e in a capi alis economy. Pa hs o economic de elopmen a e de e mined by he a ie y o ways in which hese ensions a e econciled h ough combina ions o s a e, ma ke and socie y. How hese h ee sphe es shape one ano he his o ically and o m ins i u ionalized se s o connec ions wi h one ano he becomes he cen al de e minan o an economy=s a e unde globaliza ion. This is a dynamic and pa h dependen p ocess, calling o de ailed his o ical analysis o he mu ual shaping o ma ke , s a e 6 and socie y a he local, na ional and ansna ional le els. This emphasis on pa h dependence, con ingency and poli ical possibili ies ma ks his pe spec i e o om he mo e o alizing na a i es o wo ld sys ems heo y. Howe e , i s a en ion o he in eg a ion o local, na ional and global p ocesses goes beyond he classic ‘s a es and ma ke s’ s udies. S a e-building, ma ke econs uc ion and he cons i u ion o socie y a e in e dependen social p ocesses he e o e which occu simul aneously a he local, na ional and ansna ional le el. An unde s anding o he conc e e o ganiza ion o he wo ld-sys em a any his o ical junc u e equi es no only an unde s anding o wo ld-sys em p ocesses, bu also o he speci ic ways in which s a e-ma ke models in e ac a each o hese le els. The es o his pape p o ides a b oad ou line o he way in which his occu ed in he pos Wo ld Wa II ‘Golden Age’ o capi alism and how ha pa icula comp omise is cu en ly being e-o ganized.. S a es and Ma ke s unde Embedded Libe alism The his o ical comp omise o ‘embedded libe alism’ was sus ained by a numbe o bu e ing mechanisms which ensu ed ha s a es could e ec i ely use na ional economic policy o p omo e domes ic s abili y, in he p ocess sus aining suppo o an expanding global libe al o de . In he a ea o ade, mul ila e al nego ia ions ocused on he issue o disc imina ion in a i s while e aining suppo o he concep o a i s hemsel es. In he a ea o mone a y policy, go e nmen s we e pe mi ed o main ain capi al con ols and he ocus o mul ila e al nego ia ions was main aining balance o paymen s equilib ium in conjunc ion wi h ull employmen (Ruggie 1982). To hese bu e s in he a eas o ade and inance we migh add he ela i ely na ional o ganiza ion o indus ial capi al and he ela i ely limi ed labou mig a ion du ing 7 his pe iod. In he c i ical a eas o ade, inance, p oduc ion and labou supply, he e we e signi ican ins i u ional bu e s be ween he global expansion o ma ke s and capi al and he ins umen s a ailable o go e nmen s o in e ene domes ically. The libe al in e na ional o de was ‘embedded’ in na ional economies which sus ained suppo o i by media ing i s e ec s. S a es play a c i ical ole in cons uc ing ma ke s by gua an eeing hei ules o ope a ion bu also by c ea ing new ma ke ac o s and shaping hei s a egies. Howe e , hey mus balance his ac i i y wi h he need o main ain suppo om he socie y which hey claim o ep esen , placing he s a e a he hea o he p ocess o managing he ensions be ween ma ke and socie y. Socie y oo is caugh be ween suppo ing s a e e o s o p omo e g ow h and li ing s anda ds h ough he ma ke while simul aneously u ning o he s a e o p o ec ion agains he ma ke (Polanyi 1944). Ma xis heo is s sugges ed in he 1970s ha hese ensions we e insu moun able (O e 1984, Habe mas 1976). Howe e , he ensions ha e been econciled his o ically in a a ie y o ins i u ionalized na ional models o capi alism, unde pinned by di e en s a e-socie y alliances (Scha p 1999, E ans e al 1985). Fou dis inc models o such s a e-ma ke in e ac ion ha e domina ed he his o y o he pos wa wo ld-sys em: he libe al s a es o he Anglo-Ame ican sphe es o in luence, he social igh s s a es2 o pa s o he indus ialized wes , he de elopmen al s a es o Eas Asia and he socialis s a es o Eas e n Eu ope and China in pa icula . The ac ha hese models a e embedded wi hin an in e na ional libe al o de is e lec ed in he ma ke 2‘Social Righ s S a es’ e e s o he s a es which a e ypically labeled ‘wel a e s a es’. I ollow Block’s (1994) e m in his pape due o i s iden i ica ion o he c i ical ea u e o hose s a es - he ex ension and b oadening o social igh s in he ma ke - a he han di ec ing a en ion o jus one, albei c ucial, pa o his p ocess - he expansion o he wel a e s a e. 8 o ien a ion o each, wi h he excep ion o he socialis s a es. In libe al egimes, s a es p omo e he domina ion o ma ke s o e socie y. In social igh s s a es, s a e and socie y o m an alliance o limi he ange o ma ke s a egies o ‘high oad’ (high skill, high wage, ex ensi e social p o ec ion) s a egies. In de elopmen al s a es, which seek o s ake a place o hemsel es in he in e na ional libe al o de , he s a e agg essi ely mobilizes socie y o pa icipa e in he ma ke and s a e and socie y coo dina e ma ke s a egies. Socialis egimes di e in hei posi ion ou side he embedded libe alism comp omise and in hei abili y and desi e o subsume ma ke and socie y wi hin he ope a ions o he s a e. I examine each one in u n in o de o examine he ange o s a e-ma ke in e ac ions wi hin his pa icula ins i u ionalized o ganiza ion o he wo ld-sys em. In each case he key ea u es o each model, i s in e na ional and domes ic condi ions, and he c i ical dilemmas i aces a e ou lined. Libe al S a es and Hegemonic Powe The p ojec o he libe al s a e is s a e p omo ion o ma ke s in o e e y sphe e o socie y and e en ul ima ely in o he s a e i sel . The i ony is ha he s a e is equi ed o secu e he condi ions o ep oduc ion o he ma ke - laissez ai e is ine i ably and con inuously planned (Polanyi 1944, Block 1996). In a wo ld o de whe e a hegemon exis s, such as in he case o B i ain in he la e 19 h cen u y o he US a e Wo ld Wa II, hen an in e na ional economic egime based a ound ee ade is likely o eme ge as a libe al wo ld o de is consis en wi h he in e es s o he hegemonic powe (A ighi 1994, Ruggie 1982). The ‘libe al’ wel a e s a es o he indus ialized wes consis o he Uni ed Kingdom, he Uni ed S a es and he coun ies o which he model has ‘di used’ 15 ela ions mo e o malized bu is also likely o pu p essu e on s a e and business o engage in long- e m collabo a i e planning (Schneide 1997). The si ua ion o labo is ypically less benign in de elopmen al s a es howe e as us be ween business and he s a e is o en consolida ed by he ep ession o labou (Deyo 1989). E ans (1995) cau ions ha e en he mos success ul and bu eauc a ically endowed s a es may un in o p oblems. The de elopmen al s a e p omo es local i ms and encou ages hem o compe e globally. In becoming global i ms howe e hei alliances wi h he s a e a e unde mined as hey become mo e and mo e closely aligned wi h he in e es s o hei in e na ional pa ne s. The Asian de elopmen p ojec ’s basis in he domes ic alliance be ween s a e and capi al was unde mined as Asian i ms in e na ionalized, became mo e in eg a ed in o in e na ional inancial ma ke s and an in o he massi e deb c isis o he 1990s as Asian and US capi alis ins i u ions clashed, unde mining he high deb inancing o he Asian co po a ions (Wade 1998a,b,c,d, Wade & Vene oso1998, Bigga 1998). The delica e balance o s a e-socie y syne gy in he Eas Asian de elopmen al s a es is unde h ea om he disengagemen o socie y om he s a e o o m new, and po en ially disas ous, alliances wi h in e na ional ma ke ac o s. Socialis S a es Clea ly he mos ambi ious a emp on he pa o a s a e appa a us o shape ma ke and socie y was he e o s o he ‘s a e socialis ’ s a es o Eas e n Eu ope and some pa s o Asia o build an al e na i e model o socio-economic de elopmen , bo h na ionally and con es ing wi h he libe al o de a he le el o he wo ld-sys em. Whe e he heo y o socialism had p edic ed ha e olu iona y a emp s o o e h ow capi alism would eme ge in he de eloped na ions, amously his has no been he case. Al hough he a owed goal o socialism was he dominion o socie y o e s a e and 16 ma ke , in p ac ice he socialis p ojec u ned in o he e o o he s a e o subsume socie y and he ma ke wi hin i sel . The mobiliza ion o socie y by he s a e appa a us, con olled by he new class o expe s (Kon ad & Szelenyi 1979), has been he basis o economic de elopmen . While os ensibly incompa ible wi h he capi alis mul ila e alism o embedded libe alism, s a e socialism ul ima ely made i s peace wi h his wo ld o de . As he Cold wa became ins i u ionalized and he US and USSR ca ed ou hei own sphe es o in luence, he spec e o communism became a legi ima ing elemen o he embedded libe alism comp omise. Fu he mo e, he socialis s a es hemsel es used ma ke -like mechanisms o coo dina e hei in e na ional ela ions, inc easing hei expo s o he wo ld ma ke and hei impo s om capi alis coun ies and making deals o hos ansna ional in es men (Chase-Dunn 1982, 1989: 85). How s a e socialis economies ac ually wo ked was a mys e y o sociologis s and o he wes e n social scien is s o many yea s. This was despi e he ac ha un il he 1970s he socialis economies had g ow h a es compa able o o he coun ies a hei le el o de elopmen and much supe io le els o li e acy, in an mo ali y and o he measu es o social wel a e (Szelenyi 1994, Ko nai 1989). I was only in he 1980s ha s udies began o go beyond he ‘ o ali a ianism’ and ‘mode niza ion’ pe spec i es (S a k & Nee 1989). Ko nai’s (1980, 1990) majo con ibu ion in de eloping his heo y o he economic logic o he plan was o analyze he logic o s a e socialism as an ins i u ional o ma ion in i s own igh . He a gued ha a plan d i en sys em an in o ch onic p oblems o sho age while a ma ke d i en sys em was h ea ened by p oblems o demand. Bu awoy and Lukacs, in hei s udy o i ms in Hunga y, de eloped his insigh by showing ha signi ican elemen s o ma ke and social coo dina ion exis ed 17 wi hin he planning sys em. In con as o capi alism, whe e la ge i ms sough o con ol unce ain y in he ma ke economy by de eloping signi ican elemen s o co po a e planning, socialis i ms we e subjec o he plan ex e nally bu elied hea ily on ma ke -like mechanisms o deal lexibly wi h he ch onic p oblems o sho ages and make he necessa y wo k p ocess adjus men s (Bu awoy & Lukacs 1992). Indeed, mo e gene ally, socialism was he ‘mi o image’ o capi alism (S a k 1986). Whe e socie y u ned o he s a e o amelio a e he inequali ies o he ma ke unde capi alism, i u ned o he ma ke o compensa e o he inequali ies associa ed wi h he socialis edis ibu i e s a e (Szelenyi 1978). Simila o capi alism, howe e , is he impo ance o social ne wo ks and pe sonal ies in mobilizing and alloca ing esou ces, ies which may be so impo an ha some au ho s ha e sugges ed a ansi ion in pos - socialis economies no so much om ‘plan o ma ke ’ bu om ‘plans o clans’ (S a k & B usz 1998). Socialis s a es a y a g ea deal in how hese al e na i e o ms o coo dina ion ha e been combined wi h planning (Szelenyi 1994). None heless, i was no un il a e he c ises o 1989 ha ma ke and socie y we e able o challenge and displace he s a e as he cen al o ganizing p inciple o he now pos -socialis economies. The s a e sys em collapsed unde he weigh o i s own inabili y o deal wi h he in o ma ional complexi ies o in ensi e g ow h in he in o ma ion age (Cas ells 1997) and he g owing gap be ween ideology and eali y (Bu awoy & Lukacs 1992). Au ho s disag ee p o oundly, howe e , on he legacy o socialism and i s implica ions o ansi ions om socialism. Bu awoy a gues ha in Russia he collapse o he socialis s a e has esul ed in he ‘in olu ion’ o socie y wi h he des uc ion o he exis ing in as uc u e o social coope a ion and ligh om p oduc ion and accumula ion in o a 18 degene a e me chan capi alism and usu y (Bu awoy 1997, Bu awoy & K o o 1992). O he s a e mo e op imis ic, a guing ha he socialis legacy lea es esou ces o he ansi ion as well as obs acles, esou ces which a e p ima ily loca ed in he social ela ions o he popula ions o hese economies hemsel es (S a k & B usz 1998). Eyal e al (1998) a gue ha he cul u al bou geoisie o Eas e n Eu opean pos -socialis coun ies a e p omo ing a ‘capi alism wi hou capi alis s’, c ea ing ma ke spaces be o e he capi alis s a e c ea ed o ill hose spaces. S a k and B usz ’s esea ch sugges s ha hese capi alis s a e in he p ocess o being c ea ed, economically a ound new ‘ ecombinan ’ o ms o p ope y (S a k 1996) and poli ically h ough new ‘delibe a i e associa ions’ (S a k & B usz 1998). New ac o s and ins i u ional a enas a e being o med which blu he bounda ies be ween public and p i a e and a e deeply embedded in associa ional ne wo ks. Socie y is o p o ide he solu ion o he p oblems o ma ke ansi ion. O he s, howe e , a gue ha he in olu ion o socie y makes his impossible and ha a s ong s a e ole is equi ed o c ea e a ma ke which does no decima e he socie y bu esul s in accumula ion. Bu awoy (1997) poin s o China as he example o a cohe en pa y-s a e which has p omo ed success ul indus ial ans o ma ion while e aining cen al poli ical con ol, in con as o he collapse o he Russian s a e and he ise o c ime and usu y o ill he acuum. Oi (1998) a gues ha he s a e in China has no been unde mined by i s c ea ion o an en ep eneu ial class, as heo is s o ‘ma ke ansi ion’ sugges (Nee 1989). To a ce ain ex en , he di e ences be ween hese au ho s ela e o hei choice o cases, Russia and China ha ing con olled socie y much mo e closely his o ically while he Cen al Eu opean na ions we e le wi h a mo e igo ous associa ional li e upon he collapse o socialism. None heless he e a e c i ical heo e ical di e ences, e lec ed in Amsden e al’s (1994) igo ous a gumen o a ‘de elopmen al s a e’ s a egy o 19 Eas e n Eu ope. These di e ences migh be ui ully add essed h ough an inc eased a en ion o he condi ions o ‘s a e-socie y syne gy’ (E ans 1997) in con ex s whe e bo h s a e and socie y a e weak. S a es, Ma ke s and Globaliza ion In each model o s a e-ma ke in e ac ion we see ha a pa icula alliance be ween s a e and socie y shaped pa icipa ion in ma ke s in a di e en way. Social igh s s a es s eng hened socie y o p omo e a ‘high oad’ o economic de elopmen wi hin he ma ke . De elopmen al s a es mobilize socie y o pa icipa e in he ma ke bu a e h ea ened by he inc eased s eng h o socie y. Socialis s a es ee be ween s a e and socie y as al e na i e oads o he ma ke , o ace a bleak u u e i hey canno ake ei he pa h (as in Russia). These dilemmas a e hemsel es in ensi ied by he c isis o ‘embedded libe alism’ i sel in ecen yea s. The ins i u ional bu e s which shielded hese s a e-socie y alliances om he in e na ional libe al o de a e being e oded, c ea ing a new and unce ain e ain upon which new alliances a e being en a i ely o ged. Wo ld ade has expanded apidly as a p opo ion o wo ld income since a leas he 1970s. Mo e signi ican ly, since he 1980s he alue o wo ld ade has been su passed by he alue o in e nal ansna ional co po a e ansac ions as ansna ional indus ial capi al has become inc easingly globalized (Ruggie 1995). Bo h o hese a e dwa ed by he eno mous olume o in e na ional inancial ansac ions, a ec ing bo h go e nmen ’s abili y o con ol hei own iscal and mone a y policy and making much mo e signi ican he ‘ma ke o co po a e go e nance’. Finally, mig a ion has once again become a signi ican ea u e o ad anced indus ial economies, c ea ing 20 signi ican poli ical p oblems o many s a es ( o a e iew o hese empi ical ends and some o hei implica ions see Held e al 1999). While his pe iod o globaliza ion may be simila in quan i a i e e ms o he la e 1800s (Bai och 1996, Hi s & Thompson 1994) i is quali a i ely di e en in a numbe o ways. The connec ions be ween na ions and locali ies a e deepe and mo e ins an aneous. The wo ld-sys em i sel has de eloped in qui e a di e en manne in he in e ening cen u y, so ha he cu en pe iod o in e na ionaliza ion is occu ing upon a e y di e en ins i u ional e ain. Fu he mo e, all o hese in ensi ied pa e ns o globaliza ion occu alongside ans o ma ions in social s uc u e (pa icula ly a ound gende ela ions and amily s uc u es) and in social o ganiza ion ( he decen aliza ion o bu eauc a ic o ganiza ions and he applica ion o he new in o ma ion echnologies). I has also b ough wi h i a apid inc ease in wi hin- and be ween-coun y inequali y (Ko zeniewicz & Mo an 1997). Globaliza ion a e Embedded Libe alism Nei he is his p ocess o globaliza ion an ex e nal, ‘na u al’ o ce which is unde mining embedded libe alism om wi hou . Ra he , i is an ou come o he la en ensions wi hin he pos wa comp omise which we e hidden unde an appa en ly s able o de o hi y o o y yea s. Fo some hese ends a e mani es ed in he ma ke , h ough weakening capi al accumula ion and dwindling p o i abili y. Some a gue ha his is a esul o he inc eased s eng h o labou and he wel a e s a e which e oded co po a e p o i s - he e he social igh s s a e uns in o i s inhe en limi s (Boye 1990, Bowles e al 1990). Fo o he s, howe e , he c isis o p o i abili y is a unc ion o he global o e -compe i ion be ween he leading exempla s o each s a e model abo e - he libe al s a e o he US, he social igh s s a e o Ge many and he 21 de elopmen al s a e o Japan (R. B enne 1998). O he s a e less conce ned wi h a c isis wi hin he ma ke i sel and in ac see ma ke s as inc easingly hegemonic o e s a es and socie y due o hei inc easingly global o ganiza ion. Global compe i ion and ade p essu izes socie ies and s a es. Rod ik (1997), e iewing he economics li e a u e, inds ha unskilled wo ke s a e likely o expe ience inc eased labo ma ke insecu i y in he ace o ee ade, ha na ional sys ems o social secu i y a e indeed h ea ened by ade libe aliza ion and ha na ions may ha e legi ima e easons o limi ade. While much commen a y has ocused on compe i ion om he de elopmen al s a es, Rod ik poin s ou ha he e is also inc eased low cos compe i ion om among he indus ialized economies (Sassen 1988). Inc easing global mobili y o capi al ga e co po a ions inc eased powe o demand concessions om s a es and socie ies (Ha ison & Blues one 1988). Ge e i and Ko zeniewicz (1994) and Ha ison (1994) combined hese analyses o a gue ha ma ke p ocesses we e inc easingly o ganized on a ansna ional basis, wi h ade, p oduc ion, labou and inance o ganized h ough global commodi y chains wi hin an inc easingly in eg a ed global economy. Ma ke , s a e and socie y a e in a hie a chical ela ionship wi h ma ke s o ganized ansna ionally while s a es emain s uck a he na ional le el and socie y emains ela i ely ixed a he local le el. The c isis is no o he ma ke bu o socie y and he s a e (and social igh s s a es in pa icula ). Fo wo ld-sys ems heo is s a c isis o he libe al hegemonic s a e lies behind hese ou wa d mani es a ions. They see he inabili y o he hegemon o o ganize capi al accumula ion on a wo ld scale as a ypical and ecu en ea u e o ‘hegemonic cycles’. The cu en c isis is b ough on by in e s a e and in e -en e p ise compe i ion and by social con lic s which a e associa ed wi h he eme gence o new con igu a ions o 22 powe . Ul ima ely hey expec o see a new hegemonic powe eme ge o egula e a mo e deeply globalized economy (A ighi & Sil e 1999:29) . Al hough hese a e b oad gene aliza ions, he wo ld-sys ems heo is s do poin us owa d a ecogni ion o he c isis o he ins i u ions econciling in e na ional and domes ic economies and social o de s. The cu en e a o globaliza ion is one in which he ela ionship be ween s a e, ma ke and socie y - and po en ially a new ins i u ionalized comp omise be ween hem - is being in ensely con es ed . The s uc u al changes ou lined abo e pose a o midable se o challenges o s a es hoping o success ully emake s a e-socie y alliances and o econs uc ma ke ac o s, s a egies and en i onmen s. This is o cou se likely o be a pe iod o ansi ion and ela i e chaos o be ollowed by a newly ins i u ionalized, inc easingly globalized in e na ional economic o de . Howe e , i is he poli ics o his ansi ion which will de e mine in la ge pa some o he key elemen s o ha new o de . S a e Expe imen alism Some au ho s ha e a gued ha hese changes ha e diminished he ole o he s a e, weakening i o he poin whe e i is essen ially bypassed by he o ma ion o a global sys em and ansna ional social s uc u e (Sklai 1991, Robinson 1998, Mi elman 1997). O he s igh ly a gue ha he in ensi ica ion o global p ocesses has ac ually made he ole o he s a e mo e impo an as an e ec i e s a e becomes c i ical o p omo ing compe i i eness wi hin a global economy. Howe e , his inc eased s a e ole is limi ed o p omo ing economic compe i ion and accumula ion - e en as he s a e becomes an inc easingly c i ical en e p ise associa ion i s ole as a ci il associa ion 23 diminishes (Ce ny 1995). Ce ny a gues ha all s a es a e now aced wi h he impe a i es o global compe i ion, causing a con e gence a ound he model o he ‘compe i ion s a e’ (Ce ny 1995). Ce ainly his esona es wi h aspec s o he expe ience o ecen yea s as s a es, bo h wi hin and ac oss na ional bounda ies, compe e o o e he g ea es incen i es and concessions o a ac mobile in es men . Howe e , his goes oo a . Bo h he s uc u e o he global economy and he space o local and na ional di e si y a e mo e a ied and o e mo e oppo uni ies han he concep o he ‘compe i ion s a e’ allows. The e emain a a ie y o ways o connec ing o he global economy, wi h signi ican ly di e en implica ions o local and na ional popula ions (Ge e i 1994). I may be inc easingly di icul o ope a e ou side he each o he ma ke economy o in isola ion om ansna ional capi al bu we a e also beginning o be e unde s and he huge a ie y o ways in which such ma ke ac i i ies can be o ganized - up o and including ma ke socialism (Roeme 1991). Clea ly he speci ici y o na ional models o he economy is h ea ened by he challenges o he bu e s which suppo ed hose models. Howe e , he e emain ‘speci ic asse s’ which a e o necessi y ied o local places and can be a basis o pe sis en di e si y in he global economy. These include he impo ance o local cul u al di e ences in shaping economic sys ems (Bigga & Guillen 1999, O u e al 1997). They also include he speci ic social ela ions o us and e ec i e communica ion which a e de eloped h ough p oxima e social ela ions (Pio e & Sabel 1984, S o pe 1997). E en he mos diaspo ic o i ual communi y de elops i s own ules, esou ces and bounda ies (Wellman e al 1996). None heless, he go e nance o he economy has been ans o med and s a es a e 24 sc ambling o lea n he lessons o he new en i onmen . Economic li e and poli ical go e nance has been ‘ escaled’ as he na ional le el has become des abilized bo h om abo e by globaliza ion and below by he inc easing salience o egional economies. In his si ua ion, he ‘glocal’ s a e aims o p omo e capi al accumula ion by linking he local o he global and c ea ing a loca ion ideal o accumula ion wi hin a global se o connec ions (N. B enne 1998, 1999). The o ganiza ional s uc u e and s a egy o hese glocal s a es a e only now beginning o be explo ed. The s a e which connec s a wide ange o local ne wo ks o a di e se se o global ac o s and ne wo ks mus i sel be mo e decen alized and lexible han s a es which p esided o e a cen ally nego ia ed na ional de elopmen coali ion (Ó Riain 1999). Al hough i is ans o med o deal wi h he new ci cums ances, he na ional s a e s ill plays a c i ical ole in shaping ma ke s by media ing hese connec ions be ween he local and he global and in luencing how local speci ic asse s a e mobilized wi hin he ange o oppo uni ies a ailable in he global economy. Cas ells (1997) a gues ha he s a e is inc easingly mo ing owa ds a posi ion as a ne wo k s a e, embedded in a a ie y o le els and ypes o go e nance ins i u ion. Ansell’s esea ch on egional de elopmen in Eu ope “sugges s ha he ‘ne wo k s a e’ can ope a e as a liaison o b oke in c ea ing ne wo ks and empowe ing non-s a e ac o s, especially when s a e ac o s occupy a cen al ole in hese ne wo ks” (1999: 35). Ne wo k cen ali y is c i ical o his new s a e - isola ion om he local o he global spells disas e . Howe e , he e emain a a ie y o ways o o ganizing hese ne wo ks. The models o s a e-ma ke - socie y in e ac ion unde embedded libe alism emain use ul as concep ual o ganizing amewo ks in conside ing he possibili ies o he u u e. Wha migh each o hese models look like in such a ne wo ked economy and poli y? E o s o subsume socie y and he ma ke wi hin he s a e a e inc easingly di icul o 31 issues); consume /labou ne wo ks o ganizing boyco o ien ed campaigns such as hose agains NIKE; and, ansna ional labou o ganizing (E ans 2000).These ansna ional poli ical ne wo ks ha e eme ged om socie y as a Polanyian p o ec ion agains he a ages o global ma ke s and ace huge odds. Howe e , hey may come o e ec i ely ca alyze local, na ional and ansna ional poli ical ac ion in cons uc ing an al e na i e o he neo-libe al e sion o globaliza ion (E ans, 2000). E en mo e specula i e a his poin is how hese social mo emen s migh connec o s a es o c ea e new s a e-socie y alliances ou o he local and he global. A sociological app oach o s a es and ma ke s mus be sensi i e o he s uc u ing o hei ela ionships in he wo ld-sys em bu mus also e ain he ools o analyzing he a iabili y o hose ela ions wi hin he sys em. Wi hou he ools o analyze his a iabili y, sociology’s con ibu ion o s a egic and poli ical conside a ion o de eloping and po en ial combina ions o s a e, ma ke and socie y will be weakened. This pape has b ie ly d awn oge he esea ch in sociology which is inc easingly adop ing an ‘in eg a i e ision’ o he in e na ional poli ical economy. Such an in eg a i e ision holds ou he p omise o making sense o he ansna ionally ne wo ked economy, poli y and socie y which a e being buil on he ins i u ional legacies o embedded libe alism. I may also p o e o be a ool comba ing he ex eme pessimism and op imism which cha ac e ize deba es on globaliza ion by helping o iden i y he poli ical possibili ies wi hin he cu en e a. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS: Special hanks o Pe e E ans o ex ensi e discussions in he ea ly s ages o his pape ’s de elopmen . Thanks also o Becky King o help ul commen s. Li e a u e Ci ed 32 Amin A, Th i N, eds.1994. 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