Are certified supply chains more socially sustainable? A bargaining power analysis

1 A e ce i ied supply chains mo e socially sus ainable? A ba gaining powe analysis1 Paul Mulle a2 , Michael Böhmb, Pé e Csillagc, Michele Dona id, Ma ion D u e, Hugo Fe e , Lisa Gau i b, Chema Gil , Vie Hoangg, Aga a Malak-Rawlikowskah, Kons adinos Ma asi, O achos Napasin uwongj, An Nguyeng, Ioannis Papadopoulosi, Bojan Ris ick, Zaklina S ojano ick, Á on Tö ökl,c, E himia Tsaki idoui, Ma io Venezianid, Valen in Bellassene a BETA, CNRS - Uni e si y o Lo aine – Uni e si y o S asbou g & INRA, F ance b ECOZEPT, Ge many c ECO-SENSUS Resea ch and Communica ion, Hunga y d Uni e si y o Pa ma, I aly e CESAER, Ag oSup Dijon, INRA, Uni . Bou gogne F anche-Com é, 21000 Dijon, F ance Cen e o Ag o-Food Economy & De elopmen , Spain g Uni e si y o Economics Ho Chi Minh Ci y, Vie nam h Wa saw Uni e si y o Li e Science, Poland i A is o le Uni e si y o Thessaloniki, G eece j Kase sa Uni e si y, Thailand k Uni e si y o Belg ade, Se bia l Co inus Uni e si y o Budapes , Hunga y Abs ac : Food Quali y Schemes (FQS: o ganic and geog aphical indica ion p oduc s) a e o en supposed o be mo e sus ainable by hei poli ical ad oca es. We explo e he social sus ainabili y ad an age o FQS h ough he lens o supply chains’ ba gaining powe (BP) dis ibu ion. We p opose an indica o syn hesizing di e en sou ces unde lying BP (compe i ion-based, ansac ional, ins i u ional) and coun ing wo dimensions ( ai BP dis ibu ion and adap a ion capaci y), ha we apply o 18 FQS supply chains and co esponding e e ence. FQS pe o m be e han hei e e ence p oduc s on bo h dimensions. This be e pe o mance is due o a combina ion o sou ces. Keywo ds: Ba gaining powe , ma ke powe , ansac ion cos s, ins i u ions, social sus ainabili y indica o Key esul s: - FQS can globally be conside ed as socially mo e sus ainable han con en ional e e ence p oduc s ega ding ba gaining powe dis ibu ion. - Bu his highe sus ainabili y only pa ly builds on hei capaci y o mo e e enly dis ibu e ba gaining powe among le els. Acco ding o ou esul s, ano he key de e minan o hei social sus ainabili y lies in hei adap a ion capaci y, ie. hei capaci y o esis and accommoda e po en ial pe u ba ions. - The sus ainabili y ad an age o FQS o e con en ional coun e pa s is based on a combina ion o sou ces base hei ad an age o e con en ional p oduc s by combining sou ces o ba gaining powe ins ead o elying on a single one 1 This pape is a esea ch ou pu o he S eng h2Food p ojec which was unded om he Eu opean Union’s Ho izon 2020 esea ch and inno a ion p og am unde g an ag eemen No 678024. We since ely acknowledge wo anonymous e iewe s o hei commen s ha g ea ly imp o ed he quali y o he manusc ip . 2 Co esponding au ho , email: paul.mulle @uni -lo aine. 2 A e ce i ied supply chains mo e socially sus ainable? A ba gaining powe analysis Abs ac : Food Quali y Schemes (FQS: o ganic and geog aphical indica ion p oduc s) a e o en supposed o be mo e sus ainable by hei poli ical ad oca es. We explo e he social sus ainabili y ad an age o FQS h ough he lens o supply chains’ ba gaining powe (BP) dis ibu ion. We p opose an indica o syn hesizing di e en sou ces unde lying BP (compe i ion-based, ansac ional, ins i u ional) and coun ing wo dimensions ( ai BP dis ibu ion and adap a ion capaci y), ha we apply o 18 FQS supply chains and co esponding e e ence. FQS pe o m be e han hei e e ence p oduc s on bo h dimensions This be e pe o mance is mos ly due o a combina ion o sou ces. Keywo ds: Ba gaining powe , ma ke powe , ansac ion cos s, ins i u ions, social sus ainabili y indica o Key esul s: - FQS can globally be conside ed as socially mo e sus ainable han con en ional e e ence p oduc s ega ding ba gaining powe dis ibu ion. - Bu his highe sus ainabili y only pa ly builds on hei capaci y o mo e e enly dis ibu e ba gaining powe among le els. Acco ding o ou esul s, ano he key de e minan o hei social sus ainabili y lies in hei adap a ion capaci y, ie. hei capaci y o esis and accommoda e po en ial pe u ba ions. - The sus ainabili y ad an age o FQS o e con en ional coun e pa s is based on a combina ion o sou ces base hei ad an age o e con en ional p oduc s by combining sou ces o ba gaining powe ins ead o elying on a single one 3 In oduc ion A common a gumen pu o wa d by ad oca es o FQS (Food Quali y Schemes - co e ing o ganic, geog aphic indica ion, and sho ood supply chains3) supply chain is ha hey a e mo e socially sus ainable han hei con en ional coun e pa s. This sus ainabili y p emium no ably mani es s h ough highe su i al a es o small ag icul u al i ms (Bon emps, Bouam a-Mechemache, and Simioni 2013) and hei con ibu ion o u al e i o ies de elopmen and eco e y (T egea e al. 2007). Exis ing li e a u e has iden i ied se e al ac o s explaining his sus ainabili y p emium. On he one hand, i s ems om he collec i e de elopmen o speci ic asse s a he supply chain le el (see Ba jolle and Syl ande 2002). In he speci ic case o geog aphic indica ions, hey consis , o ins ance, o he de elopmen o pa icula o ganolep ic a ibu es con ibu ing o he speci ici y o he end p oduc (Mancini, A ini, and Gua eschi 2019). On he o he hand, i is due o he exis ence o collec i ely nego ia ed and accep ed speci ica ions, con ibu ing o e en ou ba gaining powe among s akeholde s (Sonnino 2009). This e ening ou p ocess is iewed as an essen ial de e minan o hei capaci y o ai ly dis ibu e he alue gene a ed h oughou he chain (Co 1999; Bonne and Bouam a-Mechemache 2016). Howe e , pas esea ch ha in es iga ed he ela ionship be ween FQS sus ainabili y and ba gaining powe has o en con la ed i wi h ma ke powe (see Bonne and Bouam a-Mechemache 2016). Bu , he concep o ba gaining powe is mul idimensional. Exis ing li e a u e has iden i ied, among o he s, i s compe i ion- based (Ba ney 1986; Po e 2008a), ansac ional (Filippi and Mulle 2013), and ins i u ional sou ces (Co 1999; To e 2002). This pape in ends o in es iga e whe he FQS achie e mo e balanced ba gaining powe dis ibu ions, hus allowing hem o be mo e socially sus ainable han con en ional supply chains. To his end, he pape akes on a mo e comp ehensi e unde s anding o ba gaining powe as oo ed in di e en sou ces: compe i ion-based, ansac ional, and ins i u ional. We a gue ha he exis ence o a possible sus ainabili y ad an age o FQS ela ed o ba gaining powe elies on a combina ion o i s di e en sou ces. In so doing, we p opose an o iginal me hod o building up and es ing a syn he ic indica o accoun ing o he e ical dis ibu ion o ba gaining powe in supply chains, which inco po a es compe i ion, ansac ional and ins i u ional a iables. Ano he o iginali y compa ed o exis ing li e a u e ha usually ea s o only one ype o ood p oduc (cheese, wine, e c.) is ha he p oposed indica o is es ed on 18 Eu opean and Asian FQS supply chains o di e en ypes o ood p oduc s (sea, animal, ege al) and compa ed wi h con en ional e e ence p oduc s4. To his end, we exploi da a collec ed in he ame o he H2020 S eng h2Food p ojec 5. An ad an age o he p oposed indica o is ha i allows pe o ming a i s e alua ion o a supply chain social sus ainabili y by elying on simple and easy- o-ob ain a iables (eg. numbe o i ms ope a ing a each le el, he exis ence o FQS managemen unions, con ibu ion o he conside ed le el o he speci ici y o he end p oduc , e c.). Fu he mo e, i p o ides an o e iew o he dimensions (compe i ion, ins i u ional, esou ces) ha a e likely o be a he oo o a supply chain le el’s ba gaining powe , hus pa ing he way (a e , o 3 Due o i s scope, his pape only conside s geog aphic indica ion (PDO – P o ec ed Denomina ion o O igin -, PGI – P o ec ed Geog aphical Indica ions) and o ganic ood supply chains. 4 A e e ence p oduc is he e de ined as a p oduc ha may be conside ed as a subs i u e o he FQS p oduc by non-specialis consume s and / o o p oduce s, as FQS p oduce can choose o p oduce bo h e e ence o FQS p oduc , being in he same coun y o egion. 5 In o ma ion abou he p ojec a e a ailable a h ps://www.s eng h2 ood.eu/. 4 cou se, he collec ion o deepe knowledge) o possible enhancemen s o i s social sus ainabili y. Ou pape is o ganized as ollows. In he second sec ion, we p esen and heo e ically ad oca e o a b oade concep ion o ba gaining powe which be e accoun s o social sus ainabili y issues, which is mul i ac o ial (including compe i ion-based, ansac ional, and ins i u ional ac o s) and collec i e. We p opose in sec ion h ee a se o a iables aimed a ope a ionalizing ou heo e ical discussion. They a e a he oo o he calcula ion o a social sus ainabili y indica o based on ba gaining powe ha will be p esen ed in sec ion ou . Sec ion i e p esen s he esul s o his sus ainabili y assessmen , be o e concluding. Cons uc ing social sus ainabili y indica o s based on ba gaining powe Ba gaining powe as a mul idimensional phenomenon As ba gaining powe de e mines he capaci y o indi idual s akeholde s o cap u e he alue c ea ed along he supply chain (Co 1999; 2010), ou indica o is conce ned wi h he epa i ion o ba gaining powe among indi idual ac o s. I is closely linked o se e al indica o s p oposed in he SAFA (Sus ainabili y Assessmen o Food and Ag icul u e sys ems) ypology, such as hose pe aining o ai ade p ac ices (FAO 2013). I is de ined as an ac o ’s capaci y o in luence in i s a o he de ini ion o e ms and condi ions o a con ac (A gy es and Liebeskind 1999). I s anda d mic oeconomics has essen ially con la ed ba gaining powe wi h ma ke powe , such an app oach can ha dly be applied o he analysis o ac ual supply chains. Fi s , mos supply chains a e based upon coope i ion ela ionships (B andenbu ge and Nalebu 1996; Beng sson and Kock 2014), hus s e ching beyond simple ma ke ela ions. A consequence is ha ba gaining powe also has o be conside ed as a collec i e a ibu e, se e al ac o s being able o weigh in on he ba gaining p ocess by coo dina ing agains opposing pa ies. Second, playe s can oo hei ba gaining powe on o he a ibu es han ma ke posi ion. Fo ins ance, hey can ake ad an age o he possession o speci ic esou ces as ba gaining inpu s (Co 1999). Finally, i igno es he ole he ins i u ional se ings is likely o play o shaping i s dis ibu ion, and, mo e pa icula ly, he key ole o collec i e ules (No h 1994). Ul ima ely, by aking a wide lens han only ha o ma ke mechanisms, we adop a mo e global concep ion o ba gaining powe ha is mul i ac o al and collec i e, because we asce ain he capaci y o ac o s o di e en supply chain le els o weigh in on ba gaining p ocesses. In so doing, a cen al aim o he pape is o es he exis ence o a sus ainabili y ad an age o FQS supply chains which is due o he exis ence o mo e balanced ba gaining powe dis ibu ion. A subsequen objec i e is o check whe he his sus ainabili y ad an age can be a ibu ed o one dominan o di e en ba gaining powe sou ces: compe i ion-based, ansac ional, ins i u ional. In he nex pa ag aph, we discuss main ac o s in luencing supply chain le els’ collec i e ba gaining powe . F aming he sou ces o ba gaining powe Ma ke powe and compe i i e ad an age cons i u e a i s sou ce o ba gaining powe . Se e al pape s used i as a basis o analyzing he economic e iciency o FQS supply chains (Mé el 2011), he capaci y o ac o s o cap u e alue (Richa ds, Acha ya, and Molina 2011) o o manage e ical ela ionships (Wyche ley 2002). On his side, Po e (1979) de eloped a comp ehensi e de ini ion o compe i ion-based ba gaining powe , inhe i ed om he 5 s a egic concep ion o compe i i e ad an age. Also known as he i e o ces model, his compe i ion-based model assesses ac o s’ ba gaining powe a he supply chain le el while conside ing a he same ime he h ea o possible subs i u es (Po e 2008b). I was o iginally designed o assessing pe o mance a he i m le el h ough an explici accoun o i s en i onmen (Po e 1979). The model has hen been applied o indus ies and alue-chains and used o assessing he ba gaining powe a each o hei s ages (Besanko e al. 2009; Po e 2008b). Mo e p ecisely, i app aises a i m’s ba gaining powe h ough he in luence o i e o ces: indus y i al y, h ea o new en an s, h ea o subs i u e p oduc s and se ices, ba gaining powe o supplie s, and o cus ome s. Those o ces limi i ms’ ba gaining powe by cons aining hei s a egies and beha io s. I is impo an o no e ha h ee o ces ( h ea o new en an s, h ea o subs i u e p oduc s, and indus y i al y) apply a he conside ed s age o he supply chain and may hus be quali ied as “ho izon al o ces” while he wo o he s (ba gaining powe o supplie s and o cus ome s) a e dealing wi h e ical ela ions which a e, in u n, expec ed o be subjec o he same ypes o ho izon al o ces (see C ook & Combs, 2007). Howe e , hose e ical o ces may be o se in he case ha a dominan i m can adop a monopolis ic beha io . A second sou ce o ba gaining powe comes om ac o s’ capaci y o de elop and o exploi ansac ion cos s. So a , T ansac ion Cos s Theo y (TCT) in he con ex o ag icul u al economics has been mainly used o discussing he mos e icien supply chain go e nance model (ma ke /hyb id / e ical in eg a ion) (Fe nández-Olmos e al. 2009). In ou case (and his is an o iginali y o his pape ), we apply T ansac ion Cos s Economics o analyzing disc epancies in ba gaining powe (see Klein 1980) in ag i ood supply chains. T ansac ion cos s a e oo ed in wo phenomena: unce ain y and asse speci ici y. Unce ain y is ela ed o he di icul y o obse ing beha io and pe o mances (in e nal unce ain y) and o he en i onmen ’s complexi y and u bulence le els (ex e nal unce ain y) (Williamson 1981). A solu ion p oposed by TCT o coping wi h unce ain y is o eplace spo ansac ions by long e m con ac s. A consequence is ha hey limi ac o s’ con ac ual lexibili y by con ibu ing o aising swi ching cos s. In his sense, long- e m con ac s limi ba gaining powe because, once se led, i becomes mo e di icul o enego ia e he e ms o he ag eemen . Mo e globally, and his has been pa icula ly highligh ed o ag i- ood supply chains, he choice o long- e m con ac s is no necessa ily aimed a minimizing ansac ion cos s, bu also e lec s he ba gaining powe ad an age o downs eam ac o s (Ba jolle and Chappuis 2000). Speci ic asse s co espond o in es men s dedica ed o de eloping a ela ionship be ween wo economic agen s (Williamson 1981). S ic ly speaking, speci ic asse s should limi he ba gaining powe o hei owne s because hey inc ease exi cos s (Vukina and Leegomonchai 2006). Howe e , a mo e ex ensi e concep ion o asse speci ici y, which has been de eloped in he esou ce-based li e a u e, posi s ha an ac o ’s con ibu ion o he ela ionship suppo s i s ba gaining powe : pa ne s con ibu ing wi h speci ic esou ces ha a e key o he speci ici y o he end p oduc de elop highe ba gaining powe (Long ellow Blodge 1991; She ani, e al. 2007). All in all, he ela ionship be ween ba gaining powe and ansac ion cos s ia asse speci ici y appea s o be ambiguous. On he one hand, unce ain y induces long- e m con ac s, which con ibu es o lowe ba gaining powe by aising swi ching cos s. On he o he hand, owned and de eloped speci ic asse s and esou ces con ibu e o ba gaining powe p ecisely because hey inc ease ansac ion cos s. In he speci ic case o GI (geog aphical indica ion) p oduc s, speci ic asse s a e conside ed as key o es ablishing hei 6 uniqueness and, he e o e, hei comme cial success (Ba jolle and Syl ande 2002). This is why we conside ha asse speci ici y has a posi i e impac on ba gaining powe . A hi d, collec i e, sou ce o ba gaining powe is associa ed wi h he ins i u ional amewo k. We ake on he ins i u ionalis iew de eloped in he adi ion o No h, who de ined ins i u ions as “ he ule o he game in a socie y o , mo e o mally, a e he humanly de ised cons ain s ha shape human in e ac ion. In consequence, hey s uc u e incen i es in human exchange, whe he poli ical, social, o economic” (No h 1990 p.3). Ou o his de ini ion, i is assumed ha ins i u ions con ibu e o egula ing ba gaining powe by cons aining indi idual beha io . Fo FQS, his is no ably done h ough he collec i e de elopmen o speci ica ions, which se speci ic p oduc ion p ac ices and minimal s anda ds o quali y o he p oduc , and con ol o p oduc ion le els (Gi aud-Hé aud and Sole 2003). In u n, he managemen o hose speci ica ions may be ope a ed by managemen conso ia. Fu he mo e, se e al pape s highligh he ac ha ag i- ood supply chains o ganized a ound s ong managemen conso ia globally show highe coope a ion le els han supply chains ha a e no (Di e and B oua d 2014; Ma in and Tanguy 2018; Louba esse and Pes e 2014). Howe e , as No h ecalled: “ins i u ions a e no necessa ily o e en usually c ea ed o be socially e icien ; a he hey, o a leas he o mal ules, a e c ea ed o se e he in e es s o hose wi h he ba gaining powe o c ea e new ules” (No h 1994, pp. 360-361). I ollows ha ins i u ions a e designed o suppo ing he ba gaining powe o al eady dominan ac o s (F iedbe g 1997). Tha said, a a collec i e le el, ins i u ions a e key o suppo ing collec i e ac ion and s a egies because hey p o ide sa egua ds agains con lic s and oppo unis ic beha io s (Ring and Van de Ven 1994). As such, p o essional ne wo ks and unions ha e o be conside ed bo h as an ou pu and as a ac o unde lying ins i u ionally “ hick” en i onmen s (Keeble e al. 1999). “Ins i u ional hickness” he e o e con ibu es o a highe collec i e ba gaining powe a he conside ed le el o he supply chain. Ba gaining powe is mul i ac o ial and is in luenced by compe i i e, ansac ional, and ins i u ional ac o s. Howe e , i should also be s essed ha iden i ied ac o s can, o some deg ee, in e ac wi h each o he . Fo ins ance, ins i u ional hickness may be ela ed o he exis ence o s ong ma ke leade s, as hey ha e a highe capaci y o se le con en ions and no ms o beha io (see Mulle 2006). Table 1 summa izes ou discussion o he ac o s in luencing he ba gaining powe o each le el o a supply chain. Fac o s Expec ed impac on ba gaining powe Compe i i e Ho izon al o ces: deg ee o compe i ion, h ea o new compe i o s Nega i e Ve ical o ces: ba gaining powe o supplie s and cus ome s Nega i e Exis ence o a ma ke leade Posi i e T ansac ional Con ac ual lexibili y Posi i e Asse speci ici y Posi i e Ins i u ional Ins i u ional “ hickness” Posi i e Table 1: Fac o s in luencing supply chain le el's collec i e ba gaining powe Ou o he p eceding discussion, we can pu o h wo hypo heses ha will be es ed in he empi ical pa o he pape . 1) FQS supply chains achie e e ically mo e balanced ba gaining powe dis ibu ion han con en ional p oduc ions. 2) This mo e balanced dis ibu ion is due o he complemen a y ac ion o di e en sou ces o ba gaining powe 7 a he han ha o one single sou ce. The nex sec ion aims o ope a ionalize p e ious discussions by desc ibing he me hodology o building up social sus ainabili y indica o s based on ba gaining powe . Cons uc ing a iables o assessing collec i e ba gaining powe In he objec i e o doing a compa a i e analysis o di e en supply chains, we s a by cons uc ing a syn he ic indica o o ba gaining powe o each le el o each supply chain. This indica o is in u n based on a iables accoun ing o di e en sou ces (compe i ion-based, ansac ional, and ins i u ional), which we de ail in his sec ion. To he bes o ou knowledge, his pape is he i s a emp o cons uc a syn he ic indica o o ba gaining powe by agg ega ing a iables om hose di e en sou ces. Among hem, some a e dicho omous while o he s a e quan i a i e. We ha e chosen o no malize o o dicho omize hese a iables o a oid undesi able o e weigh ing e ec s. Compe i ion-based a iables In line wi h Po e (1979), a supply chain le el’s ba gaining powe is in luenced by e ical and ho izon al o ces, which ou model accoun s o h ough wo a iables. A i s a iable (Ma ke Leade ) cap u es e ical o ces unde lying ba gaining powe . To his aim, we assume ha a le el is conside ed mo e obus agains e ical o ces when i coun s one o a ew dominan ac o s who can en o ce hei ba gaining powe while nego ia ing wi h ups eam and downs eam le els. The impac o s ong ma ke leade s is pa icula ly isible in p i a e and, o a lesse ex en , in public quali y labels (Raynaud, Sau ee, and Valceschini 2005). The iden i ica ion o leade s is based on he ma ke sha e o he main compe i o . Al hough he li e a u e does no make clea he h eshold om which a i m can be quali ied as a ma ke leade , ou da a e eal wo e y di e en ypes o si ua ions. Some le els o supply chains come close o a si ua ion o pu e compe i ion, wi h e y low ma ke sha es, whe eas o he supply chains include playe s whose ma ke sha e sys ema ically exceeds 25%. We e ain his obse a ion. Ou Ma ke Leade a iable, he e o e, akes alue 1 i a leas one i m has a ma ke sha e o a leas 25% and 0 o he wise. Ho izon al o ces a e cap u ed by a a iable accoun ing syn he ically o he ela i e numbe o compe i o s exis ing a each le el o he supply chain6. Indeed, he collec i e ba gaining powe a one le el is likely o depend on he ela i e numbe o ac o s a all le els, as oligopolies o oligopsonies occupy dominan posi ions. The e o e, his balance o powe is cap u ed h ough a disc e e a iable (Num_compe )7. A speci ic di icul y a ises o compu ing his a iable in a simple way. This is why we make he me hodological choice o basing he Num_compe a iable on a compa ison o he numbe o i ms a each le el. We dis inguish be ween h ee possibili ies: 6 An impo an aspec ha has o be conside ed in ou calcula ion is he exis ence o coope a i es and o o ganiza ions o p oduce s. As hey a e usually designed o g ouping he p oduc ion o se e al a me s, we made he me hodological choice o conside ing he numbe o coops ins ead o membe a me s when calcula ing he Num_compe indica o a he p oduce le el. 7 Popula indica o s such as Le ne index (Le ne 1934), B esnahan’s ma k-up es (B esnahan 1982), Panza - Rosse H-s a ic ics (Panza and Rosse 1987) a e conce ned wi h calcula ed ho izon al ma ke powe while we a e in e es ed in assessing i s impac along supply chains. Besides hei calcula ion necessi a es da a dealing wi h ma ke (demand elas ici y, e c.) and indus ial cha ac e is ics (cos s uc u e) ha we e no a ailable. 8 1) a le el is conside ed as highly compe i i e i he numbe o compe ing i ms is much highe han he agg ega e numbe o ac o s a all o he le els. The Num_compe a iable akes alue 0 in his case. 2) a le el is conside ed as ai ly compe i i e i he numbe o compe i o s is commensu a e wi h he agg ega e numbe o ac o s in all o he le els. The Num_compe a iable akes alue 0,5 in his case. 3) a le el is conside ed as no concu en ial i he numbe o compe i o s is lowe han he agg ega e numbe o ac o s in all o he le els. The Num_compe a iable akes alue 1 in his case. The cons uc ion o he Num_compe is illus a ed in igu e 1. Figu e 1: Algo i hm o se ing he alue o he num_compe a iable T ansac ional a iables T ansac ional a iables cap u e wo e ec s. The i s one is dealing wi h con ac ual lexibili y. As a gued in he heo e ical sec ion, high le els o unce ain y lead o a g ea e p opensi y o adop long- e m con ac s, hus con ibu ing o dec easing ela ional lexibili y. This is why we p oxy lexibili y by in oducing a a iable (p op_con ac ) es ima ing he sha e o olumes ha is subjec o plu iannual con ac ing wi h he downs eam le el. The lowe he sha e o plu iannual con ac ing, he mo e lexible he ela ionship is supposed o be, he highe he associa ed sco e. The second e ec is dealing wi h he collec i e capaci y o de eloping speci ic asse s and exploi ing hem in such a way ha hey a e conside ed as key o he speci ici y o he end p oduc . This e ec is cap u ed in wo ways. Fi s , h ough an e alua ion o he global deg ee o speci ici y o mobilized asse s a he conside ed le el (spec_ es); second, h ough an es ima ion o he con ibu ion o he conside ed le el o he speci ici y o he end p oduc (p od_p oc). Fo ins ance, by mobilizing speci ic asse s, knowledge, and compe encies, FQS a me s a e expec ed o possess highe ba gaining powe han con en ional a me s (Mo gan and Mu doch 2000). In he same way, PDO p oduc s a e p o ed o aise highe loyal y le els on he consume side (Fandos and Fla ián 2006), which con ibu es o aising swi ching cos s o e aile s. 9 Bo h a iables a e coded on a ou -poin Like scale, a e assessmen made by key in o man s o each supply chain. The a iable spec_ es akes alue ze o when he esou ces mobilized a he conside ed le el a e gene ic and i akes alue h ee when he esou ces a e conside ed as highly speci ic and canno be echnically eplaced by subs i u es. In he same way, he a iable p od_p oc akes alue ze o when he con ibu ion o he p oduc o he conside ed le el is conside ed as negligible o he speci ici y o he end p oduc and akes alue h ee when i s con ibu ion is conside ed as undamen al o he speci ici y o he end p oduc . Ins i u ional a iables Ins i u ional a iables g asp he abili y o supply chains o build up a complex se o p ocedu al ules o egula ing indi idual beha io s. Howe e , e en hough some o hem a e o mal (eg. speci ica ions), mos a e in o mal by na u e, as hey pe ain o locally embedded cul u al ai s and ou ines (see eg. Ge le 2001, 2003). This makes i di icul o di ec ly app aise a supply chain’s “ins i u ional hickness”. This is why we assess ins i u ional hickness indi ec ly, h ough he exis ence o p o essional unions. This p oxy can be conside ed as qui e eliable because, as p e iously discussed, conso ia e idence he capaci y o ac o s o o m collec i es and o es ablish collec i e s a egies (Raynaud, Sau ee, and Valceschini 2005; Raynaud, Fe nández-Ba cala, and Gonzalez-Diaz 2013; Ma in and Tanguy 2018). We, he e o e, assume he exis ence o a posi i e ela ionship be ween “ins i u ional hickness” and supply chain ac o s’ capaci y o o m and o belong o di e se p o essional unions. In so doing, we iden i y wo ele an a iables. The i s one (Union_FSC) e e s o he exis ence o unions and conso ia speci ically ela ed o he supply chain. This a iable is ele an because his ype o union/conso ium indica es he exis ence o spaces o collec i e discussion and coo dina ion among supply chain ac o s. Besides, hey ac as lobbying bodies aimed a p omo ing he in e es o hei membe s. The second a iable (union_o he s) ela es o he exis ence o any o he sec o al union ela ed o he p oduc (eg. p o essional union o mea o o ce eal p oduce s…). They also ha e o be conside ed because hey no only achie e collec i e coo dina ion and lobbying asks (see Mé el 2011), bu hey also ie up local supply chains wi h a wide , na ional, p oduc i e con ex . Bo h a iables a e dicho omous because hey only aim a accoun ing o he exis ence o p o essional unions/conso ia. Table 2 summa izes a iables used o building up he ba gaining powe sco es o each le el and associa ed possible alues. 16 Globally, ou indings sugges he impo ance o dis inguishing be ween animal and ege al supply chains as bo h ypes o supply chains show di e en beha io s in e ms o ba gaining powe dis ibu ion. One explana ion o his in e sec o al he e ogenei y could lie in di e ences in he in luence exe ed by di e en ypes o ac o s, whe he hey ela e o he compe i i e and ins i u ional con ex o be ansac ional. This esul aises he ques ion o he sou ces o he sus ainabili y ad an age o FQS o e e e ence. Nex de elopmen s will y and iden i y ac o s unde lying he social sus ainabili y ad an age o FQS by dis inguishing compe i ion-based, ansac ional, and ins i u ional ac o s. Figu e 3: p opo ion o FQS supply chains in each p o ile – uppe le -hand-side panel: dis ibu ion in each sus ainabili y p o ile o all FQS supply chains, uppe igh -hand-side panel: dis ibu ion in each sus ainabili y p o ile o PDO supply chains – lowe le -hand-side panel dis ibu ion in each sus ainabili y p o ile o o ganic supply chains - lowe igh -hand-side panel dis ibu ion in each sus ainabili y p o ile o PGI supply chains - a e age esul s ob ained a e 10 000 Mon e Ca lo uns 17 Figu e 4: p opo ion o FQS supply chains in each p o ile – uppe le -hand-side panel: dis ibu ion in each sus ainabili y p o ile o all FQS supply chains - uppe middle panel: dis ibu ion in each sus ainabili y p o ile o ui - ege able supply chains - uppe igh -hand-side panel: dis ibu ion in each sus ainabili y p o ile o ce eal/bake y supply chains – lowe le -hand-side panel: dis ibu ion in each sus ainabili y p o ile o dai y supply chains – lowe middle panel: dis ibu ion in each sus ainabili y p o ile o mea supply chains – lowe igh -hand-side panel: dis ibu ion in each sus ainabili y p o ile o sea ood supply chains - a e age esul s ob ained a e 10 000 Mon e Ca lo uns 18 Iden i ying ac o s unde lying FQS’ social sus ainabili y Wi h all a iables Wi hou Compe i ion a iables Wi hou T ansac ional a iables Wi hou ins i u ional a iables Ba gaining powe dis ibu ion Nb. o ad an aged FQS 13 11 10 11 No di e ence 1 1 5 2 Nb. o disad an aged FQS 4 6 3 5 Nb o SC wi h a key con ibu ion o a iable ca ego ies / 3 3 2 Ba gaining powe o weakes le el / adap a ion capaci y Nb. o ad an aged FQS 15 16 12 14 No di e ence 1 2 6 1 Nb. o disad an aged FQS 2 0 0 3 Nb o SC wi h a key con ibu ion o a iable ca ego ies / 1 4 2 Table 3: Compa ison o FQS and co esponding e e ences supply chains along ba gaining powe dimensions – esul s based on T- es s o p < 0.01 a e 10 000 Mon e Ca lo uns. This sec ion aims a iden i ying he ac o s unde lying FQS’s social sus ainabili y ad an age o e e e ences. I is based on wo-by- wo compa isons. In so doing, we d ew in he heo e ical discussion a dis inc ion be ween di e en ypes o ac o s, each co esponding o di e en ca ego ies o a iables (c . able 1): compe i ion-based, ansac ional, and ins i u ional. Table 4 p esen s esul s o Mon e Ca lo simula ion uns pe o med on each supply chain unde se e al con igu a ions: 1) when all a iable ca ego ies we e included (column “wi h all a iables”), 2) when only ansac ional and ins i u ional a iables we e included (column “wi hou compe i ion a iables”), 3) when only compe i ion and ins i u ional a iables we e included (column “wi hou ansac ional a iables”), 4) when only compe i ion and ansac ional a iables we e included (column “wi hou ins i u ional a iables”). Fo each dimension (ba gaining powe dis ibu ion and ba gaining powe o he weakes le el) we hen coun ed he numbe o FQS supply chains ha signi ican ly pe o med be e / equally / wo se han co esponding e e ence supply chains a a p < 0,01 signi icance le el. Finally, we coun ed he numbe o FQS supply chains o which any o he a iable ca ego ies had a key impac on he sus ainabili y ad an age o FQS o e co esponding e e ences: hose co espond o he si ua ion whe e FQS pe o med s a is ically be e when all a iables ca ego ies we e included and his ad an age anished when a iables o he ca ego y we e emo ed (lines “Nb o SC wi h a key con ibu ion o a iable ca ego ies”). Table 4 u he con i ms ou p e ious inding ha , o he mos pa , FQS ha e a signi ican sus ainabili y ad an age o e co esponding e e ences o e bo h dimensions (ba gaining powe dis ibu ion as well as ba gaining powe o he weakes le el). This inding howe e complemen s p e ious esul s because we base he e ou esul s on wo-by- wo compa isons be ween FQS and e e ence supply chains. Ano he in e es ing inding also lies in he ela i e s abili y o FQS’ pe o mance p emium on bo h dimensions (see lines “nb o ad an aged FQS”). Indeed, mos FQS s ill signi ican ly ou pe o med co esponding e e ences a e he emo al o any o he a iable 19 ca ego ies. Fo ins ance, conce ning ba gaining powe dis ibu ion, 13 FQS signi ican ly ou pe o m e e ences when all a iables we e conside ed and his igu e only d ops o 11 a e emo ing compe i ion o ins i u ional a iables and o 10 a e emo ing ansac ional a iables. This inding is con i med by an inspec ion o he lines “Nb o SC wi h a key con ibu ion o a iable ca ego ies”. Compe i ion, ins i u ional, and ansac ional a iables can be conside ed as a key de e minan o he ba gaining powe dis ibu ion o only h ee and wo FQS supply chains espec i ely. A simila pa e n o indings can be obse ed o he dimension o ba gaining powe o he weakes le el / adap a ion capaci y. Those esul s e idence ha compe i i e, ansac ional, and ins i u ional a iables only ha e a limi ed indi idual impac on FQS sus ainabili y p emium. Ra he , hei p emium depends, o he mos pa , on he complemen a y e ec o all a iable ca ego ies. Those indings, he e o e, con i m ou p e ious hypo hesis ha he FQS’ sus ainabili y ad an age, as measu ed om he ba gaining powe s anding poin , comes om he in e ac ion be ween di e en e ec s, pe aining o supply chains’ compe i i e, ansac ional and ins i u ional cha ac e is ics. Besides, ou con ibu ion poin s o he impo ance o adop ing a comp ehensi e analysis o ba gaining powe in supply chains, which has no o be con la ed wi h ma ke powe bu also has o include o he dimensions, such as ins i u ional cha ac e is ics o ansac ion cos s pa e ns. Conclusion This pape e alua es he social sus ainabili y ad an age o FQS supply chains h ough he lens o ba gaining powe dis ibu ion. We base ou de elopmen on a mo e comp ehensi e concep ion o ba gaining powe , oo ed in di e en ca ego ies o ac o s: compe i ion-based, ansac ional, and ins i u ional. o his end, we p opose a syn he ic indica o mixing inpu s om hose h ee heo e ical a gumen s. Ou indica o highligh s wo dimensions o social sus ainabili y: 1) he capaci y o supply chain ac o s o each a ai dis ibu ion o ba gaining powe , and 2) he abili y o all supply chain le els o show s ong ba gaining powe a all le el, wha is conduci e o inc eased adap a ion agains po en ial shakeou s. Ou esul s show ha , globally, FQS ha e signi ican ly highe sco es in bo h dimensions han e e ence supply chains, hus g ounding e idence o hei social sus ainabili y ad an age. This conclusion is u he e i ied by s a is ical es s compa ing FQS and ela ed “ e e ence” supply chains. Bu , a he same ime, his pe o mance migh also depend on he ype o quali y sign a s ake, as well as on he ype o ag icul u al p oduc ion. Finally, ou s udy has ound e idence ha hei sus ainabili y ad an age comes om a combina ion o a ious sou ces, pe aining o he compe i i e and ins i u ional cha ac e is ics o he supply chain, as well as on ansac ion cos s. To he bes o ou knowledge, his pape is he i s ans e sal s udy e alua ing he social sus ainabili y o FQS h ough ba gaining powe . I p o ides aluable insigh s, no only by p oposing a qui e simple and easy- o-use syn he ic indica o bu also by highligh ing he exis ence o di e en social sus ainabili y p o iles. Howe e , as we adop ed a quan i a i e, ans e sal s ance, some key aspec s o s udied supply chains may ha e been o e looked. Fi s , ou indica o is based on he compa ison o ba gaining powe sco es be ween di e en le els. To his end, ou analysis elies on he key assump ion ha each le el is independen o he o he . This is no necessa ily obse ed, as ac o s in ag icul u al supply chains o en ha e a 20 s a egy o e ically in eg a ing di e en le els. Simila ly, some supply chains may be pa ly o en i ely con olled by single ac o s, such as ag icul u al coope a i es o p oduce o ganiza ions. E en hough one canno s ic ly speak o e ically in eg a ed supply chains because a ms a e legally independen o he coope a i e, his ype o cases aises a speci ic issue in he sense ha he e ical dis ibu ion o ba gaining powe would be d ama ically in luenced by coope a i es’ s a egy (Filippi, F ey, and Mauge 2008), wha is no accoun ed o in ou analysis. Ag icul u al coope a i es aise ano he speci ic issue in he analysis o he e ical dis ibu ion o ba gaining powe . Indeed, e en hough hey a e legally independen o he a ms hey se e, hei exis ence p ecisely lies in he ac ha hey aim a agg ega ing he indi idual p oduc ion o hei membe s, and a me s a e conside ed as in ol ed in se ing he coope a i e’s s a egy (Filippi 2014). Fa me s’ in es men in coope a i es is he e o e aimed a es o ing a balance in ba gaining powe wi h downs eam le els, an objec i e ha is also a s ake in p oduce o ganiza ions. To accoun o his dis o ion wi h he supply chain model, we we e led o coun a me s membe s belonging o coope a i es o p oduce o ganiza ions as one single ac o . Finally, u he de elopmen s o ou p oposed ba gaining model indica o should be e accoun o he ac ha coops ’in luence can s e ch beyond he coope a i e pe ime e and sp ead o s a egies o dominan p ac ices a he supply chain le el (see Amisse, Le oux, and Mulle 2012; Filippi and Mulle 2013). Finally, ou analysis alls sho o “sho ood supply chains”, which a e based on he assump ion o he exis ence o , a mos , one in e media y be ween a me s and end- consume s (Aub y and Chi oleau 2009). Bu a he same ime, some s udies poin o he ac ha his ype o supply chain is mo e socially sus ainable han longe ones (see eg. Can o a 2016). 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Jou nal o Ma ke ing Managemen 18 (7–8): 673–92. 25 Annex 1: lis o supply chains (FQS and e e ences) and key da a sou ces Sec o FQS p oduc Type o FQS Coun y Main da a sou ces o he FQS Re e ence p oduc Main da a sou ces o he e e ence Ce eal / bake y Cama gue ice O ganic F ance Key in o man (PGI conso ium) Non-o ganic ice (mos ly PGI) Key in o man (PGI conso ium) Thung Kula Rong-Hai (TKR) Hom Mali ice PGI Thailand Key in o man , Napasin uwong (2017) Na ional a e age Key in o man s, Rice Mills Associa ion O ganic lou O ganic F ance A ise and Agence Bio websi es Na ional a e age Agence Na ionale de la Meune ie F ançaise websi e O ganic pas a O ganic Poland Key in o man (p oduce ) Na ional a e age Key in o man Dai y Com e cheese PDO F ance Key in o man (PDO conso ium) Na ional a e age (cow cheese) F ance Ag ime (2010; 2011) Pa migiano Reggiano cheese PDO I aly Key in o man , PDO conso ium Bi aghi cheese (simila non-PDO cheese) Key in o man , ISTAT O ganic yoghu O ganic Ge many AMI (2017) Na ional a e age MIV, Fak en Milch Sep -2017 Mea Gyulai sausage PGI Hunga y PGI p oduce s Na ional a e age Key in o man (Hunga ian Mea Indus y Fede a ion), non PGI p oduce s O ganic po k O ganic Ge many Key in o man (Na u land), EcoZep Na ional a e age EcoZep Sob asada o Mallo ca PGI Spain Key in o man Na ional a e age Key in o man Te nasco de A agon PGI Spain PGI conso ium manage Non-PGI lamb in he same egion (A agon) Key in o man , Sie a (2016) Sea ood Sain -Michel Bay boucho mussels PDO F ance Key in o man (PDO conso ium) Na ional a e age (TSG Boucho mussels) Oys e gene al su ey Phu Quoc Fish Sauce PDO Vie nam Key in o man s (local expe and PDO conso ium) Non-PDO ish sauce om same egion Key in o man s (local expe and PDO conso ium) F ui / ege able Buon Ma Thuo co ee PGI Vie nam Key in o man Non-PGI co ee om Dak Lak p o ince in Vie nam Key in o man Kalocsai pap ika powde PDO Hunga y Key in o man s (PDO conso ium) Impo ed peppe milled in Hunga y Key in o man s (PDO conso ium) Kas o ia apple PGI G eece Key in o man Kissa os apples (non-GI apples om ano he egion) Key in o man O ganic aspbe ies O ganic Se bia O ganic a ms egis y Na ional a e age O icial a m egis y O ganic oma o om Emilia Romagna O ganic I aly Key in o man , OI Pomodo o da Indus ia del No d I alia Na ional a e age Key in o man , OI Pomodo o da Indus ia del No d I alia